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7. Mole fraction, mass percentage and molality are temperature independent.

8. What are the factors affecting the solubility of a solid in liquid?
(I) Nature of solute and solvent:- Like dissolves like. Polar substance soluble in polar solvents (NaCl in
water) and non polar substance soluble in non polar solvents (naphthalene in benzene)
(II) Effect of temperature:- The solubility of most of the solutes in water is endothermic and solubility
increases with increase of temperature. Some are exothermic. In such cases solubility decreases with
increases of temperature.
(III) Effect of pressure:- Pressure has no effect because solids and liquids are incompressible.
9. What are the factors affecting the solubility of a gas in liquid?
(I) Nature of gas and solvent:- Easily liquefiable gas is more soluble than permanent gas.
Eg. CO2 is more soluble in water than H2
(II) Effect of temperature:- Since the solubility of most of the gases in water is exothermic and
solubility decreases with increase of temperature.
E.g. Fish and other aquatic species are more comfortable in cold water than in warm water.
(III) Effect of pressure :- As pressure increases solubility increases.
10. Fish and other aquatic species are more comfortable in cold water than in warm water. Why?
In cold water dissolved oxygen is high. When temperature increases, solubility of oxygen in water decreases.
11. State Henry’s law and give its applications.
Henry’s law states that at constant temperature, the solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to
the pressure of the gas. 𝒎 ∝𝑷 OR
Henry’s law states that partial pressure of the gas in vapour phase is proportional to the mole fraction of the
gas in the solution. 𝒑∝ 𝑿 OR 𝒑 = 𝑲𝑯 𝑿 where KH= Henry’s constant
Applications:
(I) To increase the solubility of carbon dioxide in soft drinks and soda water, the bottle is sealed under
high pressure.
(II) To avoid the toxic effects (bends) of high concentration of nitrogen in blood, the tanks used by scuba
divers are filled with air diluted with helium.
(III) At high altitudes, atmospheric pressure is low and partial pressure of oxygen is less. This leads to low
concentration of oxygen in blood and in tissues. Low blood oxygen results in physical weakness
(anoxia) and is unable to think clearly.
12. What is vapour pressure? What happens to vapour pressure when a non volatile solute is added?
The pressure exerted by the vapours over the surface of the liquid at equilibrium is called vapour pressure.
In a binary solution, if both components are volatile, total vapour pressure is the sum of the partial pressures
of each component.
When a non volatile solute is added to pure solvent, vapour pressure is lowered due to decrease in the
number of solvent molecules at surface. It is due to the presence of non volatile solute at the surface.
13. State Raoult’s law for solution having volatile liquids. Give its equations. Draw its graph.

Raoult’s law states that for volatile solutions, the

partial vapour pressure of each component at a given
temperature is directly proportional to its mole
fraction in solution.
𝑷𝑨 ∝ 𝑿𝑨 , OR 𝑷𝑨 = 𝑷𝟎𝑨 𝑿𝑨
𝑷𝑩 ∝ 𝑿𝑩 , OR 𝑷𝑩 = 𝑷𝟎𝑩 𝑿𝑩
PA = Partial pressure of solvent in solution ,
PB = Partial pressure of solute in solution
𝑷𝟎𝑨 = Partial pressure of solvent in pure state ,
𝑷𝟎𝑩 = Partial pressure of solute in pure state
XA = Mole fraction of solvent ,
XB = Mole fraction of solute
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These are two types . (1) Maximum boiling azeotropes and ( 2) Minimum boiling azeotropes
Maximum boiling azeotropes Minimum boiling azeotropes
These are mixture of two liquids whose boiling points These are mixture of two liquids whose boiling points
are more than either of two pure components. are less than either of two pure components.
These are formed by non ideal solutions showing These are formed by non ideal solutions showing
negative deviation. positive deviation.
e.g. HNO3 (68 %) and water (32%) mixture boils at e.g. Ethanol(95.6 %) and water (4.4%) mixture boils at
393.5 K 351.15 K
17. What are colligative properties?
Properties that depend only on the number of particles of solute present in solution and not on the nature of
particles are colligative properties.
Colligative properties are used to find out the molecular mass of solute.
18. Which are four colligative properties?
(a) Relative lowering of vapour pressure
(b) Elevation of boiling point
(c) Depression of freezing point
(d) Osmotic pressure
19. Relative lowering of vapour pressure:- When a non volatile solute is added to pure solvent, vapour
pressure is lowered. This is called lowering of vapour pressure.
Total vapour pressure of the solution is due to solvent only. Total vapour pressure = 𝑷𝑨 = 𝑷𝟎𝑨 𝑿𝑨
The lowering of vapour pressure of solvent, ∆𝑷 = 𝑷𝟎𝑨 − 𝑷𝑨 = 𝑷𝟎𝑨 − 𝑷𝟎𝑨 𝑿𝑨 = 𝑷𝟎𝑨 (𝟏 − 𝑿𝑨 )
But total mole fraction is always one 𝑿𝑨 + 𝑿𝑩 = 𝟏
∴ 𝟏 − 𝑿𝑨 = 𝑿𝑩
𝟎
Substituting ∆𝑷 = 𝑷𝑨 𝑿𝑩 𝑶𝑹
∆𝑷
= 𝑿𝑩 𝑶𝑹
𝑷𝟎𝑨
𝑷𝟎𝑨 − 𝑷𝑨
= 𝑿𝑩
𝑷𝟎𝑨
𝑷𝟎𝑨 𝑷𝑨
= The relative lowering of vapour pressure .
𝑷𝟎𝑨
XB = mole fraction of solute
This shows that the relative lowering of vapour pressure of a solution containing a non-volatile solute is equal
to the mole fraction of the solute in the solution.
20. From the relative lowering of vapour pressure , derive the equation to find out the molecular mass of solute.
𝑷𝟎𝑨 𝑷𝑨
= 𝑿𝑩 ,
𝑷𝟎𝑨
𝑷𝟎𝑨 𝑷𝑨 𝒏 𝒏
= 𝑩 = 𝑩 ∵ In dilute solution nB <<<<nA and so we can neglect nB in comparison with nA
𝑷𝟎𝑨 𝒏𝑨 𝒏𝑩 𝒏𝑨
𝟎
𝑷𝑨 𝑷𝑨 𝑾𝑩 /𝑴𝑩 𝟎

