Unit 2:Introduction to Linear Block Code

30 October 2023 09:44

A block code is said to be linear block code if the sum of any two codeword gives as another codeword
Ck=Ci+ Cj
Example:
{0000,0101,1010,1111}

0101+1010=1111
In linear block code, each block containing K messages bits is encoded into a block of n-bits by adding (n-k) parity check bits

K-bits Channel encodes n-bits

Message block

Properties:
1) The all zero word(000…….0) is always a codeword
2) Given any three codewords Ci Cj and Ck such that Ck=Ci +Cj then, d(Ci Cj) = W(Ck) where d=difference and w= weight of non-zero number

Example :
C1= 0000001
C10= 0001010
= 0001011---------------C11

now d= 3 (different number in the Ci & Cj i.e the number which are not same 01,01,10)
w=3 ( no of non-zero in result i.e in C11)

3) Minimum Distance of the code

dmin = wmin

ITC notes Unit 2 Page 1

2:Error Control Strategies/Syndrome and Error Detection
30 October 2023 10:19

Error Control Strategy: Noise and error is the main problem in the signal, which disturbs the reliability of the communicatio n system.EC code is the coding procedure done to control
the occurrence of errors. These technique help in error detection and error correction. There are many different error correc ting code depending upon the mathematical principles
but historically, these codes have been classified into

LINEAR BLOCK CODE

CONVOLUTION CODE

• Linear code means the parity bits and message bits have a linear combination ie resultant code word is the linear combination of any two code words
• Convolution Codes:- Hamming Code , BCH (Bose Chaudari & Hocquenghem ), Cyclic Codes

Syndrome and Error Detection

Decoding involves parity-check information derived from the code’s coefficient matrix, P.
Associated with any systematic linear (n,k) block code is a (n-k)-by-n matrix, H called the parity-check matrix.
H is defined as
H = [In-k PT]
Where PT is the transpose of the coefficient matrix, P and is an
(n-k)-by-k matrix.
In-k is the (n-k)-by-(n-k) identity matrix.
For error detection purposes, the parity check matrix, H has the following property
c.HT = (0 0 ….. 0) (ie Null matrix)
This property is satisfied only when c is correctly received.
Errors are indicated by the presence of non-zero elements in the matrix.
Let r denotes the 1-by-n received vector that results from sending the code vector c over a noisy channel.
When there is an error, the decoding operation will give a syndrome vector, s whose elements contain at least 1 non-zero element.

Question1 : Consider a (7,4) block code generated by G Find out the error vector and suppose that the received word R is 1001001

Question 2 : A generator matrix of (6,3) linear block code is given as a = Find codeword for message (011) and decode the received sequence 101101

Link for Video Lecture

Coding and Decoding of Linear Block Code | Error Syndrome

LINEAR BLOCK CODES in simple way - Find codeword for message and decode
the received sequence| hindi

ITC notes Unit 2 Page 2

3:Minimum Distance of Block code
30 October 2023 11:23

The minimum distance of a block code is a crucial parameter that characterizes its error-correcting capabilities. It represents the smallest number of bit flips or symbol errors needed to transform one valid
codeword into another valid codeword in the code. In other words, it's the minimum Hamming distance between any two distinct codewords in the code.

A larger minimum distance indicates a stronger error-correcting capability, as it means the code can correct or detect more errors. The minimum distance is a fundamental concept in coding theory, and it
is used to determine the error-correcting ability of codes in various applications, such as data storage, data transmission, and error detection and correction.

The minimum distance of a code is typically denoted as "d" and is used to determine the maximum number of errors that can be corrected or detected by a code. For example, if a code has a minimum
distance of "d," it can correct up to (d-1)/2 errors or detect up to "d-1" errors. The specific error-correction and error-detection capabilities of a code depend on its design and the algorithms used for
encoding and decoding.

In summary, the minimum distance of a block code is a critical parameter that quantifies its error-correcting ability by indicating the smallest number of errors that can be corrected or detected in a
codeword.

Let's illustrate the concept with an example:

Suppose we have a binary block code that uses 4-bit codewords. This means each codeword is a 4-bit sequence. Here are two valid codewords:

Codeword 1: 1101
Codeword 2: 1010

The minimum distance of this code is 2 because the two codewords differ in two bit positions (the first and the third bit). If you change up to 1 bit in any codeword, you can still uniquely identify the
original codeword. However, if you make 2 or more errors in a codeword, it becomes ambiguous and may be misinterpreted.

A code with a higher minimum distance can correct more errors. For example, if the minimum distance were 3, you could correct up to 1 error in each codeword.

