Chapter 7

MEASUREMENT AND SCALING

When you can measure what you are speaking
about and express it in numbers, you know
something about it.
Lord Kelvin
Chapter Outline
1) Overview
2) Measurement and Scaling
3) Primary Scales of Measurement
i. Nominal Scale
ii. Ordinal Scale
iii. Interval Scale
iv. Ratio Scale
4) A Comparison of Scaling Techniques
 Measurement and Scaling
Measurement means assigning numbers or other symbols to
characteristics of objects according to certain pre-specified rules.
• One-to-one correspondence between the numbers and the
characteristics being measured.
• The rules for assigning numbers should be standardized and
applied uniformly.
• Rules must not change over objects or time.
 Measurement and Scaling
Scaling involves creating a continuum upon which measured
objects are located.

Consider an attitude scale from 1 to 100. Each respondent is

assigned a number from 1 to 100, with 1 = Extremely
Unfavorable, and 100 = Extremely Favorable. Measurement is
the actual assignment of a number from 1 to 100 to each
respondent. Scaling is the process of placing the respondents
on a continuum with respect to their attitude toward
department stores.
 Primary Scales of Measurement
Nominal Scale
• The numbers serve only as labels or tags for identifying and
classifying objects.
• When used for identification, there is a strict one-to-one
correspondence between the numbers and the objects.
• The numbers do not reflect the amount of the characteristic
possessed by the objects.
• The only permissible operation on the numbers in a nominal
scale is counting.
• Only a limited number of statistics, all of which are based on
frequency counts, are permissible, e.g., percentages, and
mode.
• Single answer
Do you like Yomilk yogurt?
Like - 1
Dislike - 2
No opinion - 3
• Multiple answer not about the level, brand awareness

Which of the following soft drinks have you tried?

Pepsi -1
Tribeco -2
Coke -3
Sprite -4
7 Up -5
Primary Scales of Measurement - Ordinal Scale
• A ranking scale in which numbers are assigned to objects to indicate the relative extent
to which the objects possess some characteristic.
• Can determine whether an object has more or less of a characteristic than some other
object, but not how much more or less.
• Any series of numbers can be assigned that preserves the ordered relationships
between the objects.
• In addition to the counting operation allowable for nominal scale data, ordinal scales
permit the use of statistics based on centiles, e.g., percentile, quartile, median.
Primary Scales of Measurement - Ordinal Scale
know what is more favoured than what but not how much

Please rank the following soft drink brands according to your

preference, as follows: (1) most preferred, (2) second preferred, etc.
Pepsi - ...
Coke - ...
Sprite - ...
7 Up - ...
Fanta - ...
Illustration of Primary Scales of Measurement
Table 8.2
Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio
Scale Scale Scale Scale
Preference Preference $ spent last
No. Store Rankings Ratings 3 months
1-7 11-17
1. Parisian 7 79 5 15 0
2. Macy’s 2 25 7 17 200
3. Kmart 8 82 4 14 0
4. Kohl’s 3 30 6 16 100
5. J.C. Penney 1 10 7 17 250
6. Neiman Marcus 5 53 5 15 35
7. Marshalls 9 95 4 14 0
8. Saks Fifth Avenue 6 61 5 15 100
9. Sears 4 45 6 16 0
10.Wal-Mart 10 115 2 12 10
Primary Scales of Measurement -Interval Scale
• Numerically equal distances on the scale represent equal values in the characteristic
being measured.
• It permits comparison of the differences between objects.
• The location of the zero point is not fixed. Both the zero point and the units of
measurement are arbitrary.
• Any positive linear transformation of the form y = a + bx will preserve the properties of
the scale.
• It is not meaningful to take ratios of scale values.
• Statistical techniques that may be used include all of those that can be applied to
nominal and ordinal data, and in addition the arithmetic mean, standard deviation,
and other statistics commonly used in marketing research.
 Likert Scale
The Likert scale requires the respondents to indicate a degree of agreement
or disagreement with each of a series of statements about the stimulus
objects.
The analysis can be conducted on an item-by-item basis (profile analysis), or
a total (summated) score can be calculated.