𝟎 = , 𝑷𝑨𝑷𝟎𝑷𝑨 =
𝑾𝑩 𝑴𝑨
𝑴𝑩 𝑾𝑨
𝑷𝑨 𝑾𝑨 /𝑴𝑨 𝑨

𝑾𝑩 𝑴𝑨 𝑷𝟎𝑨
∴ 𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 (𝑴𝑩 ) =
𝑾𝑨 (𝑷𝟎𝑨 𝑷𝑨 )
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27. Define osmosis and give its applications

The spontaneous flow of solvent from pure solvent to the solution or from a solution of lower concentration
to higher concentration, when they are separated by a semi permeable membrane is called osmosis.
Applications:
(I) Raw mangoes shrivel when pickled in salt water.
(II) Wilted flowers and vegetables revive when placed in fresh water.
(III) Blood cells collapse when suspended in saline water.
(IV) Movement of water from soil in to plant roots and upper portion.
28. What is osmotic pressure and give its equations.
Osmotic pressure is the minimum pressure to be applied on the solution side to prevent osmosis.
𝒏𝑹𝑻
Osmotic pressure, 𝝅 = 𝑪𝑹𝑻 = C = concentration , n= number of moles
𝑽
29. For determining molecular mass of solute, osmotic pressure method is preferred. Why?
(I) The measurement is carried out at room temperature.
(II) Magnitude of osmotic pressure is large even for very dilute solution.
30. By using osmotic pressure (π), derive the expression to calculate molecular mass of solute(M B)
𝒏𝑹𝑻 𝑾𝑩 𝑹𝑻
𝝅= =
𝑽 𝑴𝑩 𝑽
𝑾𝑩 𝑹𝑻
𝑴𝑩 =
𝝅𝑽
31. What are Isotonic solutions, Hypotonic solutions and Hypertonic solutions?
Isotonic solutions: Solutions which have same osmotic pressure.
Eg. 0.9 % NaCl solution is isotonic with human blood. So it is used for intravenous injections.
Hypotonic solution: Solution which have less osmotic pressure than the other.
Hypertonic solution: Solution which have more osmotic pressure than the other.
32. What is reverse osmosis and give its application.
The direction of osmosis is reversed if a pressure higher than the osmotic pressure is applied to the solution
side. Then the pure solvent from the solution flows out through the semi permeable membrane. This
phenomenon is called reverse osmosis.
It is used in the desalination of sea water to produce drinking water.
33. What are Abnormal molecular masses?
These are wrong molecular mass obtained from colligative properties.
Abnormal molecular mass is due to association or dissociation of solute particles in solutions.
Abnormality is explained by van’t Hoff factor (i).
𝐎𝐛𝐬𝐞𝐫𝐯𝐞𝐝 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐜𝐨𝐥𝐥𝐢𝐠𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐩𝐫𝐨𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐭𝐲
𝐯𝐚𝐧’𝐭 𝐇𝐨𝐟𝐟 𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫 (𝐢) =
𝐍𝐨𝐫𝐦𝐚𝐥 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐬𝐚𝐦𝐞 𝐜𝐨𝐥𝐥𝐢𝐠𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐩𝐫𝐨𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐭𝐲
OR
𝐍𝐨𝐫𝐦𝐚𝐥 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞
𝐯𝐚𝐧’𝐭 𝐇𝐨𝐟𝐟 𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫 (𝐢) =
𝐎𝐛𝐬𝐞𝐫𝐯𝐞𝐝 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞
Solute Van’t Hoff factor (i) Splitting
NaCl 2 Na+ + Cl-
KCl 2 K+ + Cl-
K2SO4 3 2K+ +SO4 2-
Ethanoic acid in benzene 0.5
Al(NO3)3 4 Al3+ + 3NO3 -
Al2(SO4)3 5 2Al3+ + 3 SO4 2-
CaCl2 3 Ca2+ + 2 Cl -
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CHAPTER 3 ELECTROCHEMISTRY

PREPARED BY: YOOSAFALI T K , GHSS BANGARA MANJESHWARAM (14038) , 9947444175

YOUTUBE CHANNEL: CHEM DSM

============================================================================
1. What is electrochemistry?
Electrochemistry is the branch of chemistry which deals with the inter relationship between electrical energy
and chemical changes.
2. What is Electrochemical cell (galvanic cell) ?
A device that converts chemical energy to electrical energy is called electrochemical cell (galvanic cell).
e.g., Daniel cell.
3. With the help of diagram and equations explain Daniel cell (electrochemical cell)

Anode→ Zinc rod dipped in ZnSO4

Cathode→ Copper rod dipped in CuSO4
Anode and cathode are connected by wire and volt meter externally and by salt bridge internally.
At anode (oxidation) Zn→ Zn2+ + 2e-
At cathode (reduction) Cu2+ + 2e-→ Cu
Overall reaction Zn + Cu2+ → Zn2+ + Cu
Voltage is 1.1 V
Representation of Daniell cell is Zn | Zn2+ || Cu2+ | Cu
4. Explain electrode potential and standard electrode potential
The tendency of an electrode to lose electron is called oxidation potential.
The tendency of an electrode to gain electron is called reduction potential.
The tendency of an electrode to lose or gain electron is called electrode potential. OR
Electrode potential is the potential difference developed in a half cell between an electrode and its
electrolyte.
According to IUPAC system, reduction potential is taken as electrode potential.
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8. How will you measure standard electrode potential of zinc electrode?

