Russia 1917-91: from Lenin to

1.1 COMMUNIST GOVERNMENT IN THE USSR, 1917-85

Bolshevik aims:
→ Main target: tsarist regime - was outdated
→ As the tsarist regime collapsed a period of uncertainty followed
→ Bolsheviks wanted to get rid of upper and middle classes which exploited workers and peasants under the capitalist system which developed dur
industrial revolution
→ Wanted to replace this with socialism- government would improve working and living conditions FOR ALL

Karl Marx theory VS what actually happened

→ Karl max: 1) primitive communism ( no social classes or concept or private property)
2) Feudalism (society would be controlled by the land owning aristocracy)
3) capitalism (the bourgeoisie-middle class and proleteriat- industrial workers, pocketed profit)
4) socialism (goods and services would be distributed evenly)
5) communism (no gov, classless and stateless society, according to needs)
Actually happened: 1) primitive communism
2) feudalism
3) capitalism
4) communism

The October Revolution, 1917

→ Planned by Lenin and executed by Trotsky
→ Bolsheviks seized power through a well executed and well planned uprising
→ Fall of tsar led to PG
→ Revolution was portrayed by the Bolsheviks- uprising of the workers
→ Propaganda presented as an easy takeover: storming of inter palace in Petrograd with support
→ However not really: few troops guarding palace
→ Bolsheviks seized power with limited support -> despite lack of support, the military still backed them up
→ Force would be needed to make sure that there little power was still intact
→ Creating a dictatorship was necessary since no support from people

HOW THE BOLSHEVIKS ESTABLISHED ONE-PARTY STATE BETWEEN 1917-1924

→ Bolsheviks wanted to set up a democratic system which would rule in behalf of the people
→ 1921- had established a one-party state where other political groups were banned
→ Communist rule under the Bolsheviks was to be authoritarian, highly centralised and involving the use of terror

The creation of a one-party state and the party congress of 1921

→ Bolsheviks went through many difficulties in attempts to hold power

→ Even though the party gained support in 1917, the Bolsheviks were a small group: however they didn't have enough support to lead a popular r
→ Since the Bolsheviks had to get power by force several groups opposed including:

○ Other left wing groups: SRs, Mensheviks and Marxists

○ Right groups: tsarist supporters, liberal groups
○ Nationalist groups: saw the collapse of the tsarist regime as a chance to assert their independence
→ Bolsheviks had to overcome these groups in order to establish a one-party state

How did the Bolsheviks deal with the other left-wing groups?
→ Other left-wing groups shared many of the socialist aims of the Bolsheviks
→ SRs and Mensheviks hoped that they would be given a share in the new government however Lenin was clear that there would be no sharing of
he rejected many
→ Trotsky (associate of Lenin) made it clear to the SRs and Mensheviks that they should "go back to the dustbin", however many, for practical rea
the Bolshevik government, however it didn't last long
→ Many SRs and Mensheviks hoped that with the Constituent Assembly ( Jan 1918) would be a chance to regain initiative
→ The Assembly was to be democratically elected which had to do with the strengths of the SRs who were capable of mobilising their support with
peasants
→ Bad results: they gained 175 seats in the Assembly with 9 million votes but the SRs emerged as the largest single party with 410 seats and 21 m
→ If the Assembly was used as a national parliament, it would pose as a threat to the Bolshevik rule
→ So the Assembly was abolished by Lenin after only one meeting
→ In replacement, Lenin used the All-Russian Congress of Soviets , a body where the Bolsheviks had more influence

The destruction of other political parties/ how did this help the Bolsheviks increase power
→ Removal of vote from 'bourgeois classes' - employers, priests
→ Mensheviks and SRs- found it difficult to publish their newspaper due to restrictions by Bolsheviks
→ The left-wings SRs (had roles within the Bolshevik gov 1917-18)- lost all influence when they walked out the gov in March 1918 in protest at t
Bolshevik decision to pull out of WW1
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 → The Assembly was to be democratically elected which had to do with the strengths of the SRs who were capable of mobilising their support with
peasants
→ Bad results: they gained 175 seats in the Assembly with 9 million votes but the SRs emerged as the largest single party with 410 seats and 21 m
→ If the Assembly was used as a national parliament, it would pose as a threat to the Bolshevik rule
→ So the Assembly was abolished by Lenin after only one meeting
→ In replacement, Lenin used the All-Russian Congress of Soviets , a body where the Bolsheviks had more influence

