University of Gondar

College of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences

Unit of biomedical science
A Course Guide for Veterinary Histology I

1. GENERAL INFORMATION
1.1. Module related information
Department owning and offering the course: Biomedical Sciences
Program: Doctor of veterinary medicine
Module title: Veterinary Anatomy and Embryology
Module code: Vetm-M011
Module number: 01
Module ECTS: 27
Course title: Veterinary Histology I
Course code: Vetm1082
Status of the course: Core
Course ECTS: 5
Mode of delivery Semester based
Semester for course delivery: II
Target group of students: YEAR I VETERINARY MEDICINE STUDENTS
Instructors contact
information: Contact Hours: Contact Hours:

E-mail: E-mail:
Phone number: Phone number:

1.2. Teaching method and assessment

Summary of Teaching Learning Methods Summary of Assessment Methods

Lectures Quizzes/Tests
Audiovisual demonstrations Assignments
Reading assignments Practical/laboratory work report
Individual and Group Presentations Final examination 50% (Practical & written)

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1.3. Schedule for Continuous Assessment

Note: The actual date will be specified later based on the academic calendar of the university.

1.4. Students workload

ECTS Contact hour Effective Lab/practical Assessment and Total

per week lecture Home based
hours activities
5 3 32 48 55 135

2. Course description

Veterinary Histology is a branch of anatomy concerned with the visual examination of cells,
intercellular structures as well as their organization in tissues and organs, by means of the
microscope and by using appropriate preparations thin enough to transmit light or electrons.
Studying the normal microscopic structure of the animal body is the basis for understanding
abnormal microscopic lesions(histopathology), body functions, immunology, clinical Patholgy
and several other disciplines in veterinary medicine. Veterinary Histology I deal with the tech
niques of studying cells and tissues, cell biology and the four basic tissues of the
body (epithelium, connective tissue, muscle and nervous tissue).

3. Course Objectives

By the end of this course, students will be able to:

 Recognize microscopically the principal cells, cellular organelles and tissues and their
complex organizations and functions in the body.
 Interpret accurately the structural details in histological sections and be aware of morp
hologic variations among domestic animal species as described in lectures.
 Relate the acquired information on the microscopic structure to function and vice
versa, and deduct (postulate) function from a given structure.
 Use the knowledge gained in this course to explain the normal microscopic appearance
of cells and tissues in contrast to abnormal ones due to artifacts (changes by technical
errors) and pathological conditions.

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  Develop professional attitudes and skills in handling histological preparations and the
light microscope.
4. Course Assignments

Specific course assignments will be prepared by the instructor who is responsible for
delivering the specific topics of the course.

5. Expectations
5.1. Preparation & participation:

Students are expected to:

 Come to class prepared with appropriate materials.

 Complete reading assignments and other activities on time.
 Plan their own learning.
 Work hard individually to meet the requirement of the course.
 Use their time for group work and home study effectively.
 Make active participation during discussions (must participate in class).
 Give constructive feedback to partners/group members and to listen to their
comments.
 Strictly follow safety rules and instructions in the laboratory.
 Should attend all scheduled classes and other activities.
 Be punctual at all sessions.

6. Learning teaching methods: The teaching learning method includes

class room lectures, demonstrations, individual laboratory work, and reading
assignments and presentations.

7. GRADING POLICY AND ECTS GRADING SYSTEM

Raw Mark Interval of Corresponding Corresponding Description

Interval[100%] number grade fixed number letter grade
grades
[90,100] 4 4.0 A+ Excellent
[85,90) 3.5≤ X< 4.0 4.0 A Excellent
[80,85) 3.0 ≤X <3.5 3.75 A- Excellent

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[75,80) 2.7≤X<3.0 3.5 B+ Very Good
[70,75) 2.5≤X<2.7 3.0 B Very Good
[65,70) 2.3≤X<2.5 2.75 B- Good
[60,65) 2.0≤X<2.3 2.5 C+ Good
[50,60) 1.7≤X<2.0 2.0 C Satisfactory
[45,50) 1.3≤X<1.7 1.75 C- Satisfactory
[40,45) 1.0≤X<1.3 1.0 D Unsatisfactory
[30,40) =1.0 0 Fx Fail
[<30) 0.0 0.0 F Fail

Explanations:

1. Excellent=refers to outstanding performance and only a few minor errors.

2. Very good=refers to above the average standard, but with some errors.
3. Good=refers to good, solid overall performance, but with some noticeable
errors
4. Satisfactory=refers to the performance that satisfies minimum requirements.
5. Failed (Fx)= refers to improvements are required before the credit can be
awarded
6. Failed (F)= refers to considerable future work is required

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7. Course contents

Weeks Activities Topics Reading /reference

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Lecture 7. Introduction to Histology
1.1. Concepts of Histology
1.2. Relationship with other subjects
2-3 Lecture 8. Methods of histology
2.1. Microscopy and interpretation
2.2. Methods of direct observation of living cells Basic histology.9th ed.pp.1.
and tissues
2.3. Methods of studying killed tissues
Laboratory Demonstration of microscope
work
4-5 Lecture 3. Cell biology
3.1. Structural and functional organization of  Basic histology.9th ed.pp.22-
the cell 65, cell biology 1-61
3.2. Properties of cell  Basic histology.9th ed.pp.1.
3.3. Cell division
Laboratory Animal cell examination
work
At the end of these chapters students will take a test (test-1)
6-7 4. Epithelial tissues Basic histology. 9th ed.pp.66-
4.1. General characteristics 90,cell biology 62-72 and color
4.2. Classification of epithelial tissues atlas of basic histology pp.2-15
Lecture
Basic histology. 9th ed.pp.66-
90,cell biology 62-72 and color
Laboratory Demonstration of different epithelial tissues atlas of basic histology pp.2-15
work

Lecture

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 lecture 4.3. Types and classification of glandular
8 epithelium

Laboratory Demonstration of different glandular epithelium

work

At the end of these chapters students will take a test (test-2)

9 Lecture 5. Connective and Supportive tissues

5.1. General characteristics

10 Lecture 5.2. Components of connective tissue
5.2.1. Cells
5.2.2. Fibres
5.2.3. Ground substances of connective Basic histology. 9 ed.pp.91-152,
th

tissue cell biology 73-97&130 and color

Laboratory Connective tissue atlas of basic histology pp.16-51.
work

11-12 Lecture 5.3. Cartilage and bone

5.4. Blood
Laboratory Cartilage, bone and blood
work

13-14 Lecture 6. Muscle Tissue

6.1. General characteristics Basic histology. 9th ed.pp.182-204,
6.2. Types of muscle tissue cell biology 98-114 and color atlas
6.2.1. Smooth muscle of basic histology pp.70-81.
6.2.2. Skeletal muscle
6.2.3. Cardiac muscle
Laboratory Muscle Tissue
work

At the end of these chapters students will take a test (test-3)

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15 Lecture 7. Nervous tissue
7.1. General characteristics Basic histology. 9th ed.pp.153-181,
7.2. Neurons, Synapse, Neuroglia cell biology 115-129 and color
atlas of basic histology pp.52-69.
Laboratory Neurons, Synapse, Neuroglia
work
16 Lecture 7.3. Types of nerve tissue
7.3.1. Central nervous tissue
7.3.2. Peripheral nervous tissue

Laboratory Demonstrate Central nervous tissue and Peripheral

work nervous tissue

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8. Required Text Books and Materials

Text Books:

1. Don A. Samuelson (2007): Textbook of Veterinary Histology, 1st edition

2. William J. Banks (1993): Applied Veterinary Histology, 3rd edition
3. Inderbir Singh (2004): Text book of Human Histology with Color Atlas, 5th edition
4. Luiz C. Junqueira and Jose Carneiro (2005): Basic Histology, 11th edition
5. Glaucia M. and Machado-Santelli (2004): Histology: A Color Atlas (Image in Focus)
6. Finn Geneser (2005): Color Atlas of Histology
7. JP Gunasegaran (2007): Textbook of Histology and a Practical Guide

Teaching Materials: Text books, Laptop, LCD projector, Chalk, Markers, Microscope,
Prepared laboratory slides, Drawing charts and Boards and papers.