In coding theory, codes with large minimum distances are desirable because they provide robust error detection and correction capabilities, which are crucial in applications such as data transmission and
storage, where errors can occur due to noise or interference.

Link for video lecture

Minimum distance of block code

ITC notes Unit 2 Page 3

4: Error Detection and Error Correcting capabilities of Block Code
30 October 2023 11:43

Block codes can provide both error detection and error-correcting capabilities:

1. **Error Detection**:
- Error detection is the ability of a code to identify the presence of errors in the received data.
- In block codes, error detection is achieved by using the concept of the minimum distance. If the received codeword is differe nt from any valid codeword by a number of bit positions greater than or
equal to the minimum distance of the code, the code can reliably detect the presence of errors.
- The code calculates a syndrome or some other error-detection mechanism to determine if errors have occurred.
- If errors are detected, the receiver can request retransmission of the data or take other appropriate actions.

2. **Error Correction**:
- Error correction is the ability of a code to not only detect errors but also to correct them, recovering the original data wi thout retransmission.
- For error correction, block codes use the same minimum distance concept. A code with a larger minimum distance can correct mo re errors.
- When errors are detected, the receiver calculates the number of errors and their positions within the received codeword.
- Using error correction algorithms (such as syndrome decoding for linear block codes), the receiver can correct these errors a nd recover the original data.
- The number of errors the code can correct is determined by the code's minimum distance and error-correcting capability. Codes with a higher minimum distance can correct more errors.

Link for video lecture

https://youtu.be/vcm3palsW-8?si=iz7LmbqwPtLRsZd7

ITC notes Unit 2 Page 4

5: Standard array and Syndrome Decoding
30 October 2023 12:33

In coding theory, a standard array and syndrome decoding are concepts associated with error correction for linear block codes . These techniques are used to determine and correct errors in received
codewords.

1. **Standard Array**:

- A standard array is a systematic way of representing a linear block code to facilitate syndrome decoding.
- It is a matrix that provides a visual representation of the relationships between codewords, received words, syndromes, and e rror patterns.
- The rows of the standard array represent all possible received words, while the columns represent the syndromes generated fro m these received words.
- The entries in the standard array are calculated based on the generator matrix of the code.
- The standard array simplifies the process of finding error syndromes and locating errors in received codewords.

2. **Syndrome Decoding**:

- Syndrome decoding is a method used to correct errors in received codewords by calculating the syndrome of the received word a nd using it to identify and correct errors.
- The syndrome of a received word is computed by multiplying the received word by the transpose of the parity -check matrix of the code. This produces a syndrome vector.
- The syndrome vector is used to check if any errors are present in the received word. If the syndrome is all zeros, it indicat es that the received word is a valid codeword, and no errors are present. If
the syndrome is not zero, it reveals the presence of errors.
- The non-zero syndrome points to an error pattern that can be identified using the standard array. The row corresponding to the syndro me in the standard array provides information about the error
pattern.
- By knowing the error pattern and the syndrome, the receiver can correct the errors in the received codeword and obtain the or iginal message.

Syndrome decoding is particularly effective for linear block codes, such as Hamming codes, Reed-Solomon codes, and BCH codes. It allows for efficient error correction without the need for
retransmission of data, making it a valuable technique for applications where reliable data transmission is essential, such a s in telecommunications, data storage, and digital communication systems.

Link for Video Lecture for Standard Array

Lecture 29a: Standard Array

Link for Video Lecture for Syndrome Decoding

Lecture 27: Syndrome Decoding

ITC notes Unit 2 Page 5

6: Probability of an undetected error for linear code over a BSC
30 October 2023 12:35

The probability of an undetected error for a linear code over a Binary Symmetric Channel (BSC) can be calculated using the th eory of error-correcting codes. To compute this probability, you need to
consider the code's minimum distance and the error characteristics of the BSC.

Here are the key steps to determine the probability of an undetected error:

1. **Minimum Distance (d)**: Determine the minimum distance of the linear code. The minimum distance is the smallest number o f bit positions in which any two codewords of the code differ. It plays
a crucial role in error correction.

2. **Error Probability (p)**: Calculate the probability of a bit flip (error) occurring in the BSC. In a BSC, each transmitte d bit has a probability 'p' of being flipped to the opposite value. This probability is
typically denoted as 'p' and is a characteristic of the channel.