The destruction of other political parties/ how did this help the Bolsheviks increase power
→ Removal of vote from 'bourgeois classes' - employers, priests
→ Mensheviks and SRs- found it difficult to publish their newspaper due to restrictions by Bolsheviks
→ The left-wings SRs (had roles within the Bolshevik gov 1917-18)- lost all influence when they walked out the gov in March 1918 in protest at t
Bolshevik decision to pull out of WW1
→ Bolshevik party renamed itself the communist party in March 1918, and all other parties were banned in 1921
→ April 1921 Lenin said that the Mensheviks and Bolsheviks belonged in prison. 3 first months of 1921- 5000 Mensheviks were arrested. In 1921-2
were arrests of SRs and Mensheviks supporters (RED TERROR)

The treaty of Brest-Litovsk, 1918 (Trigger to Civil War)

→ Opposition to the Bolsheviks came from other socialist groups because the conservatives were shocked by the October 1917 events that the revo
time to sink in
→ Lenin put an instant end in involvement of Russia in WW1 so deomoralised conservatives were furious
→ In order for Russia to not be part of WW1 they lost a lot of their valuables
→ They lost control over the:
○ Baltic States of Lithuania,
○ Estonia,
○ Latvia,
○ Finland,
○ Ukraine
○ and parts of the Caucasus region
→ It was humiliating , national humiliation, especially for the military officers that served in the Tsar's army
→ The only way to get rid of the humiliation and to restore Russia's pride, they needed to overthrow the Bolshevik regime and reject the treaty
→ Those who wished to go against the Bolsheviks were known as the whites because it offered the promise of the foreign help
→ The allies ( Britain, USA, Japan) were nervous of keeping Russia in WW1 and so were willing to provide arms, money, troops to those who would
Russia rejoined the fight

→ Lenin was aware that the key factor which brought the fall of the tsarist regime and the Provisional Government was the pressure of fighting in
→ Lenin realized that if his new gov was to consolidate its hold over russia and deal with any enemies, it needed to pull out of the war and concen
the job and end all international affairs and focus on national.

The Russian Civil war, 1918-21

→ Russia faced a lot of opposition from lot of conservative elements within Russia, however the WHITES that went against the Bolsheviks (REDS)
than just conservatives
→ Whites:
- Consisted of many political groups: tsar fans, liberals, PG supporters, military leaders unhappy with the decision to pull out of WW1, n
minorities (wanted independence), Mensheviks and SR members, Czech Legion, Austro-Hungarian Army,
- Received aid from allies
→ Bolsheviks were attacked by the forces of General Krasnov straight after the October Revolution. Reds won the first encounter but was the prel
civil war.
→ There were a lot of military campaigns after the signing of the treaty
→ By the end of 1920, the bolshviks defeated the whites and secured communist control over the country

How did the Bolsheviks win the civil war?

→ Beginning:
- situation was bad for Bolsheviks
- Bolshevik control only consisted of a central core based in Moscow heading towards Petrograd in the North-west
- Completely surrounded by whites
→ However, Bolsheviks came out on top achieved due to better organization of reds in political, military and economic terms
→ Whites wanted to get rid of the Bolsheviks, they received helped from Russia's formers allies but through corruption and inefficiency. However m
operation was limited.
→ By the end of 1920- all whites were defeated and the Bolshevik rule was spread throughout the country
→ The Bolsheviks had much better military strategies thanks to Trotsky who became Commissar for war in 1918 and turned the red army into an ef
fighting group.
→ Red army was formed from red guard units and pro-Bolshevik elements of the old tsarist armed forces.
→ Conscription: introduced to increase the number of soldiers up to 5 million by the end of the war
→ War communism: Bolshevik had been able to extend government direction over the economy to make sure that resources were organised and sha
properly through the imposition of policies.
→ Large scale nationalisation of industry ensured proper supplies for the red army and food was requisitioned for the peasants. This policy was un
with the peasants and provided enough food for the red army to survive and continue.
→ Civil war encouraged the bolsheviks to have a more authoritarian and centrally controlled system
→ Organsiation and active support for what the Bolsheviks stood for earned them their win. Peasants didn’t like the Bolshevik rule, however the
of 1917 ensured a distribution of land in their favour
→ Bolsheviks victory dealt a serious blow to any realistic chance of enemies within Russia threatening their new gov