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 PART I: GENERAL HISTOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES

CHAPTER 1: CONCEPTS OF HISTOLOGY

1.1 The Subject Matter of Histology

Histology is the branch of science, which centers on the biology of cells and
tissues within an organism. Histology (Gr. histo = tissue, logos = study) is the
study of cells and extracellular matrix of tissues. Anatomy is divided into gross
anatomy, which is visible to the naked eye and Microscopic anatomy that
seen with the aid of microscopes. In the early times, microscopic anatomy was
subdivided into cytology, histology and organology, study of cells, tissues and
organs, respectively. Now days, histology involves the study of cells, tissues
and organ-systems and their functions.

Histology complements the study of gross anatomy. It also provides a

structural basis for the study of physiology. The correlation between structure
and function makes histology understandable subject. In general, histology is a
visual discipline and it combines observation with reasoning. Knowledge of the
normal is a necessary base to the study of the abnormal (pathology). Hence,
the study of histology is fundamental within veterinary medicine.

The small size of cells and matrix components makes histology dependent on
the use of and improvements in microscopes. Advances in chemistry,
physiology, immunology, and pathology and the interaction among these fields
contribute to a better knowledge of tissue biology. Integration of knowledge in
these field has resulted in the development of histochemistry, histophysiology.
Immunohistochemistry, and histopathology, which help students for a better
understanding of tissue biology.

1.2 The Tissues of the Body

Bichat, the French surgeon, who noticed characteristic, differences in texture

between the many, parts and layers of the body, and he classified these as
different tissues. Microscopic observations confirmed that the body is made up
of different tissues and revealed that cells are constructed. Discoveries
revealed the living cells posses a number of functional attributes that set
them apart from inanimate objects. Such attributes vary in different tissues,
suggesting that each tissue performed its own specific functions.

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Fundamental physiological properties of cells are expressed in four basic
tissues. The four basic tissues include;
Epithelial tissue - that serve a protective function for they cover external
and line internal body surfaces.
Connective tissue
Nervous tissue
Muscle tissue

1.3 Composition of Animal Body Components

The three basic components of the body are;

1. Cells
2. Intercellular substances and
3. Various body fluids

Composition of cells: the living substance of a cell is called protoplasm. It

consists of protein, carbohydrate, lipid (fat), nucleic acids, and inorganic
materials dispersed in water to form a complex, semi fluid gel.
1. Proteins: represent the main constituent of cells. They can be present by
themselves or in combination with carbohydrates (glycoproteins), lipids
(lipoproteins) or nucleic acids (nucleoproteins). Proteins are macromolecules,
made up of one or more components of polypeptide chains assembled from 20
different amino acids and their derivatives. Proteins in the food are broken
down in the intestine, from which their constituent amino acids are absorbed
into the blood stream and are carried to all parts of the body. Each cell of the
body is then responsible for synthesizing its own particular proteins from the
pool of amino acids.

Proteins play a key role in the regulation of metabolism. The sum totals of all
the chemical reactions that proceed in a cell, conferring on it the properties of
life, constitute its metabolism. Metabolic reactions involve either destruction
or production of cell substance. Those concerned with the break down of cell
substance are termed catabolic. Those concerned with the synthesis of new
cell substances are termed anabolic. Growth is dependent on anabolic
reactions exceeding catabolic reactions. The chemical reactions involved in
metabolism are catalyzed by enzymes, all of which are proteins. Enzymes and
hormones are proteins.

2. Carbohydrates, the major carbohydrates are glucose, the chief source of

energy in animal cells, and glycogen, and the storage form of glucose.
Complexes of carbohydrates and proteins form the main constituents of
intercellular substances that bind cells together. Other carbohydrate protein
complexes form some enzymes and antibodies.

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3. Lipids serve as energy source; they also have important structural functions
and are major components of the membrane systems of cells.
4. Nucleic acids are divided into two classes deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
represents the genetic material and is found primarily but not exclusively in
the nucleus. Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is present in the cytoplasm and nucleus
and carries information from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. It also serves as
a template for synthesis of proteins by the cell.

5. Inorganic Materials are integral component of protoplasm as proteins,

carbohydrates and lipids; without them physiologic processes are
impossible. Some of the inorganic constituents are calcium, potassium,
sodium and magnesium present as carbonates, chlorides, phosphates and
trace elements such as cobalt, manganese, zinc and other metals. Functions
of inorganic materials in chide maintenance of intracellular and
extracellular osmotic pressures, transmission of nerve impulses, contraction
of muscle, adhesiveness of cells, activation of enzymes, transport of oxygen,
and maintenance of the rigidity of tissues such as bone.

6. Water makes up as out 75% of protoplasm part of the water is free and
available as a solvent for various metabolic processes, and part is bound to
protein.

Properties of cells

Animal cells are characterized by several physiologic properties that distinguish

it form inanimate material.

➢
Irritability is a fundamental property of all living cells and refers to the
ability to respond to a stimulus.
➢
Conductivity refers to the ability of a cell to transmit a stimulus from
the point of origin to another point on the cell surface or to other cells. It
is most highly developed in nerve tissue.
➢
Contractility is the ability of a cell to change shape in response to a
stimulus, indicated by a shortening of the cell in some direction. This
property is most prominent in muscle tissue.
➢
Absorption involves transfer of materials across the cell membrane in to
the interior of the cell. All cells show the ability to absorb material, some
very selectively.

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➢
Metabolism refers to the ability of a cell to break down absorbed
material to produce energy.
➢
Secretion is the process by which cells elaborate and release materials
for use else where
➢
Excretion is the elimination from cells of metabolic waste products.
➢
Growth of an organism can occur by increasing the amount of cytoplasm
in existing cells or by increasing the number of cells
➢
Reproduction is division of cells

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CHAPTER 2: HISTOLOGY AND METHODS OF STUDY

2.1 Microscopy

Several types of microscopes are available for the study of biological material.
Microscopes may be classified by the types of light source used. In most
general use, of course, is the optical microscope using visible light. The
usefulness of any type of microscope depends not only upon its ability to
magnify but more important, upon its ability to resolve detail. The useful
magnification of an ordinary light microscope is about 1500 times (1500x). The
resolving power is a measure of the capacity of the microscope to clearly
separate two points close together. Beyond the resolving power of any
microscope, two points will appear as one. The resolution with lens systems is
limited to the wavelength of light and by the light gathering capacity of the
objective lens. The resolving power of a well-constructed light microscope is
about 0.2 m (Micrometer).

2.1.1. Microscopes utilizing a visible light source:

a. The light (optical) microscope: The light microscope acts as a two
stage-magnifying device. An objective lens provides the initial
magnification, and an ocular lens is placed so as to magnify primary
image a second time, total magnification is obtained by multiplying the
magnifying power of the objective and ocular lenses. An additional
condensing lens is employed beneath the stage of the microscope to
concentrate the light from its source into a very bright beam illuminating
the object thus providing sufficient light for the inspection of the
magnified image.
b. Polarizing Microscope: It was developed by mineralogists to study
crystalline materials. Organization of some Biological structures that
exhibit optical property known as double refraction (birefringence), for
example, muscle fibers, certain connective tissues fibers, lipid droplets
within the adrenal cortex, and the rods and cones of the retina can be
examined using polarizing microscope.

c. Phase- Contrast Microscope: It provides a method whereby contrast is

created by purely optical means. It is of no particular assistance in the
study of fixed and stained preparations in which transparency
differences are not important. It application is chiefly in the study of
living cells and unstained tissues.

d. Interference Microscope: It depends upon the ability of an object to

retard light. If sends two separate beams of light through the specimen
and combined in the image plane. After recombination, difference in

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 retardation of the light results in interference that can be used to
measure the thickness or refractive index of the object under
investigation.

e. Dark field Microscope: It utilizes a strong, oblique light that does not
enter the objective lens. Light reaches the object to be viewed at an angle.
The field is therefore dark. Dark field examination is useful in the
examination of small transparent objects, which are invisible in the glare
of bright field illumination.