• When arriving at a total score, the categories assigned to the negative

statements by the respondents should be scored by reversing the scale.
 Semantic Differential Scale
The semantic differential is a seven-point rating scale with end points associated with
bipolar labels that have semantic meaning.
SEARS IS:
Powerful --:--:--:--:-X-:--:--: Weak
Unreliable --:--:--:--:--:-X-:--: Reliable
Modern --:--:--:--:--:--:-X-: Old-fashioned
• The negative adjective or phrase sometimes appears at the left side of the scale and
sometimes at the right.
• This controls the tendency of some respondents, particularly those with very positive or
very negative attitudes, to mark the right- or left-hand sides without reading the labels.
• Individual items on a semantic differential scale may be scored on either a -3 to +3 or a 1
to 7 scale.
 A Semantic Differential Scale
1) Rugged :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Delicate
2) Excitable :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Calm
3) Uncomfortable :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Comfortable
4) Dominating :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Submissive
5) Thrifty :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Indulgent
6) Pleasant :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Unpleasant
7) Contemporary :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Obsolete
8) Organized :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Unorganized
9) Rational :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Emotional
10) Youthful :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Mature
11) Formal :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Informal
12) Orthodox :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Liberal
13) Complex :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Simple
14) Colorless :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Colorful
15) Modest :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Vain
 Stapel Scale
The Stapel scale is a unipolar rating scale with ten categories numbered from -5 to +5,
without a neutral point (zero). This scale is usually presented vertically.
SEARS
+5 +5
+4 +4
+3 +3
+2 +2X
+1 +1
HIGH QUALITY POOR SERVICE
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4X -4
-5 -5
The data obtained by using a Stapel scale can be analyzed in the same way as semantic
 Primary Scales of Measurement
Ratio Scale
• Possesses all the properties of the nominal, ordinal, and interval
scales.

• It has an absolute zero point.

• It is meaningful to compute ratios of scale values.

• All statistical techniques can be applied to ratio data.

 Primary Scales of Measurement
Scale Basic Common Marketing Permissible Statistics
Table 8.1
Characteristics Examples Examples Descriptive Inferential
Nominal Numbers identify & Social Security Brand nos., store Percentages, Chi-square,
classify objects nos., numbering of types mode binomial test
football players
Ordinal Nos. indicate the Quality rankings, Preference Percentile, Rank-order
relative positions rankings of teams rankings, market median correlation,
of objects but not in a tournament position, social Friedman
the magnitude of class ANOVA
differences
between them
Interval Differences Temperature Attitudes, Range, mean, Product-
between objects (Fahrenheit) opinions, index standard moment
Ratio Zero point is fixed, Length, weight Age, sales, Geometric mean, Coefficient of
ratios of scale income, costs harmonic mean variation
values can be
compared
 A Comparison of Scaling
Techniques
• Comparative scales involve the direct comparison of stimulus
objects. Comparative scale data must be interpreted in relative
terms and have only ordinal or rank order properties.

• In noncomparative scales, each object is scaled independently of

the others in the stimulus set. The resulting data are generally
assumed to be interval or ratio scaled.
 Relative Advantages of Comparative
Scales
• Small differences between stimulus objects can be detected.
• Same known reference points for all respondents.
• Easily understood and can be applied.
• Involve fewer theoretical assumptions.
• Tend to reduce halo or carryover effects from one judgment to
another.
 Relative Disadvantages of Comparative
Scales
• Ordinal nature of the data

• Inability to generalize beyond the stimulus objects scaled.