The key results of the civil war

→ The devastation and division caused from the first world war had a long term impact on Russia and the Bolshevik state that was established:
1. The Bolsheviks became highly centralised due to civil war demands. Fighting a war required fast decision making and direction of reso
the government. Power was in the hands of the Sovnarkom government and the party leadership politburo which was based in Moscow
2. The civil war resulted in the Bolsheviks using extensive use of terror against their political opponents (big influence on future of gov)
helped set the tone for the development of the party after the civil war
3. Bolshevik supporters had been through a formative experience which majorly affected them. This experience reinforced militaristic val
the population. Those who fought in the war were people that didn’t buckle under pressure and that weren't afraid to use terror and
→ These results influenced the creation of the system of government by Bolsheviks.

The Tenth Party Congress, 1921

→ Congress held in March 192, during this time the civil war was won and attention was focused on dealing with the divisions within the Bolshevik
→ The civil war had seen a huge growth in the party membership from 300,000 in 1917 to over 730,000 by 1921.
→ This posed a threat to party stability
→ A firm line was taken against dissent so conformity within the party was ensured
→ Lenin put forward the ban on the formation of factions within the party at the Congress of 1921
→ 'On Party Unity'- a measure, an attempt to impose the view of the leadership on the Party, the penalty for breaking the rule was expulsion
→ This continuous tightening of power from the party worried the Bolsheviks.
→ 1921- bolsheviks faced Kronstadt Mutiny and they also faced the Tambov Rising
◊ Kronstadt mutiny: the mutiny of sailors at the kronstadt naval base against the imposition of
the local soviet from the Bolshevik government.
◊ Tambov Rising: a peasant uprising in the Tambov Rising region of central Russia that was ini
the Bolshevik unit arrival to requisition grain for use in the cities and the army.
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 → Congress held in March 192, during this time the civil war was won and attention was focused on dealing with the divisions within the Bolshevik
→ The civil war had seen a huge growth in the party membership from 300,000 in 1917 to over 730,000 by 1921.
→ This posed a threat to party stability
→ A firm line was taken against dissent so conformity within the party was ensured
→ Lenin put forward the ban on the formation of factions within the party at the Congress of 1921
→ 'On Party Unity'- a measure, an attempt to impose the view of the leadership on the Party, the penalty for breaking the rule was expulsion
→ This continuous tightening of power from the party worried the Bolsheviks.
→ 1921- bolsheviks faced Kronstadt Mutiny and they also faced the Tambov Rising
◊ Kronstadt mutiny: the mutiny of sailors at the kronstadt naval base against the imposition of
the local soviet from the Bolshevik government.
◊ Tambov Rising: a peasant uprising in the Tambov Rising region of central Russia that was ini
the Bolshevik unit arrival to requisition grain for use in the cities and the army.

The nature of government under Lenin

The apparatus of government

→ Lenin needed to install a state of administration that better suited his revolutionary purposes, governing a country like Russia requires a clear li
authority where decisions could be made effectively and quickly
→ Soviets, Trade Unions and Factory Committees were all organisations that represented the proletariat and were brought under Bolshevik control
sidelined. A system was devised and based on representative bodies that more or less came from the all-Russian congress of soviets and was he
Sovnarkom (shows more dictatorship rather than communism)
○ Sovnarkom- Council of People's Commissars and took the role of a cabinet of top government minsters who were responsible for mak
decisions and giving government orders, it had 20 members which were elected by the Central Executive Committee, then met daily dur
civil war
○ Central Executive Committee- a larger group elected by the Congress of Soviets, its job was to oversee the work of the gov and its
administration. (elected the 20 members
○ The All-Russian Congress of Soviets- the supreme law making body of the state. Laws and put in place by Sovnarkom and had to be
approved by the Congress
→ Under this: provincial and city soviets made up of representatives from local soviets
→ This system was to be very democratic however during the civil war, Bolsheviks used their power over some positions of the Sovnarkom to insta
that were ignore by the congress of soviets and therefore imposed on the country

Party control over the state (centralization)