Cell representation is Zn | Zn2+ || H+|H2,Pt
The electrode potential of a half cell cannot be directly measured. The Zinc electrode is connected to a standard
hydrogen electrode (reference electrode). The EMF of the resulting cell is determined using voltmeter. The
voltmeter reading is 0.76 V
0.76 V = E0 right − E0 left = E0 SHE − E0 Zn2+ /Zn = 0 − E0 Zn2+ /Zn = − E0 Zn2+ /Zn
E0 Zn2+ /Zn = − 0.76 V
According to IUPAC convention, the electrode potential is given a negative sign if the electrode reaction involves
oxidation when it is connected to SHE.
9. What are electrochemical series and give their applications.
The arrangement of elements in the order of standard reduction potential is called electrochemical series or
activity series.
Applications:
(i) Metals having lower reduction potential ( -ve value) than hydrogen in the series are more reactive and
can displace hydrogen from acid.
(ii) A metal can displace metal ions from the salt solutions of a metal which lies below in the electro
chemical series. Example: If copper foil is added to silver nitrate solution, silver is replaced from the
solution (Because Cu lies above Ag and it undergo oxidation).
(iii) It is used to compare the relative oxidizing and reducing abilities.
In the electrochemical series F2 has highest reduction potential and so F2 is the strongest oxidizing agent.
In the electrochemical series Li has highest oxidation potential and so Li is the strongest reducing agent.
(iv) It is used to calculate EMF of the cell.
10. Write the Nernst equation for the single electrode potential.
Nernst equation gives a relationship between the electrode potential and ionic concentration of the electrolyte
solution.
For the electrode Mn+| M , the reaction is Mn+ + n e− → M
𝑹𝑻 [𝑴]
𝑰𝒕𝒔 𝐍𝐞𝐫𝐧𝐬𝐭 𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐢𝐬 , 𝑬𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒆 = 𝑬𝟎𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒆 − 𝒍𝒏
𝒏𝑭 [𝑴𝒏 ]
Converting to common logarithm
𝟐. 𝟑𝟎𝟑𝑹𝑻 [𝑴]
𝑬𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒆 = 𝑬𝟎𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒆 — 𝒍𝒐𝒈
𝒏𝑭 [𝑴𝒏 ]
OR
𝟐. 𝟑𝟎𝟑𝑹𝑻 [𝑴𝒏 ]
𝑬𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒆 = 𝑬𝟎𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒆 + 𝒍𝒐𝒈
𝒏𝑭 [𝑴]
E 0electrode = standard electrode potential , R = universal gas constant =8.314 JK -1 mol-1
F = Faraday (96500 coulomb) , n= number of electrons in the electrode , T = temperature
For solids [M] = 1
Substituting the value of R, F and temperature 298 K , we get
𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟗
𝑬𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒆 = 𝑬𝟎𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒆 + 𝒍𝒐𝒈 [𝑴𝒏 ]
𝒏
𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟗
𝑬 𝑴𝒏 /𝑴 = 𝑬𝟎𝑴𝒏 /𝑴 + 𝒍𝒐𝒈 [𝑴𝒏 ]
𝒏
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15. Relation connecting standard free energy change and equilibrium const ant , ∆G0 = −2.303 RT log Kc
𝟐. 𝟑𝟎𝟑 𝑹𝑻
∆𝑮𝟎 = −𝒏𝑭𝑬𝟎𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒍 = −𝒏𝑭 𝑿 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝑲𝒄 = −𝟐. 𝟑𝟎𝟑 𝑹𝑻 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝑲𝒄
𝒏𝑭
16. What is Resistance(R)?
It is the obstruction to the flow of electricity.
Its unit is ohm (Ω )
17. What is Conductance?
Reciprocal of resistance (G =1/R).
Its unit is ohm-1 OR Ω−1 OR mho OR Seimen
18. What is specific resistance or resistivity?
𝒍 𝒍
𝑹 ∝ OR 𝑹 = 𝝆
𝑨 𝑨
Where ρ = specific resistance or resistivity.
Resistivity is the resistance offered by a conductor of unit length and unit area of cross section.
19. What is specific conductance or conductivity?
The reciprocal of resistivity of a conductor is known as specific conductance or conductivity(κ,kappa).
OR
Specific conductance or conductivity of an electrolyte is the conductance of a column of solution of length 1
cm and area of cross section 1 cm2
𝟏 𝟏 𝒍
𝛋 = = 𝒐𝒉𝒎 𝟏 𝒄𝒎 𝟏
𝑶𝒓 𝑺𝒄𝒎 𝟏
𝛒 𝑹 𝑨
𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒍 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 , 𝛋 =
𝑴𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
20. What are the difference between metallic conductors and electrolytic conductors?
Metallic conductors Electrolytic conductors
Conduction is due to the movement of electrons Conduction is due to the movement of ions
No chemical change takes place chemical decomposition takes place
Electrical conduction decreases with increase of Electrical conduction increases with increase of
temperature temperature
Conductivity of metal is generally high Conductivity of electrolyte is generally low
21. What are the factors affecting conductivity of electrolytic solutions?
(I) Strong electrolytes ionize completely and conduct electricity to a large extent.
(II) Smaller ions moves faster and conduct electricity to a larger extent.
(III) Higher the viscosity of solvents, lower the conductivity.
(IV) Conductivity of electrolytic solutions increases with temperature.
(V) When concentration increases, molar conductivity decreases.
22. What is molar conductivity and give the relation connecting specific conductance (κ) and molar conductance
(Ʌm) ?
Molar conductivity is the conductance of the solution containing one mole of the electrolyte kept between
two electrodes at a distance of unit length.
𝐊 𝑲 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝐌𝐨𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐢𝐭𝐲, Ʌ𝐦 = =
𝐂 𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒚
23. Explain the variation of specific conductance (conductivity ) on dilution.
Specific conductance (conductivity ) of an electrolyte solution decreases with dilution (decrease in concentration)
due to decrease in number of ions per unit volume of the solution .
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(3) H2CO3 is a weak electrolyte (acid)