2.1.2. Microscopes utilizing a non visible light source:

In these microscopes images can be formed by rays other than visible
light, In this instance images can not be viewed directly, they are made
visible by means of a suitably sensitized photographic film. The rays
used in these special microscopes have a shorter wavelength than that of
visible light and thus permit higher resolution.
e.g. - Ultraviolet microscope /Fluorescence microscope
- Electron microscope

2.2. Preparation of Tissues

Cells, tissues and organs cannot be studied unless they are suitably prepared
for microscopic examination. The methods of preparation are;
1. Methods involving the direct observation of living cells.
2. Methods employed with dead cells (fixed or preserved).
In the study of histology, fixed and stained preparations of tissues and organs,
which are permanent, will be used for the most part. Living tissues are ore
difficult to handle and are valuable for a short period only. In the living cell,
structure and function may be studied simultaneously; Living cells may be
seen to move, to ingest foreign material, occasionally to divide, and to carry on
other functions.

2.3 Observation of Living Tissue

Free cells from a complex organism may be studied directly under the
microscope while they are alive. Free cells are colorless, and structures within
them lack contrast. This difficulty may be over come by using a phase –
contrast microscope for instance animal blood can be studied in thin films
while surrounded by their natural environment, plasma, In this way, amoeboid
and phagocytic activity may be recognized within white blood cells.

Thin sections of thick organs such as liver and kidney may be viewed by
transillumination with quartz rods, which produce a cold light and avoid
coagulation of protoplasm. Prolonged preservation of living cells outside the
body can be achieved by a technique known as tissue culture fragments of

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tissue are removed aseptically, transferred to a physiological medium, and kept
at a temperature normal for the animal from which the tissue was taken, The
cultures can be placed in thin glass vessels or in hanging drops on a cover
glass mounted over a hollow slide for observation under the microscope. In
tissue cultures, growth, multiplication, and in some cases, differentiation of
cells into other cell types can be observed directly, Tissue culture is a valuable
method for the study of cancer and many viruses.

Two staining methods have been used successfully to living animals or

surviving cells:
1. In vital staining: dyes are injected into the living animal. The activity of
certain cells will result in the selective absorption of the coloring material
by these cells. E.g. staining by trypan blue of macrophages on the basis
of their ability to phagocytose foreign particles.
2. Supravital staining: Involves the addition of a dyestuff to a medium of
cells already removed from the organism. E.g. staining of mitochondria in
living cells by James green, of lysosomes by neutral red, and of nerve
fibers and cells by methyline blue. Motion films made of individual
living cells or of tissue cultures help to analyze processes such as
mitosis, phagocytosis, and amoeboid movement.

2.4 Preparation of Dead Tissue

The convenient way to study histology is to use sections, each of which is a

more or less permanent preparation. The production of a histological section
involves the following procedures:
a. Removal of the specimen: for the best histological preparations, the
material should be removed from an anesthetized animal or immediately
after death of the animal.
b. Fixation: is to preserve protoplasm with the least alteration from the
lwing state. Fixing fhids act as preservatives, inhibiting catalytic changes
and bacterial growth. They coagulate protoplasm, rendering it insoluble,
and harden the tissue so that sectioning is facilitated. Formal in, alcohol,
mercuric bichloride, potassium bichromate and certain acids used as
fixing agents. No single fixative possesses all the desirable qualities and
many reagents are used in mixtures.
c. Embedding: The purpose of embedding is to provide rigid support to the
tissue blocks so that they may be cut into thin sections. Prior to
embedding. The fixed tissue is washed to remove excess fixative and then
dehydrated by passing it through increasing strengths of ethyl alcohol or
other dehydrating agent. Tissue is then cleared to remove dehydrating
agent. Clearing agents include xylol, chloroforous and benzene, after
clearing, the tissue is infiltrated with the embedding agent, usually
paraffin or celloidin. After infiltration, the embedding agent is made to

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 solidify so that affirms homogenous mass containing the embedded
tissue is obtained.
d. Sectioning: Tissue embedded in paraffin may be sliced/ Sectioned
between 3 and 10 mm thick using a microtome. Each section is then
transferred to a clean glass microscope slide on which a little egg
albumin has been smeared.
e. Staining: The purpose of staining is to enhance natural contrast and to
make m ore evident the various cell and tissue components and extrinsic
material. Before staining the paraffin is removed from the section by
placing in a paraffin solvent or decerating agent usually xylene. The
section is passed through descending strengths of alcohol prior to
staining. Hematoxylin and eosin is most frequently used to stain.
f. Mounting: After staining, excess dye is removed by washing with water
or alcohol depending upon the soul vent of the dye, and section is
dehydrated through ascending grades of alcohol. The section is then
transferred to a solution of clearing agent. After removal from the
clearing agent, a drop of mounting medium, for instance Canada balsam,
which has a refractive index similar to that of glass, is placed on the
section. The preparation is covered with a cover slip and allowed to dry.

2.5 Examination and Interpretation of Sections

The ability to interpret histological sections is a skill that must be developed.

Histology must be learned principally from a study of sections, which for all
practical purposes have no depth. A single section of an organ may give a false
impression of its architecture. Thus, it is important to
use several sections taken in different planes in order to make an
interpretation of the structure of complex organs. One must strive to interpret
the functional significance of what one observes.
It must be appreciated that not all sections are perfect and accurate
representations. Such alterations are termed artifacts. They may be due to;
1. Different chemicals used in the histological technique, result in shrinkage,
2. Folding or wrinkling of the section,
3. Defects caused by an imperfect knife. With any microscopic preparation,
interpretation involves an appreciation of the staining techniques used.

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 CHAPTER 3: CYTOLOGY

3.1 Introduction to the Cell

Multicellular organisms are made up of two distinct structural elements; cells

and those products of cells that form the intercellular substances. Cells are
fundamental units of living material and show a variety of functional
specialization that is essential for the survival of the organism. Each cell is a
distinct entity; each contains all the machinery necessary for independent
existence and is separated from its surroundings by an individual plasma
membrane.

Cytology is the branch of anatomy that deals with cell structures and
functions. It includes the identification and description of various cellular
components and the physiological activities associated with each cell. Such
knowledge has provided a better understanding of the nature of development,
the physiological process carried on by the animal body, and changes that
occur in the body as a result of maldevelopment, trauma, or disease.

3.2. Structural Organization of the Cell

Although cells differ in size, shape, and function, the protoplasm (contents of
living cells) of each cell consists of two major components nucleus and
cytoplasm. The nucleus contains the hereditary or genetic material and it is
surrounded by cytoplasm and separated by a nuclear envelope. The cytoplasm
is limited by a plasma (cell) membrane, which separates the cell from the
external environment. The cytoplasm consists of several structures
representing organelles and inclusions. The different organelles tend to be
localized in discrete areas of the cytoplasm so that they and their associated
metabolic processes remain separated from other components of the cell.

Cell shape is maintained by a three dimensional cytoskeleton that provides

structural support for the cell and serves in cell motility and intracellular
transport. The cytoskeleton consists of various microfilaments and
microtubules. The organelles and inclusions are suspended in a medium called
the cytoplasm matrix (cytosol). Nuclear material also is suspended in a
structure less ground substance called the karyolymph.

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 Fig. 3.1. Cell structure

3.3 Cytoplasmic organelles

Organelles are specialized units of the cell that perform specific functions and
constitute part of the living substance of the cell. Organelles inclued structures
like plasma lemma, smooth and rough forms of endoplasmic reticulum,
ribosome’s, Golgi complex, mitochondria, lysosomes, peroxisomes, and
centrioles.