→ Early 1920s- real power had shifted from apparatus to party itself. The party apparatus mirrored that of the state
1. Politburo- a group of 7-9 leading members of the Bolshevik Party who were chosen by the Party's Central Committee to make import
decisions affecting policy. They met daily under Lenin (diff from Stalin) and became more important than the Sovnarkom. Leading mem
besides Lenin were Zinoviev, Kamenev, Trotsky and Stalin
2. Central Committee - group of 30-40 members chosen by the party congress to represent its members. They were supposed to make k
decisions until the Politburo came along after 1919 where they had most power
3. Party Congress -a body made up of representatives of local party branches. They talked about the party and there were debates at th
tenth party congress of 1920-21. it met yearly under Lenin 1917-26. Ban of factions under the ruling on Party Unity caused debate a
of Congress influencing policy declined.
4. Local party branches - below all, headed by party secretary, these secretaries could be powerful . Kamenev was head of party in Petr
Zinoviev in Moscow. Both had a lot if power and both helped trouble Lenin
→ Party copied the state, but it was the party structure that controlled the decision-making whereas the state became more of an organisation of
administrator. Decline of the state was caused by the infrequent meeting of the Congress of Soviets, Central Executive Committee and the Sovna
→ Sign of relative power of state and party was the decision in 1919 to make the secret police fully responsible to the Politburo instead of the Sov

Democratic Centralism
→ Bolsheviks said their government was based on the principle of Democratic Centralism. Soviets were used as bodies that represented the worker
level.
→ Wishes were expressed through a structure of representative organisations that would take their concerns to decision- making bodies at the hig
of gov.
→ Decisions were made for the people and passed down to regional and local level. This principle was used by the Bolsheviks and other communist
evidence of their highly democratic nature. However the reality was different. Soviets were undermined when Bolsheviks took power. Bolsheviks
power and the were to not be involved in any decision making.
→ Bolsheviks dominated soviets and made sure that they no longer responded to pressure from the workers they meant to represent.
→ Local soviets used as part of local government and were in the hands of local party bosses who were in charge.
→ System turned representative bodies into rubber-stamping bodies that carried out orders given by the centre.

The growing centralisation of power

→ Power became centralised in the hands of the politburo

→ Party leadership ensured central control over the party's structure and its own members
→ When bolsheviks seized power, the party organisation was chaotic and the leadership extended its control. Local branches were under the contro
organisations at the centre of the party
→ During civil war, decisions were made by the politburo to ensure rapid responses in situations that are constantly changing. After the civil war,
became entrenched since people difnt want to give up power
The personal power of Lenin
→ Official position: chair of the sovnarkom and a politburo member
→ He preferred a collective leadership: issues were discussed before decisions could be made
→ 1919- dismissed any idea of a personal dictatorship but there is no doubt that Lenin was able to practice influence by weight of his own person
authority
→ Bolsheviks looked up to Lenin and were inspired by him, expecting him to provide strong leadership.
→ Lenin could bring the party into line by making threats to resign from his party position. He did this over the decision to sign the Treaty of Bres
1918 and also the New Economic Policy 1921
→ 1922 onwards- Lenin's power was widely limited by his illness. Colleagues made fun of him at and were prepared for a power struggle.
→ Power had been centralised in the party structure rather than in personal authority of Lenin. Several key developments were to reinforce this ce
of power

The growth of party bureaucracy and the nomenklatura system (aimed at disciplining and establishing loyalty)
→ The thing to aid Communist party control was the growth of a vast party bureaucracy
→ 1921- bolshevik party was renamed communist party was a lot bigger than it was in 1917
→ Many politicians and leaders joined the party to improve their career but were not all exactly communists.
→ The party developed the nomenklatura system to ensure that most people in the bureaucracy were communists. This involved making lists of app
party employees which are suitable for certain jobs.
→ This system encouraged loyalty to party leaders and if you were not loyal you would lose your place on the list and also you would lose your ch
promotion. It was an effective tool of centralisation administered by the General Secretary.
→ 1924- communist party members reached 1 million and this entailed a large organisation peopled by administrators who were starting to form a
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The growth of party bureaucracy and the nomenklatura system (aimed at disciplining and establishing loyalty)
→ The thing to aid Communist party control was the growth of a vast party bureaucracy
→ 1921- bolshevik party was renamed communist party was a lot bigger than it was in 1917
→ Many politicians and leaders joined the party to improve their career but were not all exactly communists.
→ The party developed the nomenklatura system to ensure that most people in the bureaucracy were communists. This involved making lists of app
party employees which are suitable for certain jobs.
→ This system encouraged loyalty to party leaders and if you were not loyal you would lose your place on the list and also you would lose your ch
promotion. It was an effective tool of centralisation administered by the General Secretary.
→ 1924- communist party members reached 1 million and this entailed a large organisation peopled by administrators who were starting to form a
itself with own values and attitudes
→ These attitudes were self-serving instead of being aimed at benefitting the industrial proletariat.