Ʌ0(H2CO3) = Ʌ0( H2SO4) + Ʌ0(Na2CO3) - Ʌ0(Na2SO4)
(4) H2O is a weak electrolyte
Ʌ0(H2O) = Ʌ0(NaOH) + Ʌ0(HCl) - Ʌ0(NaCl)
Ʌ𝒄𝒎
(ii) It is used to calculate degree of dissociation of weak electrolytes. 𝛂 =
Ʌ𝟎𝒎
c
Ʌ m = molar conductance at any concentration
Ʌ0m = molar conductance at infinite dilution (limiting molar conductivity)
26. State Faraday’s laws of electrolysis.
(I) Faraday’s first law :-The mass of substance liberated (or deposited) at the electrode is directly proportional to
the quantity of electricity passed through the electrolyte solution.
i.e. , w α Q But Q= It
w α It or w= ZIt
w= mass of the substance formed I = current, t = time, Z= electrochemical equivalent
(II) Faraday’s second law :-When the same quantity of electricity is passed through different electrolytes , the
masses of substances formed at the electrodes are proportional to their respective chemical equivalent masses.
When the same quantity of electricity is passed through CuSO4 and AgNO3 soluions connected in series,
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝟑𝟏. 𝟕
=
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒊𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝟏𝟎𝟖
31.7 = equivalent mass of Cu , 108 = equivalent mass of Ag.
27. What is Faraday?
Charge of one mole electron is called Faraday. 1 F = 96500 C
Charge of one electron = 1.6 X 10-19 C
Charge of one mole electrons = 6.02 X 1023 X 1.6 X 10-19 = 96487 C ~ 96500 C
For the reduction of 1 mol Na+ , 1 F ( 96500 C ) electricity is required.
For the reduction of 1 mol Cu2+ , 2F ( 2 X 96500 C ) electricity is required.
For the reduction of 1 mol Al3+ , 3F ( 3 X 96500 C ) electricity is required.
28. What are the products obtained when aqueous NaCl and molten NaCl is electrolysed.
When aqueous solution of NaCl is electrolysed, hydrogen gas is liberated at cathode , chlorine gas is liberated at
anode and sodium hydroxide is deposited in the cell.
2 NaCl + 2 H2O → 2 NaOH + H2 + Cl2
When molten NaCl is electrolysed, sodium is deposited at the cathode and chlorine gas is liberated at anode .
2 NaCl → 2 Na + Cl2
29. Give some applications of electrolysis
(i) Production of metals like Sodium , Potassium, Aluminium etc.
(ii) Production of nonmetals like oxygen, hydrogen, chlorine etc.
(iii) Production of compounds like sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide etc.
(iv) Electrolytic refining of copper
(v) Electroplating
30. Differentiate primary cells and secondary cells with examples.
Primary cell Secondary cell
The electrode reactions are not reversible The electrode reactions are reversible
These are not rechargeable These are rechargeable
Eg. Dry cell , mercury cell Eg. Lead storage cell, Nickel Cadmium cell
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33. With the help of diagram explain hydrogen

hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell. Give its reactions also.

It consists of porous carbon electrodes containing

suitable catalysts (platinum or palladium).
H2 and O2 gases are bubbled through the porous
electrodes in to aqueous NaOH or KOH solution.
The reactions takes place at the electrodes are
At anode 2 H2 + 4 OH−→ 4 H2O + 4 e−
At cathode O2 + 2 H2O +4 e−→ 4 OH−
Overall reaction 2 H2 + O2→ 2H2O
H2- O2 fuel cell works continuously as long as the
gaseous fuels are supplied. Voltage is 0.9 V.

It was used for providing electric power in Apollo Space Programme.

34. What are the advantages of fuel cells?
(i) Fuel cells have long life.
(ii) They are highly efficient.
(iii) They are pollution free.
35. Explain electro chemical theory of corrosion (Rusting of iron).
Rust is Fe2O3 .x H2O ( Hydrated ferric oxide )
In rusting of iron,
Anode→ pure iron
Cathode→ impure iron
Electrolyte→ CO2 dissolved in H2O forms carbonic acid (H2CO3) .It gives H+ ion
At anode 2 (Fe → Fe2+ + 2 e− )
At cathode O2 + 4 H+ +4 e−→ 2 H2O
Adding these equations
2 Fe + O2 + 4 H+ → 2 Fe2+ + 2 H2O
The ferrous ions are further oxidized by atmospheric oxygen to form rust, Fe2O3 .x H2O
36. What are the methods used to prevent corrosion.
(I) Covering the surface with paint or by some chemicals (e.g. bisphenol)
(II) Cover the surface of metal with other metals (Sn ,Zn etc.) that are inert or react to save the object.
(III) Provide a sacrificial electrode of another metal (like Mg, Zn etc.) which corrodes itself but saves the
objects.
37. Some important equations :
𝑪𝜶𝟐
(I) Dissociation constant , Ka =
𝟏 𝜶
Ʌ𝒄𝒎
(II) Degree of dissociation , α = 𝟎
Ʌ𝒎
𝑲 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
(III) 𝐌𝐨𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐢𝐭𝐲 , Ʌ𝐦 =
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒚

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For determining instantaneous rate, a tangent is drawn to the curve at the time t. The slope of the tangent gives
the instantaneous rate.
𝐝[𝐑]
𝐈𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐞𝐨𝐮𝐬 𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐞 = = −𝐬𝐥𝐨𝐩𝐞 OR
𝐝𝐭
𝐝[𝐏]
𝐈𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐞𝐨𝐮𝐬 𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐞 = = 𝐬𝐥𝐨𝐩𝐞
𝐝𝐭
-1 -1
The unit of rate is mol L s
4. Which are the factors affecting the rate of a reaction?
(i) Concentration of reactants(ii)Temperature(iii)Nature of the reactants(iv)Exposure to light (Radiation)
(v)Presence of catalyst
5. Define rate law or rate expression.
For a reaction aA + bB → Products , r =k[A]x[B]y , k = rate constant
Rate law is the experimentally determined relationship between the rate of a reaction and the concentration of
reactants.
6. The general formula to find the unit of rate constant is mol 1-n Ln-1 s -1
For zero order → mol L-1 s-1 , For first order → s -1 , For second order → mol -1 L s-1
7. What are the differences between order and molecularity?
For a reaction aA + bB → Products , r =k[A]x[B]y , Order= x +y , Molecularity = a +b
Order Molecularity
Order is the sum of the power of the Molecuarity is the number of reacting species
concentration terms in the rate equation undergoing simultaneous collision in the reaction
Order is determined experimentally Molecularity is theoretical concept
Order may be zero, fractional and integral Molecularity is always integral number
numbers
Order gives some idea about reaction Molecularity does not give any idea about reaction
mechanism mechanism.
Order is applicable to elementary and complex Molecularity is applicable only to elementary reactions.
reactions
8. What are elementary reaction and complex reaction?
If all the reactants in the balanced chemical equation take part simultaneously in the collision,
the reaction will takes place in single step, is called elementary reaction.
E.g H2+I2 → 2 HI
A reaction which takes place in several steps is called complex reaction
A complex reaction contains several elementary reactions.
The overall reaction depends on slowest step and so slowest step is the rate determined step
𝑰 ,𝒂𝒍𝒌𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒎𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒎
2 H2O2 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 2 H2O + O2 ,
𝐝[𝐇𝟐 𝐎𝟐 ] −
𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆 = = k [H2O2] [I ]
𝐝𝐭
This reaction is first order with respect to both H 2O2 and I- . This reaction takes place in two steps.
Step 1 : H2O2 + I− → H2O + IO− Slow step, rate determining step
− −
Step 2: H2O2 + IO → H2O + O2 + I Fast step
9. What is zero order reaction and give examples
A reaction is said to be zero order if the rate is independent of the concentration of the reactants
Examples for zero order reactions are
(i) Decomposition of ammonia on platinum surface at high pressure
𝟏𝟏𝟑𝟎 𝑲,𝑷𝒕 𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒚𝒔𝒕
𝟐 𝑵𝑯𝟑 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑵𝟐 + 𝟑 𝑯𝟐 , Rate = k[NH3]0
(ii) Thermal decomposition of HI on gold surface , rate = k[HI] 0
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𝐝[𝐑]
On re arranging, = 𝐤 𝐝𝐭
[𝐑]
𝟏
On integrating , − ∫ 𝒅[𝑹] = 𝒌 ∫ 𝒅𝒕
[𝑹]
𝟏
= − ln [R] = kt + I ∵ ∫ 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒍𝒏 𝒙 and
𝒙
∫ 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒙
I is the integration constant and its value is obtained by applying initial condition , t =0, [R] = [R]0
Substitute these in the above equation we get, −ln [R]0 = k x 0 + I
Therefore, I = − ln [R]0
Substitute the value of I in the above equation , - ln [R] = kt - ln [R]0
OR ln [R]0 − ln [R] = kt
[𝑹𝟎 ]
OR 𝒍𝒏 = 𝒌𝒕 ∵ ln a – ln b = ln a/b
[𝑹]
𝟏 [𝑹𝟎 ]
𝒌= 𝒍𝒏
𝒕 [𝑹]
To Convert natural log to common log multiply with 2.303
𝟐.𝟑𝟎𝟑 𝑹𝟎 ]
[𝑹
The integrated rate equation of first order reaction, 𝒌= 𝒍𝒐𝒈
𝒕 [𝑹
𝑹]
[R0] = initial concentration of reactant,
[R] = concentration of reactant at time t.
14. Draw the graphs of first order reaction.
GRAPH 1

− ln [R] = kt − ln [R]0
Multiply by − , then ln [R] = −kt + ln [R]0
y = mx +c

Straight line plot between ln [R] vs time

GRAPH 2

𝟐. 𝟑𝟎𝟑 [𝑹𝟎 ]
𝒌= 𝒍𝒐𝒈
𝒕 [𝑹]

[𝑹𝟎 ] 𝒌𝒕
𝒍𝒐𝒈 =
[𝑹] 𝟐. 𝟑𝟎𝟑

y = mx +c

If we plot log[R]0/[R] against t, we get a straight line with slope k/2.303

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19. What is the effect of temperature on reaction rate?

Most of the reactions are increased by increase in
temperature. When the temperature is increased by
10 0C, the rate of the reaction and rate constant are
doubled. The ratio of the rate constants of a reaction
at two temperatures differing by 10 0C is called
temperature coefficient.
According to Arrhenius, a chemical reaction can take
place by the collision of reactant molecules. When
molecules collide, an unstable
ble activated complex is
formed,, which decomposes to form product.

The energy required for the reactants to form activated complex is called activation energy.
ener
When temperature increases,, molecules having activation energy increases, effective collision increases and
the rate of the reaction increases.
20. Write Arrhenius equation and explain each term.
𝑬𝒂
It is the relationship between ratee constant and temperature. 𝒌 = 𝑨 𝒆 𝑹𝑻
k= rate constant, Ea = activation energy, R = universal gas constant, T = temperature
A = Arrhenius factor (frequency factor) . It is the number of binary collisions per second per litre.
𝑬𝒂 𝑬𝒂
Its logarithmic form is 𝒍𝒏 𝒌 = 𝒍𝒏 𝑨 − OR 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒌 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝑨 −
𝑹𝑻 𝟐.𝟑𝟎𝟑 𝑹𝑻
21. What is activation energy? How will you calculate activation energy?
The excess energy which must be supplied to the reacta
reactant
nt molecules to undergo chemical reaction is called
activation energy.
(I) Graphically we can calculate activation energy.
𝑬𝒂
𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒌 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝑨 −
𝟐.𝟑𝟎𝟑 𝑹𝑻

Graph is plotted between log k and 1/T. straight line graph is obtained.
Slope = - Ea/ 2.303R.
From this Ea can be calculated.