3. **Undetected Error Probability (P_undetected)**: Use the minimum distance and error probability to calculate the probabili ty of an undetected error. This probability is the likelihood that the code
fails to detect an error:

P_undetected = (1 - p)^d

Where:
- 'd' is the minimum distance of the code.
- 'p' is the error probability for each transmitted bit.

This formula represents the probability that 'd' or more errors occur in a codeword, and they are not detected by the code. I f this probability is small, it means the code is effective at detecting errors.

It's essential to choose a code with a suitable minimum distance to achieve the desired error-correcting capability. A larger minimum distance allows the code to correct and detect more errors. The
error probability 'p' is typically determined by the channel characteristics, and it represents the likelihood of a bit flip during transmission.

The calculation is a simplified model and assumes that errors occur independently. In practice, more advanced models and tech niques may be used to estimate error probabilities and code performance
in real-world communication systems.

Let's go through an example of calculating the probability of an undetected error for a linear code over a Binary Symmetric C hannel (BSC). We'll use a simple code with known parameters to illustrate the
calculation.

Suppose we have a linear code with a minimum distance (d) of 3, and we are transmitting data over a BSC with a bit flip proba bility (p) of 0.1. We want to find the probability of an undetected error.

The formula to calculate the probability of an undetected error is:

P_undetected = (1 - p)^d

In this example:

- d (minimum distance) is 3.
- p (bit flip probability) is 0.1.

Now, plug these values into the formula:

P_undetected = (1 - 0.1)^3

P_undetected = (0.9)^3

P_undetected = 0.729

So, in this example, the probability of an undetected error is 0.729 or 72.9%. This means there is a 72.9% chance that the co de will not detect an error when transmitted over the BSC with a bit flip
probability of 0.1. The higher the probability of an undetected error, the less reliable the code is in the presence of error s in the channel.

ITC notes Unit 2 Page 6

7: Hamming Code
30 October 2023 12:35

Hamming codes are a family of error-correcting codes that were developed by Richard W. Hamming in the 1950s. These codes are widely used in digital communication and data storage systems to
detect and correct errors in transmitted or stored data. Hamming codes are specifically designed to correct single -bit errors, making them a popular choice for applications where such errors are
common.

Here are some key features and concepts related to Hamming codes:

1. **Block Codes**: Hamming codes are a type of block code. A block code divides the message into fixed -size blocks or codewords, where each block consists of both data bits and additional
redundant bits used for error correction.

2. **Parity Bits**: Hamming codes use parity bits to detect and correct errors. The positions of these parity bits within the codeword are determined by their binary representations. For example, a
parity bit in position 1 checks a single bit (bit 1), a parity bit in position 2 checks two bits (bits 2 and 3), and so on.

3. **Hamming Distance**: The minimum Hamming distance of a code is crucial in error correction. A Hamming(7, 4) code, for exa mple, has a minimum distance of 3, meaning it can correct one -bit
errors.

4. **Error Detection and Correction**: Hamming codes can detect and correct single -bit errors. When an error is detected, the code can identify and correct the erroneous bit, ensuring that the
received codeword matches one of the valid codewords.

5. **Redundancy**: Hamming codes introduce redundancy by adding extra bits to the message. This redundancy allows the code to determine if errors have occurred and correct them. The number
of redundant bits depends on the specific Hamming code used.

6. **Syndrome Decoding**: To decode a Hamming code, the receiver calculates a syndrome vector based on the received codeword and the parity-check matrix of the Hamming code. If the syndrome
is non-zero, it indicates the presence of an error, and the receiver can locate and correct the erroneous bit.

7. **Variants**: There are different variants of Hamming codes, such as Hamming(7, 4), Hamming(15, 11), and Hamming(31, 26). Each variant is designed for specific block lengths and can correct a
certain number of errors.

Hamming codes are relatively simple to implement and provide a reasonable level of error correction for applications where si ngle-bit errors are common. They are often used in memory systems,
data storage, and communication protocols like Ethernet. However, they are not as efficient in terms of error correction capa bilities as more advanced codes like Reed-Solomon codes or Turbo codes,
which can handle a wider range of error patterns.

Link for video lecture

L 11 | Hamming Code Intro | Information Theory & Coding | Digital Communication | Vaishali Kikan

L36: Hamming Codes | Error Control Coding | Hamming Weight, Distance, Minimum Distance | ITC Hindi

ITC notes Unit 2 Page 7

8: Applications of Block Code For Error Control in Data Storage System
30 October 2023 12:35

Block codes are widely used for error control in data storage systems, where data reliability and integrity are essential. Here are some common applications of block codes in data storage systems:

1. **Hard Disk Drives (HDDs) and Solid-State Drives (SSDs)**:

- Block codes are used to detect and correct errors in the storage of data on both traditional hard disk drives (HDDs) and solid-state drives (SSDs).
- They help ensure that data remains intact when stored on these devices, even in the presence of potential read and write errors.