The Soviet Constitution of 1924 (established dictatorship)

→ By 1922- position of Bolsheviks was strong enough to extend control of the party over the outside regions of the old Russian Empire. The meth
by the Bolsheviks were to send the Red Army forces while encouraging Bolsheviks to organise mass demonstrations and street violence.
→ The constitution ( official laws of country) was established in 1924 and was an important step in the centralisation power of the soviet state.
→ Party bodies in other countries eg Ukraine were under the control of the central Party structure
→ The soviet constitution confirmed the power of the communist party in the state but did give some representation to party members from each o
republics
→ 'Union of Soviet Socialists Republics' a name formally given to be a federal system
→ Russians had the advantage of sheer numbers over the national minorities. Russia made up 90% of land area and 72% of the population of the ne
nearly 3/4 of the communist party were Russian.
The use of terror (another way to hold control)
→ Bolshevik terror was implemented by the Cheka which was headed by Felix Dzerzhinsky. It was a committee formed in December 1917 to deal wit
revolution, sabotage and speculation and was later operating without the law. It dealt with enemies within the party and played a big role in esta
central control over the party apparatus
→ The cheka was based in moscow where most arrests took place and prisoners were tortured, executions of suspects also took place without cour
→ Left wing opponents had been arrested in August 1918 after an attempted hit at Lenin. Further arrests took place 1921-22 known as the Red Te
→ Between 1917-23, Cheka was responsible for the execution of 20,000 people. The secret police grew widely, 40,000 in December 1918 to 250,000
→ After the civil war 1922- Cheka was replaced with the OGPU where terror became more discreet, bureaucratic and in looking. Attention was give
within the party and large numbers were purged
→ There was a purge known as Chistka meaning cleansing, this happened in 1918 and 1920s. Under Lenin 1/3 of the party were purged
→ Such intimidation and the purges were needed to maintain discipline and order within the party that is constantly growing- directed at hooligans
drunkards, adventurers
→ Bolsheviks were a minority group and so fear and intimidation were essential for them if they wanted to gain power and hold it.
→ The use of terror was continued even after the civil war ended which shows lack of confidence by the bolsheviks in their hold on power. Eg bim
big threat
→ Lenin became obsessed with terror and liked execution of priests. Shows that he was developing his own personal agenda for the use of terror.

Degree of centralisation
→ Lenin was able to apply control over the party and state and develop a highly centralised system but there were LIMITS. However many areas w
to take control due to the large size.
→ The gov was often chaotic which provided opportunities for a local mafia of Bolsheviks and black marketeers to defy party orders. There were d
within the party
○ Kamenev and Zinoviev disagreed with Lenin's decision to launch the revolution 1917
○ Debate within the party over Treat of Brest-Litovsk 1918
○ NEP 1921 led to formation of left and right wing factions
○ Role of trade unions were debated within the party. A workers' opposition group led by Alexander Shliapnikov and Alexander Kollonta
a greater role for the trade unions and was discussed at the Ninth and Tenth Congresses 1920-21. Lenin took action to destroy this g
didn’t stop other groups like the workers' truth from emerging
→ 1922- Stalin was appointed General Secretary of the party and his role was to keep an eye on potential opposition in the party (worked his way
party in the terms)
Conclusion
→ 1924- communist party leadership dealt pleasantly with all opposition outside its ranks and also crushing anything bad within its structure
→ Due to this success the party was able to expand without having to sacrifice unity or its members, the party was able to act as the state and gov
country.
→ The growth in the power and size of the party was a product of the civil war, authoritarianism and terror, this ensured survival
→ When the Bolsheviks seized power in 1917, it showed the importance of the idea of the party as a vanguard of the revolution but power also rais
over interpreting the idea of dictatorship of the Proletariat.
→ Bolsheviks claimed that there use of violence, terror and establishing a centralised, authoritarian regime, was due to interest of the proletariat. R
however was in danger of becoming a dictatorship of the Communist Party.
→ Mid 1920s- Bolshevik supporters had become disillusioned and the state became a buraeaucracy.