 Comparative Scaling Techniques
Paired Comparison Scaling
• A respondent is presented with two objects and asked to select one
according to some criterion.
• The data obtained are ordinal in nature.
• Paired comparison scaling is the most widely used comparative
scaling technique.
• With n brands, [n(n - 1) /2] paired comparisons are required.
• Under the assumption of transitivity, it is possible to convert paired
comparison data to a rank order.
Obtaining Shampoo Preferences Using Paired
Comparisons
Fig. 8.3
Instructions: We are going to present you with ten pairs of shampoo brands. For each
pair, please indicate which one of the two brands of shampoo you would prefer for personal
use.
Recording Form: Jhirmack Finesse Vidal Head & Pert
Sassoon Shoulders
Jhirmack 0 0 1 0
Finesse 1a 0 1 0
Vidal Sassoon 1 1 1 1
Head & Shoulders 0 0 0 0
Pert 1 1 0 1
Number of Times 3 2 0 4 1
Preferredb
aA 1 in a particular box means that the brand in that column was preferred over the brand in the
corresponding row. A 0 means that the row brand was preferred over the column brand. bThe
number of times a brand was preferred is obtained by summing the 1s in each column.
Paired Comparison Selling
The most common method of taste testing is paired comparison. The consumer
is asked to sample two different products and select the one with the most
appealing taste. The test is done in private and a minimum of 1,000 responses is
considered an adequate sample. A blind taste test for a soft drink, where
imagery, self-perception and brand reputation are very important factors in the
consumer’s purchasing decision, may not be a good indicator of performance in
the marketplace. The introduction of New Coke illustrates this point. New Coke
was heavily favored in blind paired comparison taste tests, but its introduction
was less than successful, because image plays a major role in the purchase of
Coke.

A paired comparison taste test

 Comparative Scaling Techniques
Rank Order Scaling
• Respondents are presented with several objects
simultaneously and asked to order or rank them according to
some criterion.
• It is possible that the respondent may dislike the brand
ranked 1 in an absolute sense.
• Furthermore, rank order scaling also results in ordinal data.
• Only (n - 1) scaling decisions need be made in rank order
scaling.
 Preference for Toothpaste Brands
Using Rank Order Scaling

Fig. 8.4
Instructions: Rank the various brands of toothpaste in order of preference. Begin by
picking out the one brand that you like most and assign it a number 1. Then find the
second most preferred brand and assign it a number 2. Continue this procedure until you
have ranked all the brands of toothpaste in order of preference. The least preferred brand
should be assigned a rank of 10.

No two brands should receive the same rank number.

The criterion of preference is entirely up to you. There is no right or wrong answer. Just
try to be consistent.
Preference for Toothpaste Brands
Using Rank Order Scaling

Form
Brand Rank Order
1. Crest _________
2. Colgate _________
3. Aim _________
4. Gleem _________
5. Sensodyne _________

6. Ultra Brite _________

7. Close Up _________
8. Pepsodent _________
9. Plus White _________
10. Stripe _________
Comparative Scaling Techniques
Constant Sum Scaling
• Respondents allocate a constant sum of units, such
as 100 points to attributes of a product to reflect
their importance.
• If an attribute is unimportant, the respondent assigns
it zero points.
• If an attribute is twice as important as some other
attribute, it receives twice as many points.
• The sum of all the points is 100. Hence, the name of
the scale.
Importance of Bathing Soap Attributes
Using a Constant Sum Scale

Instructions
Fig. 8.5

On the next slide, there are eight attributes of bathing soaps.

Please allocate 100 points among the attributes so that your
allocation reflects the relative importance you attach to each
attribute. The more points an attribute receives, the more
important the attribute is. If an attribute is not at all important,
assign it zero points. If an attribute is twice as important as
some other attribute, it should receive twice as many points.
 Importance of Bathing Soap Attributes
Using a Constant Sum Scale
Fig. 8.5 cont.

Form
Average Responses of Three Segments
Attribute Segment I Segment II Segment III
1. Mildness 8 2 4
2. Lather 2 4 17
3. Shrinkage 3 9 7
4. Price 53 17 9
5. Fragrance 9 0 19
6. Packaging 7 5 9
7. Moisturizing 5 3 20
8. Cleaning Power 13 60 15
Sum 100 100 100