2. **CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray Discs**:

- Optical storage media like CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray discs use block codes to correct errors caused by imperfections in the media, scratches, or dust particles.
- These codes are crucial for maintaining data integrity during playback.

3. **Flash Drives and NAND Flash Memory**:

- Flash memory devices, including USB flash drives and NAND-based storage, rely on error-correcting block codes to enhance data reliability.
- They can correct errors that may occur over time in the stored data.

4. **Archival Storage and Backup Systems**:

- Data archival systems and backup solutions often employ block codes to ensure the long-term integrity of archived data.
- These codes help safeguard data from corruption or data loss during storage.

5. **RAID Systems (Redundant Array of Independent Disks)**:

- Many RAID systems use block-level error correction codes to protect against data loss due to disk failures.
- These codes enable data recovery and redundancy, ensuring data availability even when a disk fails.

6. **Cloud Storage**:
- Cloud storage providers implement block-level error correction mechanisms to protect against data corruption or loss during data transmission and storage.
- Block codes are applied to data chunks to ensure reliability.

7. **Tape Storage**:
- Magnetic tape storage systems for archival purposes use error-correcting block codes.
- These codes help maintain the integrity of data stored on tapes, which may degrade over time.

8. **Network-Attached Storage (NAS)**:

- NAS devices employ error-correcting block codes to ensure data reliability for networked storage solutions.
- Data transmitted to and from NAS systems is subject to potential errors, and block codes can correct these errors.

9. **Data Deduplication**:
- Data deduplication systems store unique data chunks and references to eliminate redundancy.
- Error-correcting block codes can be used to ensure data integrity even after deduplication.

10. **Data Centers and Enterprise Storage**:

- In large-scale data centers and enterprise storage environments, error-correcting block codes are crucial for preserving data reliability across massive storage arrays.

In all these applications, block codes play a vital role in protecting against data loss, ensuring data integrity, and providing fault tolerance. Different codes may be chosen based on factors such as the
required level of error correction, the cost of implementation, and the specific characteristics of the storage medium or system.

ITC notes Unit 2 Page 8

 Unit 3: Description, Generator and Parity Check Matrices
30 October 2023 12:36

In coding theory, generator matrices and parity-check matrices are used to describe and define linear block codes. These matrices are fundamental components that help genera te
codewords and check for errors in encoded data. Let's dive into their definitions and purposes:

Generator Matrix (G):

1. Description:
• The generator matrix is a matrix that defines a linear block code. It specifies how to generate valid codewords from input da ta (information bits).
• Each row of the generator matrix corresponds to a codeword of the code. The number of rows in the generator matrix is equal t o the number of codewords in the code.
2. Purpose:
• The primary purpose of the generator matrix is to generate valid codewords from information bits.
• It allows for encoding data by multiplying the information bits by the generator matrix, resulting in a codeword.
• The generator matrix ensures that each codeword satisfies the linearity property of the code, meaning that any linear combina tion of codewords is also a valid codeword.

Example:
• Suppose you have a (7, 4) linear block code, which can encode 4 bits of information into 7 -bit codewords. A generator matrix for this code might look like this:

G=|1000|
|0100|
|0010|
|0001|
|1110|
|0101|
|1011|

• To encode a 4-bit message, you would multiply it by this matrix to obtain a 7 -bit codeword.

Parity-Check Matrix (H):

3. Description:
• The parity-check matrix is another matrix that defines a linear block code. It is used to check for errors in received codewords.
• Each row of the parity-check matrix corresponds to a parity-check equation that defines the code's constraints.
4. Purpose:
• The primary purpose of the parity-check matrix is to perform error detection and correction. It allows the receiver to check if the received codeword is valid.
• The parity-check matrix specifies how the parity-check equations are formed based on the positions of the codeword bits.
• A codeword is valid if it satisfies all the parity-check equations defined by the parity-check matrix.

Example:
• For the same (7, 4) linear block code mentioned earlier, a parity-check matrix might look like this:

H=|1101100|
|0111010|
|1011001|

• To check if a received codeword is valid, you would multiply it by the transpose of the parity -check matrix and examine the resulting syndrome. If the syndrome is all zeros, the codeword is valid;
otherwise, it indicates an error.