Many organelles are limited by membranes, similar in structure to the

boundary of the cell itself. These membranes, including the cell membrane, are
metabolically active sheets that are essential to the life of the cell. The
membranes of organelles appear to have only minor cytology variations; they
vary considerably in the chemical composition, enzymatic properties and
functions.

3.3.1 Plasma (cell) membrane

Each cell is enclosed by a cell membrane that is 8-10 nm thick and has the
typical trilaminar structure of the unit membrane. The cell membrane is
composed of proteins, lipids, glycolipids, and carbohydrates. Lipid forms about
50% of the mass of the cell membrane. About half of the lipid content of the cell
membrane is phospholipid. Each phospholipid molecule has a polar head
region that is charged and an uncharged non-polar tail region that consists of
two chains of fatty acids. The polar heads lie on both the inner and outer

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surfaces of the cell membrane forming two parallel layers of phospholipid
molecules lying tail to tail and forming a phospholipid bilayer.

Fig. 3.2. Cell membrane

Because of the polar lipid composition of the cell membrane, it is highly

permeable to substances such as oxygen, water, nitrogen and small-uncharged
molecules. It is impermeable to charged ions such as potassium, sodium,
chloride, calcium, and large uncharged molecules. Glycolipids in the cell
membrane are important in cell-to-cell and cell to interstitial matrix
interactions and also may play a role in immune reactions.

Membrane proteins function to transport molecules into or out of cells

(membrane pump proteins, ion-channel proteins, carrier proteins), act as
receptors for chemical signals between cells (hormone receptors) and generate
messenger molecules that diffuse to the cytoplasm, attach elements of the
cytoskeleton to the cell membrane, attach cells to the extracellular matrix, or
may possess specific enzymatic activity when stimulated.

The cell membrane is a selectively permeable membrane in which ions and

small water soluble molecules (amino-acids, glucose) must be pumped through
protein lined channels that traverse the cell membrane to gain access to the
cell interior. The cell membrane plays an active role in bringing
macromolecular materials in to the cell (endocytosis), as well as discharging
materials from the cell.

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Phagocytosis is a form of endocytosis in which particulate matter is taken in to
a cell. Fluid may be incorporated in to the cell in small cytoplasmic vesicles in
a process called pinocytosis. Both phagoaytosis and pinocytosis can be seen
by light microscope. Materials such as secretory granules are released from the
cell by exocytosis, a process in which the limiting membranes of the granules
fuse with the cell membrane before discharging their contents.

3.3.2 Ribosomes

Ribosomes are small uniformly sized particles of ribonucleoprotein and

composed of large and small subunits. They may be attached to the
membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum or be present as free ribosomes
suspended in the cytoplasm unassociated with membranes. Free ribosomes
often occur in clusters called polyribosomes in which ribosomes are united by a
thread of ribonucleic acid (RNA) called messenger RNA (mRNA).

Free ribosomes are sites of protein synthesis, the protein formed being used
by the cell itself rather than secreted. Messenger RNA is formed in the nucleus
on a template of uncoiled deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). During synthesis,
mRNA enters the cytoplasm and attaches to ribosomes that move along the
mRNA, translating the code and assembling amino acids in the proper order.
Amino acids are brought to the ribosomes for incorporation in to the protein by
transfer RNA (tRNA), another form of ribonucleoprotein. Formation of
ribosomal RNA is directed by a specific region of a chromosome.

3.3.3 Endoplasmic Reticulum

The cytoplasm of almost all cells contains a continuous irregular network of
membrane bound channels called endoplasmic riticulum. This organelle
appears as anastomosing tubules, but the membranes form parallel, flattened
saccules called cisternae. Smoth and granular forms of endoplasmic reticulum
can be distinguished.

a. Granular (rough) endoplasmic ribiculum (GER) consists of an array of

flattend cisternae bounded by a membrane. The outer surface is studded with
numerous ribosomes. The granular endoplasmic reticulum is the site of protein
synthesis for secretory and some organelle proteins. The proteins are
synthesized by ribosomes on the external surface of the GER, and then enter
the lumen of the reticulum, where they are isolated from the surrounding
cytoplasm.

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 Fig. 3.3 Endoplasmic nuclear & nucleus

b. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) lacks ribosomes and consists of a

system of interconnecting tubules with out cisternae. Protein secreting cells
such as pancreatic acinar cells or plasma cells are characterized by an
abundance of GER, where as smooth type predominates in cells that secrete
steroid hormones. Granular endoplasmic reticulum is known to be involved in
the synthesis of protein, but the exact role of SER remains obscure. Smooth
endoplasmic reticulum has a role in the synthesis of membrane lipids and in
the release and recapture of calcium ions during contraction and relaxation of
striated muscle. In the liver, SER play role in detoxifying and degrading lipid
soluble drugs and other harmony compounds circulating in the blood stream.

3.3.4 Golgi complex (apparatus)

The Golgi complex does not stain in ordinary histology preparations, nor is it
visible in living cells; sometimes appear as a negative image a non-staining
area of the cytoplasm usually close to the nucleus. The size and appearance of
the Golgi complex vary with the type and activity of the cell and may be small
and compact or large and netlike. Secretory products are concentrated in the
Gogi complex, whose size varies with the activity of the cell.

The Golgi complex functions in the post-transitional modification and sorting of

proteins and lipids synthesized by the endoplasmic reticulum. The Golgi
complex can be subdivided into four functional compartments depending on
the enzymes present within its cisternae. There appears to be a continuous
movement of membrane through the cell, from endoplasmic reticulum to
transport vesicles, to Golgi complex, to secrectory granules, and then to the cell
membrane. Internalization of cell membrane occurs during phagocytosis,
pinocytosis, and micro pinocytosis.

13
3.3.5 Lysosomes
Lysosomes are small, membrane bounded, dense bodies. More than 50
enzymes have been identified in lysosomes. Since they are active at an acid pH,
lysosomal enzymes often are referred to as acid hydrolases. The limiting
membrane of lysosomes protects the remainder of the cell from autolysis. The
appearance of lysosomes varies according to the phase and activity state.

Primary lysosomes are those, which have been newly released at the Golgi
complex and have not engaged in digestive activities. They usually remain
within the cell and are not secreted.
Secondary lysosomes are vacuolar structures that represent sites of past or
current lysosomal activity and include hetrophagic vacuoles, residual bodies,
and cytolysosomes. Some cells, such as macrophages and some granular
leukocytes of the blood, have a special capacity to engulf extracllular materials
and destroy them. The process by which substances are taken in to the cell
from the exterior environment and broken down by lysosomal activity is called
heterophagy.

The extracellular material taken in to the cell is sequestered in a vacuole called

phagosome and remains isolated from the cytoplasm. The membranes of the
phagosome and lysosome fuse and the enzymes of the lysosome are discharged
in to the phagosome. The combined primary lysosome and phagosome is called
a heterophagic vacuole, a type of secondary lysosome. The lysosomal enzymes
digest the material within the heterophagic vacuole and the non-degradable
materials remain with in the vacuole called a residual body.

Autophagy refers to the lysosomal breakdown of cytoplasmic organelles in

normal, viable cells. The lysosomal system is involved in the destruction of
worn or damaged organelles and the remodeling of the cytoplasm. The absence
of a specific lysosomal enzyme results in the accumulation of its normal
substrate within the lysosome.

14
 Fig. 3.4. Phagocytosis & endocytosis

3.3.6 Peroxisomes
Peroxisomes, or microbodies, comprise another class of membrane bound
organelles; their internal structure varies and can be crystalline or dense called
nucleoids. Peroxisomes lack acid hydrolases but do contain several enzymes
that can remove hydrogen atoms from organic substrates and produce
hydrogen peroxide, which is essential for many cellular functions and capable
of destroying micro organisms, in excess is lethal to cells. Peroxisomes contain
the enzyme catalase. Excess hydrogen peroxide is converted to water by
catalase. Peroxisemes have been implicated in the oxidation of substrates,
particularly very long chain fatty acids and are abundant in cells involved in
steroid synthesis and cholestrol metabolism.