Ea = slope x 2.303 R

(II) Activation energy can be calculated by measuring the values of rate constants at different temperatures.
𝒌𝟐 𝑬𝒂 𝑻𝟐 𝑻𝟏
𝒌𝟏 𝟐.𝟑𝟎𝟑 𝑹 𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐
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UNIT 8 THE d AND f BLOCK ELEMENTS

PREPARED BY: YOOSAFALI T K , GHSS BANGARA MANJESHWARAM (14038) , 9947444175

YOUTUBE CHANNEL : CHEM DSM

===========================================================================
1. The groups 3 to 12 are d-block elements. They are called transition elements.
There are 4 transition series. 3d series, 4d series , 5d series and 6d series.

2. 3d series and their electronic configurations

3d series Symbol Atomic Electronic configuration.
elements number
(Z)
Scandium Sc 21 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d1 4s2

Titanium Ti 22 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d2 4s2

Vanadium V 23 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d3 4s2

Chromium Cr 24 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s1

Manganese Mn 25 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s2

Iron Fe 26 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6 4s2

Cobalt Co 27 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d7 4s2

Nickel Ni 28 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d8 4s2

Copper Cu 29 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s1

Zinc Zn 30 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2

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12. Explain magnetic property of transition elements.

Most of the transition elements are paramagnetic due to the presence of unpaired electrons
Greater the number of unpaired electrons, greater the paramagnetism.
Magnetic moment , µ = 𝒏(𝒏 + 𝟐) where n= no. of unpaired electrons
Ions Outer configuration No. of unpaired electrons Magnetic moment
Sc3+ d0 0 0
V3+ d2 2 2.83
Ti3+ d1 1 1.73
Cr3+ d3 3 3.87
Mn2+ d5 5 5.92
u2+ d9 1 1.73
Zn2+ d10 0 0

• Scandium ,Sc : [Ar] 3d1 4s2 Sc3+ 3 d0 No. of unpaired electrons = 0

• Titanium , Ti: [Ar] 3d2 4s2 Ti3+ 3 d1

No. of unpaired electrons = 1

• Vanadium , V: [Ar] 3d3 4s2 V3+ 3 d2

No. of unpaired electrons = 2

• Chromium , Cr : [Ar] 3d5 4s1 Cr3+ 3 d3

No. of unpaired electrons = 3

• Manganese, Mn: [Ar] 3d5 4s2 Mn2+ 3 d5

No. of unpaired electrons = 5

• Copper, Cu : [Ar] 3d10 4s1 Cu2+ 3 d9

•
No. of unpaired electrons = 1
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20. Draw structures of chromate and dichromate ions.

Chromate ion has tetrahedral geometry.

In dichromate ion, two tetrahedrals are connected by oxygen atom.
21. Potassium dichromate is powerful oxidizing agent in acidic medium. Give examples.
Cr2O72- + 14 H+ + 6 e- → 2 Cr3+ + 7 H2O
(I) Acidified potassium dichromate oxidizes H2S to S.
Cr2O72- + 8 H+ + 3 H2S → 2 Cr3+ + 7 H2O + 3 S
(II) Acidified potassium dichromate oxidizes ferrous salt to ferric salt.
Cr2O72- + 14 H+ + 6 Fe2+ → 2 Cr3+ + 7 H2O + 6 Fe3+
(III) Acidified potassium dichromate oxidizes iodide to iodine.
Cr2O72- + 14 H+ + 6 I- → 2 Cr3+ + 7 H2O + 3 I2
22. Give some uses of potassium dichromate( K2 Cr2O7)
It is used as primary standard in volumetric analysis. It is used as oxidizing agent.
23. Describe the method of preparation of potassium permanganate from pyrolusite ore.
Potassium permanganate is prepared from pyrolusite ore (MnO 2)
Pyrolusite ore is fused with potassium hydroxide in the presence of air, potassium manganate is formed.
2 MnO2 + 4 KOH + O2 → 2 K2 MnO4 + 2H2O
Potasium manganate is then oxidized by electrolysis to potassium permanganate.
𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒍𝒚𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒐𝒙𝒊𝒅𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
MnO4 2- ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ MnO4-
Manganate permanganate
24. Give some uses of potassium permanganate
(i) It is used as primary standard in volumetric analysis
(ii) It is used as oxidizing agent.
25. Draw structures of manganate and permanganate ions.
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The reason lanthanoid contraction :-Along the lanthanoid series the nuclear charge increases by one unit and
the new electron is added to the same inner shell (4 f) . The electrons in 4 f orbitals cannot effectively screen
the nucleus from the outermost electron . Hence the increased nuclear charge attracts the electron cloud
more and there will be a steady contraction in size.
Consequences of lanthanoid contraction :-The atomic radii of elements of 4 d series and 5 d series of same
group are similar due to lanthanoid contraction. Eg. Zirconium(Zr) and hafnium(Hf) has similar size. Hence
their properties are similar, they exist together and difficult to separate.
31. Oxidation states of lanthanoids :-The most common oxidation state of lanthanoids is +3. But some of them
exhibit +2 and +4. Cerium exhibit +4 oxidation state because Ce4+ has the electronic configuration of noble gas
Xenon.
Ce: [Xe] 4f1 5d1 6s2 Ce4+ : [Xe]
Tb : [Xe] 4f9 6s2 Tb4+ : [Xe] 4f7 (half filled orbitals have stability)
Eu: [Xe] 4f7 6s2 Eu2+ : [Xe] 4f7
Yb : [Xe] 4f14 6s2 Yb2+ : [Xe] 4f14 (completely filled orbitals have more
stability)
32. Colour of lanthanoids is due to f-f transition.
33. Misch metal :- Misch metal is an alloy of 95 % lanthanoids and 5 % iron and traces of S, C, Ca and Al.
It is used mainly for bullets, shell and lighter flint.
34. What are Actinoids?
The fourteen elements after actinium (from Thorium to Lawrencium) in which last electron enter in
5f orbitals are called actinoids.
35. Oxidation states of actinoids :-Actinoids show a greater range of oxidation states than lanthanoids.
This due to the fact that 5f, 6d and 7s levels are of comparable energies. However +3 oxidation state
is most common among all lanthanoids (except Thorium). Thorium shows +4 oxidation state. Th 4+ :
[Rn]
The maximum oxidation state shown by actinoids increases from Th (+4) to Np and Pu (+7) and then
decreases as the atomic number increases.
36. What are the similarities of lanthanoids and actinoids?
(I) Both the series are formed by progressive filling of f orbitals and both show +3 oxidation
state predominantly.
(II) The elements of both the series are electropositive and highly reactive.
(III) Lanthanoid contraction and actinoid contraction are due to the poor shielding of 4f and 5f
electrons respectively.
(IV) Most of their ions are paramagnetic and form complexes.
37. What are the differences between lanthanoids and actinoids?
Lanthanides Actinides
Besides common oxidation state of +3, Besides common oxidation state of +3,
lanthanides show +2 and +4 states. actinides show +4, +5,+6 and +7 states.
The tendency to form complex is less. The tendency to form complex is greater.
Except promethium, all elements are All elements are radioactive.
non-radioactive.
Lanthanide compounds are less basic. Actinide compounds are more basic.
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CHAPTER 9 COORDINATION COMPOUNDS