In summary, the generator matrix is used for encoding data into codewords, while the parity -check matrix is used for error detection and correction. These matrices are essential in defining and
utilizing linear block codes, which are widely used for error control in various communication and data storage systems.

Link Video Lecture

L39: Linear Codes Parity Check Matrices | Information Theory Coding(ITC Course) Lectures

ITC notes Unit 3 Page 9

2:Encoding,Decoding Syndrome computation and Error
detection
30 October 2023
13:27
Same as chapter 2 in Unit 2

ITC notes Unit 3 Page 10

 3: Cyclic Hamming Codes
30 October 2023 14:01

A cyclic Hamming code is a specific type of cyclic code that is based on the Hamming code construction, known for its ability to correct single-bit errors. The Hamming code is traditionally a linear
block code that can detect and correct single-bit errors with specific parity-check and generator matrices. When the Hamming code is transformed into a cyclic code, it retains its error-correcting
capabilities while also benefiting from the cyclic properties.
Here are some key characteristics and features of a cyclic Hamming code:
1. Linear Block Code: Like the traditional Hamming code, a cyclic Hamming code is a linear block code, meaning it operates on blocks of data with a fixed length.
2. Cyclic Properties: A cyclic Hamming code possesses the cyclic shift property. This means that cyclically shifting a codeword by any number of bit positions still results in a valid
codeword.
3. Generator Polynomial: A cyclic Hamming code is defined by a generator polynomial. The generator polynomial is used to generate codewords from information bits, preserving the
code's error-correcting capabilities.
4. Error Detection and Correction: Cyclic Hamming codes are capable of detecting and correcting single-bit errors, just like their non-cyclic counterparts. When an error is detected, it
can be located and corrected.
5. Binary Symmetric Channel (BSC) Performance: Cyclic Hamming codes are effective at correcting errors in binary symmetric channels (BSCs), particularly single-bit errors.
6. Syndrome Decoding: Syndrome decoding is used to identify and correct errors in cyclic Hamming codes. The syndrome is calculated from the received word and compared to a table
of syndromes associated with error patterns.
7. Efficient Encoding and Decoding: Cyclic Hamming codes maintain the algebraic structure and efficient encoding and decoding processes of the traditional Hamming code.
8. Applications: Cyclic Hamming codes are used in various communication and data storage systems, particularly when the emphasis is on error correction and detection, as well as
maintaining the code's cyclic properties.
It's important to note that cyclic Hamming codes are often used for specific applications where single-bit error correction is critical, such as in memory systems and critical data
transmission. By combining the Hamming code's error-correcting capabilities with the advantages of cyclic codes, they provide a practical solution for maintaining data integrity

L 12 | Cyclic Code - Introduction | Information Theory | Digital Communication | Vaishali Kikan

L 13 | Cyclic Code Generation | Polynomial Method | Systematic & Non Systematic Method | ITC | DC |

L 14 | Cyclic Code Generator Matrix Method | Information Theory & Coding| Digital Communication |

ITC notes Unit 3 Page 11

3: Error-Trapping decoding for cyclic code
30 October 2023 14:24

Error-trapping decoding is a special decoding technique primarily used with cyclic codes. Cyclic codes are a type of linear block code that possesses the cyclic shift property, making error-trapping
decoding particularly effective for these codes. Error-trapping decoding is a method for correcting multiple errors in cyclic codes, where the number of errors exceeds the code's designed error-
correcting capability. This technique works by identifying errors and then using the cyclic properties of the code to correct as many errors as possible.

Here's a simplified overview of how error-trapping decoding works for cyclic codes:

1. **Syndrome Calculation**: The first step is to calculate the syndrome of the received codeword. The syndrome is determined by multiplying the received word by the transpose of the parity-check
matrix of the code.

2. **Syndrome Table**: The decoder uses a predefined syndrome table that associates syndromes with error patterns. This table is created based on the code's minimum distance and known error
patterns.

3. **Syndrome Check**: The decoder compares the calculated syndrome with the syndromes in the table. If an exact match is found, the decoder can identify the corresponding error pattern.

4. **Error Location**: With the identified error pattern, the decoder can determine the locations of the errors within the received codeword.

5. **Error Correction**: The decoder corrects the errors by flipping the identified bits. These errors may include both single-bit errors and potentially some multiple-bit errors.

6. **Reiteration**: After correcting the identified errors, the decoding process may need to be repeated. This iterative process can continue until either all errors are corrected, or it is clear that some
errors cannot be corrected.