3.3.7 Energy production and storage

All cellular functions are dependent on a continuous supply of energy, derived
from the sequential breakdown of organic molecules during the process of
cellular respiration. The energy released during this process is ultimately
stored in the form of ATP (Adinosine triphosphate) molecule. In all cells, ATP
forms a pool of readily available energy for all the metabolic functions of the

15
cell. The main substrates for cellular respiration are simple sugars and lipids
(glucose and fatty acids).

Cellular respiration of glucose (glycolysis) begins in the cytosol, where it is

partially degraded to form pyruvic acid, yielding a small amount of ATP.
Pyruvic acid then diffuses in to mitochondria, where in the presence of oxygen,
it is degraded to Co2 and water; this process yields large quantity of ATP, fatty
acids pass directly in to the mitochondria where they are degraded to co2 and
water. Glycolysis occurs in the absence of oxygen (anaerobic respiration).
Whereas mitochondrial respiration is dependent on a continous supply of
oxygen (aerobic respiration).

a. Mitochondria
Mitochondria are the principal organelles involved in cellular respiration in
mammals and are found in large numbers in metabolically active cells like in
the liver and skeletal muscle. Mitochondria are membranous structures that
play a vital role in the production of energy required by cells. They are visible in
lairing cells examined by phase contrast microscope. They can be stained in
fixed tissues, appear as rods or thin filaments. Structurally, mitochondria in
show a variety of shapes and sizes, but all are enclosed by two membranes,
each of which has the typical trilaminar substructure.

Fig. 3.5. Mitochondria

The outer mitochondria membrane is a continuous, smooth structure that

completely envelops the organelle. An inner mitochondria membrane runs par
allel to the outer membrane but is thrown in to numerous folds, the cristae,
that extend into the interior of the numerous folds, the cristae that extend into
the interior of the mitochondrion. The inner mitochondria membrane

16
surrounds the larger intercristal space that contains s slightly more electron-
dengue material called the mitochondrial matrix. Enzymes of the Krebs cycle,
responsible for the final break down of fatty acids, monosugars, and some
amino acids, reside within the mitochondria matrix. The primary function of
mitochondria is synthesis of ATP, the primary source of energy for cell
activities. Mitochondria are unique among organelles because they contain
their own complement of DNA and are capable of self-replication.

3.3.8. Centrioles
Under light microscope, centrioles appear as minute rods or granules located
near the nucleus in a specialized region of the cytoplasm called the
centrosomes. The wall of each centriole consists of nine subunits, each of
which is made up of three fused microtubules; the subunits are referred to as
triplet. Centrioles are self-replicating organelles that duplicate just before cell
division.

3.3.9. Cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton gives structural support to the cytoplasm and consists of
microfilaments, intermediate filaments, microtubules, and a microtrabecular
lattice. Interaction between the cytoskeleton and the cell membrane is essential
for cell movement, intracellular transport, endocytosis, focal mobility of the cell
membrane, maintenance of cell shape, stabilization of the cell junctions, and
spatial orientation of enzymes and other molecules in the cytoplasm.

a) Microfilaments: cytoplasmic filaments are responsible for contractility.

Filaments are best developed in muscle cells, where the proteins actin
and myosin form two different types of filaments whose interactions are
responsible for the contractile properties of muscle cells.
b) Intermediate filaments: are attached to the internal surface of the cell
membrane at cell junctions and contribute to the cytoskeleton of the cell,
providing support.
c) Microtubules: are straight or slightly curved, non-branching tubules.
They are composed primarily of the protein tubulin, which occurs in
alpha and beta forms, Microtubules can rapidly form or disappear
depending on cell activity. They are scarce in resting cells but are present
in large numbers in dividing cells, where they make up the mitotic
spindle.

17
 Fig. 3.6 Cytoskeleton
3.4. Cytoplasmic Inclusions

Inclusions are nonliving elements found in the cytoplasm and include such
diverse materials as pigments granules, glycogen, lipid droplets, and crystals.
They are not essential to the life or functioning of the cell and represent
metabolic products, storage materials, or foreign substances taken into the cell
from the environment.

a) Pigment granules: include melanin, hemosiderin and lipofuscin, each

of which has its own inherent color. Melanin is formed and found in
melanocytes. Hemosiderin drived from breakdown of hemoglobin
present in red blood cells.

b) Glycogen: is a large glucose polymer and is the storage form of

carbohydrate. It cannot be seen in usual tissue preparations unless
selectively stained.

c) Lipid: Fat cells are the chief storage sites for lipid, but many other cell
types store lipid droplets of various sizes. Lipid synthesized by a cell

18
 accumulates in cytoplasmic droplets that lack a limiting membrane.
Intracellular lipid serves as a source of energy.

3.5 Nucleus:

The nucleus is an essential organelle present in all complete cells, The only
cytoplasmic structures in which nuclei are absent are mature mammalian
erythrocytes and blood platelets; these should not be regarded as true cells.
Generally, each cell has a single miclwa, but some parietal cells of stomach,
cardiac muscle cells, and liver cells, may possess two nuclei. Giant cells such
as ostcoclasts of bone, and skeletal muscle cells, may have several nuclei.

The nucleus contains all the information necessary to initiate and control the
differentiation, maturation, and metabolic activities of each cell. The dividing
nucleus is enclosed in a nuclear envelope and contains the chromatin material
and one or two nucleoli.

Fig. 3.7 Nucleus

3.5.1 Chromatin and chromosomes
Genetic information is stored in the molecule of DNA that makes up the
chromosomes. Each chromosome contains a single long molecule of DNA that
consists of two linear polymers of nucleotide subunits made up of a phosphate
group, a pentose sugar (deoxyribose), and four organic bases (adenosine,
cytosine, guanine, thymidine). The two polynucleotide chains interwine and

19
form the antiparallel double helix of the DNA molecule. Genetic information of
the DNA molecule is encoded in the sequence of the bases.

Nuclear DNA is associated with a variety of proteins that form chromatin

(histones and non-histone proteins). Histones are the most abundant proteins
in the nucleus and form the inner core of a DNA-Protein complex called a
nucleosome, the basic unit of the chromatin fiber. Histones are simple
proteins that contain a high proportion of basic amino acids.

3.5.2 Nuclear envelope

The nuclear envelope consists of two concentric unit membranes, separated by
a perinuclear space. The inner membrane is smooth, whereas the outer
membrane contains numerous ribosomes on its cytoplasmic surface and is
continuous with the surrounding endoplasmic reticulum. The nuclear envelope
aids in organization of the chromatin and controls the two-way traffic of
macromolecules between the nucleus and cytoplasm.

3.5.3 Nucleolus
A Nucleolus appears as a dense, well-defined body, contained within a nucleus.
Nucleoli are sites where ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is synthesized. Since these sites
(nucleolus-organizing regions) are located on five different chromosomes, any
one cell may contain several nucleoli. Nucleoli lie free in the nucleus, not
limited by a membrane. Nucleoli are found only in interphase nuclei and are
especially prominent in cells that are actively synthesizing proteins.

3.5.4 Integrated function of cells in tissues, organs and systems

Cells are the functional units of all living organisms: in multicellular
organisms, individual cells become specialized (differentiated) and grouped
together to perform specific functions. Activities of the body are accomplished
only through the action of cells. Some cells may perform several functions, but
most are specialized for the performance of a single function. For instance,
nerve cells conduct impulses; muscle cells contract; epithelial cells protect,
absorb, and secret; adipose cells store fat; liver cells produce bile and store
glycogen; bone cells form bone. Cells of similar morphology and function form
tissues, which are homogenous in overall structure (eg. cartilage, bone and
muscle). Al organism’s very existence depends on the coordinated functioning
of all the cells and tissues of the body.