PREPARED BY: YOOSAFALI T K , GHSS BANGARA MANJESHWARAM (14038) , 9947444175

YOUTUBE CHANNEL
CHANNEL: CHEM DSM

================================================================

1. What are Coordination compounds?

Co-ordination
ordination compounds are compounds which contain central metal ion surrounded by neutral molecules or
ions.
𝒂𝒒
K4[Fe(CN)6] ↔ 4 K+ + [Fe(CN)6]4-

2. What are ligands ? What is the condition to be ligand ?

The neutral molecules or ions which surround the central metal atoms are called ligands.
Every ligand should contain at least one electron pair.
3. What are the difference between double salt and coordination compounds?
Both are formed by the combination of two or more stable compounds. But double salts ionize completely when
dissolved in water .e.g. Mohr’s salt FesO4.(NH4)2SO4.6H2O
Complex ions will not dissociate in to its ions.
4. How will you classify ligands depending on the number of electron pairs donated by atoms? Explain each.
(I) Mono dentate ligands provide one electron pair per molecule or ion.
e.g. NH3 , H2O , CO , Cl- , F- , OH- , NO2- , SCN-
(II) Di dentate ligands(bidentate ligand) provide two electron pair per molecule or ion.

e.g. Oxalate ion (ox),

Ethylene diamine (en) or ethane

ethane-1,2 –diamine

(III) Poly dentate ligands provide several pair of electrons per molecule or ion.
e.g. EDTA ion

5. What are Ambidentate ligands and Chelating ligands?

Ambidentate ligands :-Certain
Certain mono dentate ligands are capable of ligating through two different atoms present
in it. They are called ambidentate ligands. E.g. NO2− , SCN-−
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(IV) diamine)cobalt(III) → [ CoCl2(en)2] +

Dichloridobis(ethane-1,2-diamine)cobalt(III)
(V) Tetracarbonylnickel(0) → [Ni(CO)4 ]
(VI) Tetraamminediaquacobalt(III) chloride → [Co(NH3) 4 (H2O)2]Cl3
(VII) Potassium tetracyanonickelate(II) → K2[Ni(CN)4]
(VIII) Tris(ethane–1,2–diamine)
diamine) chromium(III) chloride → [Cr(H2NCH2CH2NH2)3] Cl3
(IX) Amminebromidochloridonitrito
Amminebromidochloridonitrito-N-platinate(II) → [Pt(NH3)BrCl(NO2)] −
(X) diamine)platinum(IV) nitrate →[Pt Cl2(H2NCH2CH2NH2)2](NO3)2
Dichloridobis(ethane–1,2–diamine)platinum(IV)
(XI) Iron(III) hexacyanoferrate(II) → Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3
11. Classification of Isomerism
Structural isomerism Sterio isomerism
(a) Ionization isomerism (a) Geometrical isomerism
(b) Solvate isomerism ( Hydrate isomerism) (b) Optical isomerism
(c) Linkage isomerism
(d) Coordination isomerism
12. Explain each type of structural isomerism with examples.
(I) Ionization isomerism:- Isomers having same mo molecular
lecular formula but different ions in solution.
Eg. [Co(NH3)5 Br]SO4 , [Co(NH3)5 (SO4)]Br
First complex give the test of sulphate ion and second give the test of bromide ion.ion
(II) Solvate isomerism ( Hydrate isomerism) ::- Isomers having same molecular formula but different number
of water molecules inside and outside the coordination sphere.
Eg. [Cr(H2O)6]Cl3 [Cr(H2O)5 Cl]Cl2 . H2O [Cr(H2O)4Cl2]Cl .2 H2O
(III) Linkage isomerism :- Linkage isomerism is shown by complexes containing ambidentate ligands. Here the
linkage of ambidentate ligand to the central metal atom is different
different.
Eg. NO2- can link through nitrogen atom or oxygen atom.
[Co(NH3)5 NO2]Cl2 , [Co(NH3)5 (ONO)]Cl2
(IV) Coordination isomerism :- Coordination isomerism occurs in compounds containing both cationic and
anionic coordination spheres. This isomerism arises due to interchange of ligands between cationic and
anionic coordination spheres.
Eg. [Co(NH3)6] [Cr(CN)6 ] , [Cr(NH3)6] [Co(CN)6 ]
13. Explain Geometrical isomerism. Draw the Geometrical isomers of [Pt (NH 3)2Cl2]
Geometrical isomerism arises when ligands occupy different positions around the central metal ion.
If two identical ligands on same side, it is called cis isomer.
If two identical ligands on opposite side, it is called trans isomer.
It is common in square planar complexes and in octahedral complexes.
Eg. diammine dichloro platinum (II) shows cis and trans form

14. Draw the cis and trans form of tetra ammine dichloridocobalt (III)ion and [CoCl 2(en)2]+
,
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20. What are the important features of valence bond theory.