7. **Uncorrectable Errors**: Some errors may remain uncorrected if the number of errors exceeds the code's error-correcting capability. However, the goal is to correct as many errors as possible
through successive iterations.

It's important to note that error-trapping decoding is a complex process, and it may not guarantee error correction for all cases, especially when errors are too numerous or are in specific patterns that
are beyond correction. Nevertheless, error-trapping decoding can be a valuable technique for increasing the error-correcting capability of cyclic codes when the number of errors exceeds the code's
typical limit.

L 15 | Cyclic Code Decoding & Encoding | Information Theory & Coding | Digital Communication |

Cyclic Code Encoding and Decoding (Solved Example 1)

Cyclic Code Encoding and Decoding (Solved example 2)

ITC notes Unit 3 Page 12

4: Majority logic decoding for cyclic codes
30 October 2023 21:03

Majority decoding is a method of decoding by voting that is simple to implement and is extremely fast. However, only a small class of codes can be majority decoded, and usually these codes are not as
good as other codes. Because code performance is usually more important than decoder simplicity, majority decoding is not important in most applications. Nevertheless, the theory of majority-decodable
codes provides another well-developed view of the subject of error-control codes. The topic of majority decoding has connections with combinatorics and with the study of finite geometries.

Most known codes that are suitable for majority decoding are cyclic codes or extended cyclic codes. For these codes, the majority decoders can always be implemented as Meggitt decoders and
characterized by an especially simple logic tree for examining the syndromes. Thus one can take the pragmatic view and define majority-decodable codes as those cyclic codes for which the Meggitt
decoder can be put in a standard simple form. But in order to find these codes, we must travel a winding road.

ITC notes Unit 3 Page 13

Unit 4:Encoding of Convolutional Codes- Structural and Distance
Properties, state, tree, trellis diagrams, maximum likelihood decoding,
Sequential decoding, Majority- logic decoding of Convolution codes.
30 October 2023 12:37

Convolutional codes are a type of error-correcting code used in digital communication systems. They are particularly effective in dealing with random bit errors thatcan occur during data transmission.
Convolutional codes are often employed in situations where a continuous stream of data needs to be transmitted, such as in wireless communication systems.

Here are some key concepts related to convolutional codes:

1. **Encoder:**
- The convolutional encoder is a key component of convolutional codes. It works by encoding input data streams into longer codesequences. The encoder operates on a sliding window of input bits,
and for each window, it produces a set of output bits based on predefined rules.

2. **Shift Register:**
- The convolutional encoder typically employs shift registers to perform the encoding process. The shift registers hold the current state of the encoder and are shifted in response to incoming bits.

3. **Generator Polynomials:**
- The rules for the encoding process are determined by generator polynomials. These polynomials specify how the input bits affect the output bits during each shift of the registers.

4. **Constraint Length:**
- The constraint length of a convolutional code refers to the number of bits that influence the encoding process at any given time. Longer constraint lengths can provide better error-correcting
capabilities but may also result in more complex encoding and decoding processes.

5. **Rate:**
- Convolutional codes are often described by their rate, which is the ratio of the number of output bits to the number of inputbits. Common rates include 1/2, 2/3, and 3/4.

6. **Viterbi Decoder:**
- The Viterbi decoder is commonly used to decode convolutional codes. It employs the Viterbi algorithm, a dynamic programming algorithm, to find the most likely sequence of transmitted bits given
the received sequence.

7. **Soft Decision Decoding:**

- Soft decision decoding is a technique where the decoder takes into account the reliability of each received bit, typically represented as a continuous value. This information improves the decoder's
ability to correct errors.

8. **Applications:**
- Convolutional codes find applications in various communication systems, including wireless communication, satellite communication, and digital broadcasting. They are well-suited for environments
where errors are likely to occur due to noise or interference.

9. **Concatenated Codes:**
- Convolutional codes are often used in combination with other coding schemes in concatenated coding systems to achieve enhanced error correction capabilities. For example, a convolutional code
might be followed by a Reed-Solomon code in a concatenated structure.

Convolutional codes offer a good balance between error correction performance and complexity. They are widely used in modern communication systems and are an essential component of various
standards, including those for cellular networks, satellite communication, and digital television broadcasting.

L50: Convolutional Codes | Introduction, Code Rate, Constraint Length, Code Dimension | ITC Lectures

L51: Convolutional Codes Encoder State | Code Tree | Information Theory Coding Lectures in Hindi

L52: Convolutional Codes Code Trellis | State Diagram | Difference between Code Tree & Code Trellis

ITC notes Unit 4 Page 14

 2:Application of Viterbi Decoding and Sequential Decoding
14 November 2023 17:56

Viterbi code is a convolutional code that uses the Viterbi algorithm to decode the transmitted signal. It is a very powerful code that can achieve very low bit error rates
(BERs) even over very noisy channels.