Organs are discrete collections of tissues, which together perform certain

specific functions (eg liver, kidney, eye, ovary). Tissues and organs constitute
integrated functional systems forming major anatomical entities (e.g central
nervous system, gastro-intestinal tract, urinary system, etc.) or be more
diffusely arranged (e.g immune defense system, diffuse neuro-endocrine
system).

20
Within tissues and organs, cells interact with one another in numerous ways
during embryological development and growth, maintenance of structural
integrity, response to injury (inflammation and repair), integration and control
of tissue and organ functions and the maintenance of overall biochemical and
metabolic integrity (homeostasis). This involves the elaboration of structural
connection between adjacent cells (intercellular junctions) may also serve as
conduits for information exchange in the form of electrical excitation or
chemical messengers.

Some cells are indirectly bound to one another within tissues by extra cellular
elements (e.g fibers of supporting /connective tissues) within tissues, cellular
functions are integrated by a great variety of local chemical mediators (humoral
factors). At the level of systems and the body as a whole, functions are
coordinated via circulating chemical messengers (hormones) and/or via the
nervous system.

3.6 Cell Cycle and Replication

The development of a single fertilized egg cell to from a complex, multicellular

organism involves cellular replication, growth and progressive specialization
/differentiation/ for a variety of functions. The mechanism of cellular
replication in all cells is known as mitosis. Mitotic division of a single cell
results in the production of two daughter cells; each genetically identical to the
parent cell.

Following mitosis, daughter cells enter a period of growth and metabolic

activity prior to furthier division, this time interval, the life cycle of an
individual cell is called cell cycle. In the fully developed organism, the
differentiated cells of some tissue (e.g neurons of the nervous system) lose the
ability to undergo mitosis, such cells being described as terminally
differentiated. In contrast, cells of certain other tissues, e.g the lining cells of
gut and skin undergo continous cycles of mitotic division through out the life
span of the organism. Between these extremes are cells such as liver cells,
which do not normally undergo mitosis but retain the capacity to undergo
mitosis should the need arise (facultative dividers).

Cell division and differentiation balanced by cell death both during the
development and growth of the immature organism and in the nature adult; in
these circumstances cell death occurs by a mechanism known as apoptosis.

The cell cycle is broadly divided into;

1. Mitosis (M phase) the stage of cell division, and
2. Interphase, the stage between divisions/ non-dividing phase,
which usually occupies most of the life cycle of the cell.

21
The interphase is divided into three phases, the G1 (gap1) or preduplication
phase, the period between previous mitosis and the beginning of DNA
duplication most cells are in this stage while they perform their particular
functions for example adult nerve cells never divide, but remain in the G1
phase during synthesis phase (S), DNA duplication occurs, resulting in two
daughter chromosomes. Following completion of the S phase and before
mitosis begins; the cell passes through a rather short G2 (gap 2) or post
duplication phase.

3.6.1 Mitosis
Mitosis produces daughter cells that have a genetic content identical to that of
the parent cell. All multicultural organisms grow by increasing the number of
cells. The zygote, which is formed at conception, divides repeatedly and gives
rise to all the cells of the body. Proliferation of somatic cells is the result of
mitosis, which can be defined as the production of two daughter cells with
exactly the same number of chromosomes and the same DNA content as the
original parent cell.What determines if and when a cell divides is not known,
but there are certain requirements that must be met before a cell can enter
mitosis. There is some relations ship between cell mass and cell division.

Mitosis usually lasts from 30 to 90 minutes and involves division of the

nucleus (karyokinesis) and the cytoplasm (cytokine sis). Both events take place
during mitosis, but karyokinesis may occur without division of the cytoplasm,
resulting information of multinucleated cells. Eg, megakaryocytic of bone
marrow although mitosis is a continous process, for descriptive purposes it is
divided into prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. The time between
successive mitotic divisions constitutes interphase and is the period when the
cell performs its usual functions.

a) Interphase: Replication of DNA occurs during interphase, before the cell

visibly enters into mitosis. The double helix of the chrosome unwinds,
and each strand acts as a template for the development of a
complementary strand of DNA that contains an exact copy of the
sequence of molecules in the original DNA.

b) Prophase: In prophase, the cell assumes a more spherical shape and

appears more refractive, while in the nucleus, chromosomes become
visible and appear as thread like structures. At prophase, each
chromosome consists of two coiled subunits called chromatids.
Chromatids are the functional units of chromosomes, and each contains
a double strand of DNA.

Nucleoli become smaller and finally disappear, and the nuclear envelope
breaks down. Simultaneously with the nuclear events, the centrioles
replicate, and the resulting pairs migrate to the opposite poles of the cell.

22
 c) Metaphase: The disappearance of the nuclear envelope marks the end of
prohase and the beginning of metaphase, which is characterized by
formation of the mitotic spindle and the alignments of chromosomes
along the equator to form the equatorial plate, the mitotic spindle which
pass from pole to pole of the spindle are called continuous fibers.
Microtubules extend from the poles of the spindle to attach to
Centromere of each chromosome and form the chromosomal fibers. The
Centromere is a specialized region of unduplicated DNA and protein that
holds together the chromatids of each chromosome and forms an
attachment site for the chromosomal fibers. The final act of metaphase is
duplication of the DNA at the centromer after which the centromeres
split, the two chromatids of each chromosome separate and begin to
migrate towards the centrioles at the opposite poles of the cell.

d) Anaphase: The initial separation of chromatids marks the beginning of

anaphase. Movement of chromatids, which now are daughter
chromosomes, is and active, dynamic process, but the mechanisms by
which the movement is effected are not certain.

e) Telophase: As the daughter chromosomes reach their respective poles

discontinuous portions of endoplasmic reticulum forms around each
group of chromosomes and begin to re-form the nuclear envelope, that
initiates telophase, when the nuclear envelope has been re-formed
completely, the chrosomes uncoil and become indistinct, and the two
nucleic reassume the interphase configuration.

The normal complement of nucleoli reappears and their development is

associated with specific nucleolus organizing regions present on certain
chrosomes. With this event karyokinesis is complete immediately after division;
the daughter cells enter a phase of active RNA and protein synthesis, resulting
in an increase in the volume of the nucleus and cytoplasm. The endoplasmic
reticulum and the Golgi complex are restored to their original concentrations.

Clinical implications: Where mitotic figures are found in a suction, it means

that these cells were actually dividing while the tissue who being taken. Mitotic
cells are relatively uncommon in adult life except in tissues that are undergoing
continuous cell renewal however. Cell division becomes more general in sites
where damaged tissues are actively engaged in repair processes or
regeneration, as well as under conditions of hormonal, stimulation. Any
unusual abundance of mitotic cells that is not a normal response to some such
stimulus can indicate and abnormal growth or tumor and corroborates a
diagnosis of cancers.

23
6.3.2 Meiosis
In all somatic cells, cell division (mitosis) results in the formation of two
daughter calls, each one genetically identical to the mother cell. Somatic cells
contain a full complement of chromosomes (the diploid number), which
function as homologous pairs.

The process of sexual reproduction involves the function of specialized male

and female cells called gametes to form a zygote, which has the diploid
number of chromosomes. Each gamete contains only half the diploid number of
chromosomes; this half complement of chromosomes is known as the haploid
number. The production of haploid cells involves a unique form of cell division
celled meiosis, which occurs only in the germ cells of the gonads during the
formation of gametes.

Meiosis involves two-cell division processed of which only the first is preceded
by duplication of chromosomes.
1. The first meiotic division: Results in the formation of two daughter cells,
this process differs from mitosis in two important respects;
a. In mitosis each duplicated chromosome divides at the Centromere
liberating two chromatids that migrate to the opposite ends of the mitotic
spindles in the first meiotic division there in no such separation of
chromatids but rather one duplicated of chromosome of each
homologous pair migrates to each end of spindle. Then at the end of the
first meiotic division, each daughter cell contains a half complement of
duplicated chromosomes.

b. During the first meiotic division, there is and exchanges of alleles

between the chromatids of homologous pairs of duplicated chromosomes,
this exchange, and results in chromatids with a different genetic
constitution from those of the mother cell.