HOW DID STALIN EXERCISE POWER OVER THE COMMUNIST PARTY AND TH
SOVIET STATE?
→ Lenin died in 1924 due to illness and so a leadership power struggle had begun by the other members of the Politburo 1924-28 (crucial years).
→ 1928- Stalin had real power over the communist party, a position he got through use of power and also manipulated his position as General Sec
used his increasing power as a way to eliminate his own opponents and establish a personal dictatorship. Stalin built his own identity by relying
of Lenin's trends

The elimination of opponents in government and party

The powers of the General Secretary: Stalin's power base in the communist party
→ Stalin became general secretary of the party 2022, a position that many other leaders had turned down because it was too boring and supposedl
hold a lot of power. However Stalin if it as a perfect opportunity to gain information of his opponents (good critical thinking shown by Stalin)
→ The focus under Lenin was the power of the party instead of the government, something Stalin had realized, the party structure grew in size and
the general secretary structure also grew
→ Stalin was the head of the party secretariat so was responsible for running the party. This gave Stalin specific power of influence:
○ Had access to a lot of information and there was coordination of general secretary across all party departments
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The powers of the General Secretary: Stalin's power base in the communist party
→ Stalin became general secretary of the party 2022, a position that many other leaders had turned down because it was too boring and supposedl
hold a lot of power. However Stalin if it as a perfect opportunity to gain information of his opponents (good critical thinking shown by Stalin)
→ The focus under Lenin was the power of the party instead of the government, something Stalin had realized, the party structure grew in size and
the general secretary structure also grew
→ Stalin was the head of the party secretariat so was responsible for running the party. This gave Stalin specific power of influence:
○ Had access to a lot of information and there was coordination of general secretary across all party departments
○ Gained over 26,000 personal files on party members- useful against rivals, only a few not under his surveillance
○ Responsible for deciding what happened at party meetings. A useful tool for restricting issues he didn’t want to talk about
○ His position enhanced by the publishment of the Lenin Enrolment 1923-25. The aim of this was to increase the number of industrial w
the party ranks. 500,000 workers were recruited which increased the size of the party, new members were not educated and didn’t kn
politics, they took part in the party as an opportunity for employment. Stalin was responsible to monitor Lenin's enrolment and was a
careful to identify the needs and demands of new members (control and influence)
○ Stalin was allowed to appoint people to party positions which therefore gave him the opportunity to appoint his own supporters in ke
manipulated his role. Over time, more people within the party were loyal to Stalin which gave himself and his position even more powe
who opposed were simply replaced. Eg Kirov was put in as party of Leningrad 1926 and Zinoviev kicked out
→ Stalin was able to outvote his opponents and the party was filled with people who were loyal to Stalin
→ Lenin created the Party structure but Stalin used it to his advantage, he was nicknamed 'comrade card-index': a reference to his willingness to u
routine administrative tasks, also nicknamed by Nikolai Sukhanov 'grey blur': a good administrator but lacked personality.
→ Even though stalin was criticised, it gave him the chance to increase his power quietly

Stalin's opponents in the Politburo

→ Power struggled occurred between members after Lenin's death to see who would take over
1. Trotsky: thought to be an obvious successor, was arrogant, not a team player, tried to organise himself and supporters within the pa
2. Zinoviev: worked closely with Lenin, had a strong power base as secretariat, skilled operator, but was vain and ineffective
3. Kamenev: lack of principle
4. Bukharin: lenin's 'golden boy', young, highly intelligent, lacked political experience
5. Tomsky: leading figure in trade union movement but influence declined, Lenin reduce trade unions power so restricted Tomsky's powe
6. Rykov: chair of Sovnarkom, had an outspoken approach which upset Bolsheviks, drinking problem
→ deficiencies in personalities and their place in the government weakened the level of support these rivals received, Stalin gained more advantag
others due to position
Stalin's removal of political rivals and his securing of power
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