(I) The central metal atom provides a number of empty orbitals ,which is equal to the co ordination number of
the central metal ion.
(II) The appropriate emptyy atomic orbitals of the metal h hybridise
ybridise to form a set of equivalent hybridized
orbitals with definite geometry.
Coordination number Hybridisation Geometry
eometry
4 sp3 tetrahedral
4 dsp2 Square planar
6 sp3d2 or d2sp3 octahedral
(III) The empty hybridized orbitals of the central metal atom overlap with the filled orbitals of the ligand to
form metal – ligand coordinate bonds.
21. With the help of valence bond theory, explain the geometry and magnetism of [Co(NH3)6]3+.
Co is in +3 oxidation state , 3 d6 configuration

In the presence of ligands ( ammonia) pairing will takes place.

d2sp3 hybridisation,
ridisation, Octahedral complex .

Inner d orbitals are used for hybridization, so it is iinner orbital complex .

No unpaired electron, it is diamagnetic .
22. With the help of valence bond theory, explain the magnetic property, inner orbital complex and geometry of
[Fe(CN)6]3- .
Fe is in +3 oxidation state , 3 d5 configuration

In the presence of ligands( cyanide ions) pairing will takes place.

d2sp3 hybridisation, Octahedral co complex .

Inner d orbitals are used for hybridization, so it is Inner orbital complex.
Unpaired electron is present, so it is paramagnetic.
23. [FeF6]3- is an outer orbital complex or high spin complex. Prove.
Fe is in +3 oxidation state , 3 d5 configuration.

In the presence of ligands ( fluoride ions), pairing will not takes place.
Sp3 d2 hybridisation , Octahedral complex.
Outer d orbitals are used for hybridization, so it is Outer orbital complex
Large number of unpaired electrons, So high spin complex. It is paramagnetic
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28. What are Spectro chemical series ?

The ligands can be arranged according to the magnitude of crystal field splitting (∆ o) and is called spectro chemical
series.
The ligands lying above H2O are called strong field ligands and those below H2O are called weak field ligands.
I- < Br- < Cl- < F- < OH- < H2O < NH3 < en < CN- < CO
29. With the help of crystal field theory, explain colour of [Ti(H2O)6]3+
Ti (3d2 4s2) , Here Ti3+ (3d1) → t12g e0g
For the excitation of electron from t2g orbital to eg orbital, green and yellow light are absorbed.
The complimentary colour is purple.
30. Write electronic configuration of d4 system using crystal field theory in low spin complexes and high spin
complexes.
4 0
In low spin complexes t 2g e g ,
3 1
In high spin complexes t 2g e g
31. The hexa aqua manganese (II) ion contain five unpaired electrons, while the hexa cyanido manganese (II) ion
contain only one unpaired electron. Explain using crystal field theory.
In hexa aqua manganese (II) ion, manganese is in +2 oxidation state. 3d 5 configuration.
Here ligand is water, weak field ligand and the crystal field splitting is low.
3 2
So the electronic configuration is t 2g e g .So five unpaired electrons.
𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 = 𝒏(𝒏 + 𝟐= 𝟓(𝟓 + 𝟐) = √𝟑𝟓 = 5.92
In hexa cyanido manganese (II) ion, manganese is in +2 oxidation state. 3d 5 configuration.
Here ligand is cyanide, strong field ligand and the crystal field splitting is high.
5 0
So the electronic configuration is t 2g e g .So only one unpaired electron.
𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 = 𝒏(𝒏 + 𝟐= 𝟏(𝟏 + 𝟐) = √𝟑 = 1.73

32. Explain the crystal field splitting in tetrahedral complexes.

In tetrahedral complexes, ligands approach the metal ion through a position in between the axes and the t 2g
orbitals get repelled more and its energy is increased than eg orbitals.
The magnitude of tetrahedral splitting will be less than octahedral splitting.
∆t =(4/9) ∆o .
So in tetrahedral complexes high spin complexes are formed.
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36. Discuss the nature of bonding in metal carbonyls.

The M-C C bond in metal carbonyl has sigma( σ ) as well as pi ( π ) character.

The metal carbon sigma bond is formed by the donation of lone pair of electrons on the carbonyl carbon
in to a vacant orbital of metal.
The metal carbon pi bond is formed by the donation of lone pair of electrons from a filled d-orbital
d of the
metal in to the anti bonding pi molecular orbital of carbon monoxide.
The metal to ligand bonding creates a synergic effect which strengthens the bond between CO and the
metal.
37. What are the factors which govern the stability of complexes?
(I) Greater the charge on the central metal ion , greater the stability of the complexes.
K3[Fe(CN)6] is more stable than K4[Fe(CN)6]
(II) Greater the strength of the ligand, greater the stability of the complexes.
K4[Fe(CN)6] is more stable than K4[FeCl6]
(III) Chelation increases the stability of complexes.
38. Give some applications of coordination compounds.
(I) Biological systems :-
Chlorophyll is coordination compound of Magnesium.
Haemoglobin is a coordination compound of Iron.
Vitamin B 12 (cyano
yano cobalamine) is a coordination compound of cobalt
(II) Medicinal chemistry :-
The complex cis[Pt Cl2 (NH3)2] is called cisplatin and is used for the treatment of tumours(cancer)
(III) Analytical chemistry :-
Hardness of water is detected by using EDTA.
The presence of Cu2+ is confirmed by adding ammonia .
(IV) Metallurgy :-
In the purification of nickel by monds process [Ni(CO) 4] vapours are formed and is decomposed.
39. Draw the structures of geometrical isomers of [Fe(NH3)2(CN)4] –