2. The second meiotic division:

Involves splitting of each chromosome at the centromere to liberate chromatids,
which migrate to opposite poles of the spindle. Thus meiotic cell division of a
single diploid germ cell gives rise to four haploid gametes. During both the first
and second meiotic division, the cell passes through stages, which have many
similar features of prophase metaphase, anaphase and telophase of mitosis;
however, the process of meiotic cell division can be suspended for a
considerable length of time.

24
 CHAPTER 4: EPITHELIAL TISSUE

4.1 General characterstics

Epithelium is one of the four basic tissues. A basic tissue is a collection of cells
of similar type that together with their associated extracellular substances are
specialized to perform a common function.

Epithelium consists of closely aggregated cells with only minimal amount of

intervening intercellular substances. Epithelium covers the entire body
surfaces and lines the digestive, respiratory, cardiovascular and urogenital
systems. Epithelial tissues have the following functions;
▪
Physical protection (skin)
▪
Selective diffusion (lung)
▪
Contractility (myoepitheltal cells)
▪
Sensation (neuron epithelium)
▪
Absorption (intestine)
▪
Secretion (epithelial cells of gland)

Epithelial cells are closely bound to one another by a variety of membrane

specializations called cell junctions, which provide physical strength and
mediate exchange of information and metabolites.

The interface between all epithelia and underlying supporting tissues is

marked by a non-cellular structure known as basement membrane, which
provides structural support for epithelia and constitutes a selective barrier to
the passage of materials between epithelium and supporting tissue.

25
 Fig 4.1 Basement membrane Fig 4.2 Avascular epithelial sheet

Basement membranes are never penetrated by blood vessels and thus

epithelial are avascular and dependent on the diffusion of oxygen and
metabolites across the basement membrane from adjacent supporting tissues.
Epithelia may be derived from ectoderm, mesoderm or endoderm.
4.2 Classification of epithelia

Epithelia are traditionally classified according to three morphologic

characteristics;
1. The number of cell layers: a single layer of epithelial cells is termed
simple epithelium, where as epithelia composed of several layers are
termed stratified epithelia
2. The shape of the component cells: this is based on the appearance
in sections taken at right angles to the epithelial surface.
▪
Squamous (thin plate like cells)
▪
Cuboidal (cells in which the height and width are approximately equal
▪
Columnar (cells in which the height is greater that the width).
▪
In stratified epithelia the shape of the outer most layer of the cells
determine the descriptive classification without regard to the shape
of those in the deeper layers.

3. The presence of surface specializations such as cilia anal keratin E.g.

the epithelial surface of skin is classified as stratified squamous
keratinising epithelium since it consists of many layers of cell, the
surface cells of which are flattened (squamous) in shape and
covered by an outer layer of the porteinaceous material, keratin.

26
 Fig 4.3 Epithelial layers

4.3 Simple epithelia

Simple epithelia are defined as surface epithelia consisting of a single layer of

cells. They are found at interface involved in selective diffusion, absorption or
secretion.

Simple epithelia provide little protection against mechanical abrasion and thus
are not found on surface subject to such stresses. Simple epithelia may exhibit
a variety of surface specialization such as microvilli and cilia, which facilitate
their specific surface functions. The cells comprising simple epithelia range in
shape from extremely flattened to tall columnar.

4.3.1 Simple squamous epithelium

Simple squamous epithelium is composed of flattened, irregularly shaped cells
forming a continous surface. Simple squamous epithelium is found lining
surfaces involved in passive transport (diffusions) of either gases (as in the
lungs) or fluids (as in the wall of blood capillaries), forms the delicate lining of
the pleural, pericardial and peritoneal cavities where it permits passage of

27
tissue fluid into and out of these cavities and also in parietal layer of bowman’s
capsule, thin segment of loop of henle and reti testis.

Fig 4.4 Simple squamous Fig 4.5 Blood vessel (squamus cell)
The term mesothelium is the special name given to the simple squamous
epithelium that forms the serous membrane of the pleura, pericardium and
peritoneum. Endothelium is the epithelium that lines the cardiovascular and
lymph vascular system. Mesenchymal epithelium is special type of simple
squamous epithelium that lines the subarachnoid and subdural spaces, the
anterior chamber of the eye and the perilymphatic space of the ear.

4.3.2 Simple cuboidal epithelium

Simple cuboidal epithelium is a single layer of cells whose width and height are
approximately equal. The nucleus is usually rounded and located in the center
of the cell. These cells appear as squares in cross section but are more
hexagonal when seen from the surface.

28
 Fig 4.6 Simple cuboidal

Simple coubodal epithelium usually lines small ducts and tubules which may
have excterory, secreory or absorptive functions; examples are the small
collecting ducts of the kidney, salivary gland, pancreas, thyroid, choroids
plexus, inner surface of capsule of the lens, covering surface of ovary and
ciliary body.

4.3.3 Simple columnar epithelium

It consists of tall, narrow cells with considerably greater height than width. The
nuclei are elongated and may be located towards the base, the center or
occasionally the apex of cytoplasm. Simple columnar epithelium is most often
found on highly absorptive surfaces and secretory surface. Eg, surface
epithelium of stomach, small and large intestine, proximal and distal
convoluted tubules of kidney, gall bladder, excretory ducts of glands, uterus,
oviduct, small bronchi of lungs, and Paranasal sinuses.

29
 Fig. 4.7 Simple columnar
The luminal plasma membranes of highly absorptive epithelia cells are often
arranged into numerous, minute, finger like projections called microvilli,
which greatly increase the surface area of the absorptive interface.

4.3.4 Pseudostratified columnar ciliated epithelium

The term pseudostratified is derived form the appearance of this epithelium in
section, which conveys the erroneous impression that there is more than one
layer of cells. In fact, this is a true simple epithelium since all the cell rest on
the basement membrane. The nuclei of these cells, however, are disposed at
different levels, this creating the illusion of cellular stratification.

Pseudostratified columnar ciliated epithelium unlike stratified epithelium has

one cell layer and cilia found in larger airways of the respiratory system, large
excretory ducts of glands, portion of male urethra, epididymis and eustachian
tube. In respiratory tract, the cilia propel a surface layer of mucus containing
entrapped particles (e.g dust) towards the pharynx in what is often described
as mucociliary escalator. It is one of the means of defense mechanism.

30
Fig 4.8 Pseudostratified epith Fig 4.9 Respiratory tract

4.4 Stratified epithelia

Stratified epithelia defined as epithelia consisting of two or more layers of cells.
Stratified epithelia have mainly protective function and the degree and nature
of the stratification are related to the kinds of physical stresses to which the
surface is exposed, poorly suited for the functions of absorption and Secretion.
The classification of stratified epithelia is based on the shape and structure of
the surface cells since cells of the basal layer are usually cuboidal in shape.

4.4.1 Stratified squamous epithelium

It consists of a variable number of cell layers, which exhibits transition form a
cuboidal basal layer to a flattened surface layer. It is well adapted to withstand
abrasion since loss of surface cells does not compromise the underling tissue;
it is poorly adapted to with stand desiccation. This type of epithelium lines the
oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, anal canal, uterine cervix and vagina, sites
which are subject to mechanical abrasion but which are kept moist by
glandular secretion and are called wet or non keratinized stratified
epithelium.

4.4.2 Stratified squomous keratinzing epithelium

Constitutes the epithelial surface of the skin (epidermis) and is adopted to
withstand the constant abrasions and desiccation to which the body surface is
exposed. During maturation the epithelial cells accumulate cross-linked
cytoskeletal proteins in a process called keratinization resulting in the
formation of a tough, non-lining surface layer consisting of the protein keratin.
Keratin is a water resistance protein that forms a protective barrier against the
destructive forces of the environment.