Viterbi codes are used in a wide variety of applications, including digital cellular communications, satellite communications, and deep space communications. They are also
used in some wireless LANs, such as 802.11.

How Viterbi codes work

Viterbi codes are encoded using a convolutional encoder. A convolutional encoder is a sequential circuit that takes a stream of input bits and produces a stream of output
bits. The output bits are a function of the input bits and the previous state of the encoder.

The Viterbi decoder decodes the received signal by finding the most likely sequence of input bits that could have produced the received signal. The Viterbi algorithm does
this by using a trellis diagram. A trellis diagram is a state-transition diagram that shows all of the possible states of the encoder and the transitions between those states.

The Viterbi algorithm starts by finding the most likely state of the encoder at the beginning of the received signal. Then, it works its way through the trellis diagram, finding
the most likely state of the encoder at each time step. The algorithm does this by calculating the branch metric for each transition. The branch metric is a measure of how
likely the received signal is given the current state of the encoder and the transition.

The Viterbi algorithm keeps track of the most likely path through the trellis diagram. This path is called the Viterbi path. The Viterbi path is the most likely sequence of input
bits that could have produced the received signal.

Advantages of Viterbi codes

Viterbi codes have a number of advantages over other types of convolutional codes. First, they are very efficient. Viterbi codes can achieve very low BERs with a relatively
small number of code bits.

Second, Viterbi codes are very robust to noise. Viterbi codes can be used to transmit data over very noisy channels without sacrificing performance.

Third, Viterbi codes are relatively easy to decode. The Viterbi algorithm is a very efficient decoding algorithm that can be implemented in hardware or software.

Disadvantages of Viterbi codes

Viterbi codes also have some disadvantages. First, they are more complex to encode than other types of convolutional codes. Viterbi encoders require more hardware and
software than other types of convolutional encoders.

Second, Viterbi codes are more susceptible to synchronization errors. If the encoder and decoder are not synchronized, the Viterbi decoder will not be able to decode the
received signal correctly.

Third, Viterbi codes can have a high latency. The Viterbi decoder needs to store a number of previous states of the encoder in order to decode the current bit. This can
lead to a high latency in the decoding process.

Overall, Viterbi codes are a very powerful and versatile type of convolutional code. They are used in a wide variety of applications where high performance and reliability
are required.

L54: Viterbi Algorithm | Decoding Convolutional Code | Information theory coding lectures in Hindi

Application of Viterbi codes are used in a wide variety of applications, including:

• Digital cellular communications: Viterbi codes are used in digital cellular communications systems such as GSM and CDMA to improve the bit error rate (BER) of the
transmitted signal. This allows for higher data rates and more reliable communications.
• Satellite communications: Viterbi codes are also used in satellite communications systems to improve the BER of the transmitted signal. This is especially important for
satellite communications systems because the signal must travel through a long distance and can be affected by noise and interference.
• Deep space communications: Viterbi codes are used in deep space communications systems such as those used to communicate with the Voyager spacecraft and the
Hubble Space Telescope. This is because deep space communications systems must operate over very long distances and with very low power levels.
• Wireless LANs: Viterbi codes are used in some wireless LANs, such as 802.11a, to improve the BER of the transmitted signal. This allows for higher data rates and more
reliable communications.
• Automatic speech recognition (ASR): Viterbi codes are used in ASR systems to decode the acoustic signal into a sequence of words. This is done by using a hidden
Markov model (HMM) to represent the possible sequences of words and a Viterbi decoder to find the most likely sequence of words given the acoustic signal.
• Bioinformatics: Viterbi codes are used in bioinformatics to sequence DNA and RNA molecules. This is done by using a hidden Markov model to represent the possible
sequences of nucleotides and a Viterbi decoder to find the most likely sequence of nucleotides given the results of the sequencing experiment.

ITC notes Unit 4 Page 15

 3:Applications of Convolutional codes in ARQ system.
14 November 2023 18:05

Automatic repeat request (ARQ), also known as automatic repeat query, is an error-control method for data transmission that uses acknowledgements (messages sent by
the receiver indicating that it has correctly received a message) and timeouts (specified periods of time allowed to elapse before an acknowledgment is to be received) to
achieve reliable data transmission over an unreliable communication channel.

ARQ systems work by having the transmitter send a packet of data to the receiver. The receiver then sends an acknowledgment back to the transmitter indicating that it has
correctly received the packet. If the transmitter does not receive an acknowledgment within a certain amount of time, it will retransmit the packet.

Here are some specific examples of applications of convolutional codes in ARQ systems:

• Digital cellular communications: Convolutional codes are used in digital cellular communications systems such as GSM and CDMA to improve the reliability of data
transmission. This is especially important for mobile devices, which can experience a variety of channel conditions.
• Satellite communications: Convolutional codes are also used in satellite communications systems to improve the reliability of data transmission. This is important because
satellite communications systems are susceptible to noise and interference from the atmosphere.
• Deep space communications: Convolutional codes are used in deep space communications systems to improve the reliability of data transmission over very long distances.
This is essential for communicating with spacecraft such as the Voyager spacecraft and the Hubble Space Telescope.
• Wireless LANs: Convolutional codes are used in some wireless LANs, such as 802.11a, to improve the reliability of data transmission. This is important for providing reliable
wireless communication in office and home environments.

Overall, convolutional codes are a very important tool for improving the reliability of data transmission in ARQ systems. They are used in a wide variety of applications,
including digital cellular communications, satellite communications, deep space communications, and wireless LANs.

ITC notes Unit 4 Page 16

Unit 5: Minimum distance and BCH bounds, Decoding procedure for
BCH codes, Syndrome computation and iterative algorithms, Error
locations polynomials for single and double error correction.
30 October 2023 12:37

BCH (Bose-Chaudhuri-Hocquenghem) codes are a class of cyclic error-correcting codes, which are widely used in digital communication systems to detect and correct errors in transmitted data. These
codes were independently developed by mathematicians R.C. Bose and D.K. Ray-Chaudhuri in 1960 and A. Hocquenghem in 1959. BCH codes are particularly valuable for correcting both random and
burst errors that can occur during data transmission.

Here are key characteristics and applications of BCH codes:

### Characteristics of BCH Codes:

1. **Cyclic Codes:**
- BCH codes belong to the family of cyclic codes, meaning they possess a cyclic shift property. If a codeword is valid, any cyclic shift of that codeword is also a valid codeword.

2. **Parameters (n, k, d):**

- \(n\) is the total number of bits in a codeword.
- \(k\) is the number of information bits (original data bits) in a codeword.
- \(d\) is the minimum Hamming distance between any two valid codewords. It determines the error-correcting capability.

3. **Design Distance:**
- BCH codes are designed to correct errors up to a certain design distance (\(d\)) based on the desired level of error correction.

4. **Binary BCH Codes:**

- BCH codes can be binary, meaning they operate over the binary field (GF(2)). Binary BCH codes are widely used in digital communication systems.

5. **Extension Fields:**
- BCH codes can also be defined over extension fields, such as GF(q), where \(q\) is a power of a prime. These codes are called non-binary BCH codes.

6. **Decoding Algorithm:**
- The decoding of BCH codes can be performed using algebraic techniques, and for binary BCH codes, the Berlekamp-Massey algorithm is commonly used.

### Applications of BCH Codes:

1. **Communication Systems:**
- BCH codes are widely used in digital communication systems, including wired and wireless communication, to ensure reliable data transmission by correcting errors.

2. **Optical Storage:**
- In optical storage systems such as CDs and DVDs, BCH codes are employed for error correction to enhance the accuracy of data retrieval.

3. **Satellite Communication:**
- Satellite communication systems often use BCH codes to mitigate the effects of noise and interference during the transmissionof data.

4. **Wireless LANs and Wi-Fi:**

- In wireless local area networks (LANs) and Wi-Fi networks, BCH codes contribute to error correction, improving the robustness of data transmission.

5. **QR Codes and Barcodes:**

- BCH codes are used in QR codes and barcodes to ensure accurate decoding, especially in scenarios where the codes may be damaged or partially obscured.

6. **Flash Memory:**
- BCH codes are implemented in flash memory systems to correct errors that may occur during data storage and retrieval.

7. **Digital Broadcasting:**
- In digital broadcasting systems such as DVB (Digital Video Broadcasting), BCH codes are utilized for error correction in transmitted signals.

BCH codes are known for their powerful error-correcting capabilities and are widely applied in various technologies and industries where reliable data transmission is crucial. They strike a balance
between error-correction performance and complexity, making them suitable for a range of applications.

L47: BCH Codes | Error Control Coding | Properties, Generator Polynomial, Example | ITC Lectures

BCH code

ITC notes Unit 5 Page 17