31
 4.10 Keratinized stratified squamus epith. of skin

4.4.3 Stratified cuboldal epithelium

It is a thin, stratified epithelium that usually consists of two or three layers of
cuboidal or low columnar cells. This type of epithelium is usually contained to
the lining of the larger excretory ducts of exocrine glands such as the salivary
gland and portion of genital system. It is probably not involved in significant
absorptive or secretory activity but merely provides a more robust lining that
would be afforded by a simple epithelium.

Fig 4.11 Stratified columnar (duct)

4.4.4 Stratified columnar epithelium

Consists of several layers of cells. The superficial layer of tall cells does not
extend to the basement membrane. The deeper layers are composed of smaller
polyhedral cells that do reach the surface. Stratified columnar epithelium is
found in distal portion of the urethra, portion of upper respiratory tract,
mandibular duct, lacrimal sac and duct and large excretory ducts of glands.

32
 Fig 4.12 Stratified columnar epith

4.4.5. Transitional epithelium

Is a form of stratified epithelium almost excessively contained to the urinary
tract in mammals where it is highly specialized to accommodate a great degree
of strech and withstand the toxicity of urine. This epithelium type is so named
because it has some features, which are intermediate (transitional) between
stratified cuboidal and stratified squamous epithelia. Its appearance varies
considerably depending on the degree of distension to which it is subjected.

In the contracted (not distended) state, transitional epithelium appears to be

about four to five cell layers thick. The basal cells are roughly cuboidal, the
Intermediate cells are polygonal and the surface cells are large, rounded and
may contain two nuclear (binucleate). In the stretched state, transitional
epithelium often appears only two or three cells thick (although the actual
number of layers remain constant) and the intermediate and surface layers are
extremely flattened.

33
 Fig. 4.13 Trabsitional epith (Urinary tract)

4.5 Specializations of epithelial membranes

4.5.1 Intercellular surface

The opposed surfaces of epithelial cells are linked by several different types of
membrane and cytoskeletal specializations. These cell junctions permit
epithelia to form a continuous cohesive layer in which all of the calls
communicate and cooperate to achieve the particular functional requirements
of the epithelium. Cell junctions are of three functional types;

a. The zonal occludens (tight junction): is a fusion of the external laminae of

adjacent epithelial cell membranes bordering a lumen. It forms an impermeable
seal around the perimeter of each cell, uniting them in an epithelial sheet. The
zonal occludens junctions also is important in separating apical form basal-
lateral cell membrane domains by preventing the migration of specialized
membrane protein (receptors, transport proteins) in the plasma lemma.

b. Anexus (gap junctions): is a firm attachment point between adjacent cells.

Gap junctions are circular intercellular contact areas containing hundreds of
tiny pores, which permit passage of small molecules between adjacent cells.
Molecules involved in such cytoplasmic interchange include ions responsible
for electrical excitation of cell membranes, nutrients and chemical signaling
agents.

c. The macula adherens (desmosome) act as a firm attachment point between

adjacent-cell membranes and also as an anchoring point for numerous keratin
filaments in the cytoplasm.

Fig. 4. 14 Epithelial junction

34
Cells in epithelia sheet often show special adaptations of apical or basis-lateral
surface that increase the surface area of the cell or constitute motile that move
material across the surface. Surface specializations include microvilli, cilia,
stereocilia.

1. Microvili are short, often extremely numerous projections of the plasma

membrane which cannot be individually resolved with the light microscope.
In region of high concentration (small intestine, proximal convoluted tubule
of the kidney). They form a microvilli border that greatly increases the
surface area and absorptive capacity of the cell.

2. Cilia are large, elongated evaginations of the apical cell membrane and
motile structures which are easily resolved by light microscopy. Cilia are
numerous on epithelial cells that line much of the respiratory tract and
parts of the female reproductive tract. Groups of cilia beat in one direction
across the epithelial surface. In air waves mucus secreted by goblet cells
traps debris form inspired air and cilia move the mucus up wards to wards
the throat where it is swallowed thus keeping the airway clean. In oviduct,
ciliary’s action plays a part in transporting the ovum from the ovary down to
wards the uterus.

3. Stereocilla are merely extremely long microvilli usually found strongly or in

small numbers in odd sites such as the male reproductive tract, stereo cilia
are not motile and thus quite inappropriately named. It is thought to
facilitate absorptive processes in the epididymes.

4.6 Glandular epithelium

Epithelium, which is primarily involved in secretion is often arrange into

structures called glands. Glands are merely invaginations of epithelial surface,
which are formed during embryonic development by proliferations of epithelium
into the underlying tissues. Glands, which maintain the continuity the
epithelial surface discharging their secretions on to the free surface via a duct,
are called exocrine glands. Epithelial tissue forms solid organs or isolated
islands of epithelial sectetory such glands pass into the blood stream.

4.6.1 General Classifications of glands

Number of cells constituting a gland
a. Uni cellular gland
b. Multi cellular gland
-Intra-epithelial gland=occur with in the lining of the epithelium
-Extra-epithelial gland=occur deep in to the underlying tissue
Morphology of the gland

35
 Mode of secretion (merocrine, Apocrine or Holocrine)

Number of cells constituting a gland

Unicellular glands consist of a single sectetory cells in a non-secretory

epithelium. E.g. goblet cells found scattered among columnar epithelial cells
of the respiratory and gastrointestinal tract.
The cell has an arrow and an expanded apex filled with sectetrory
droplet, synthesize and secret mucus. It is a unicellular exocrine gland.
Unicellular endocrine cells are numerous in the epithelial lining of the
gastrointestinal tract and produce a number of peptide hormones and/or
amines.

Multicellular glands: composed of more than on cell and most glands belong in
this classification.

Intraepithelial glands:are small clusters of secretory cells that lie within an

epithelial sheet, clustered about small lumen.
Extra epithelial glands: large accumulations of cells that have proliferated
into the underlying connective tissue. Exocrine and endocrine glands are
classified under multicellular glands.

Exocrine glands
Exocrine glands discharge their sectetory product vai duct on to an
epithelial surface. Exocrine glands classified into two major characteristics;

1. The morphology of the gland

2. The means of discharge of secretory products from the cells.

The morphology of the gland

a. Simple glands: are defined as those with a single, unbranched duct. The
secretory portions of simple glands have two main forms tubular or acinar
(spherical).

I. Simple tubular glands have a single, straight tubular lumen into

which the secretory products are discharged. E.g. large intestine
glands
II. Simple coiled tubular glands each gland consists of a single tube,
which is tightly coiled, in three dimensions. E.g. sweat gland
III. Simple branched tubular glands each gland consists of several
tubular secretory portions, which converge on to a single,
unbranched duct. E.g. stomach

36
 IV. Simple branched acinar gland each gland consists of several
sectetory acins, which empty in to a single secretory duct. E.g
sebaceous glands.

b. Compound glands: have a branched dcut system and their secretory

portions have similar morphologic forms to those of simple glands.

I. Compound branched tubular glands the secretory portions have

a tubular form, which is branched. E.g Brunner’s glands of
duodenum
II. Compound acinar glands the secretory units are acinar in form
and drain into branched duct system. E.g pancreas
III. Compound tubulo-acinar glands have three types of secretory
units, namely branched tubular, branched acinar and branched
tubular with acinar end-pieces. E.g. submandibular salivary gland.

Fig 4.15 Morphology of glands

The mode of discharge of sectetory products

This occurs in three ways;

Merocrine secretion involves the process of exocytosis and is the most
common form of secretion; proteins are usually the major secretory
products.
Apocrine secretion involves the discharge of free, unbroken membrane
bound vesicles containing secretory product. This is unusual mode of

37
 secretion and applies to lipid secretory products in the mammary and
some sweat glands.
Holocrinc secretion involves the discharge of whole secretory cells with
subsequent disintegration of the cells to release the secretory product.
Holocrine secretion occurs principally in sebaceous glands.

Fig. 4.16 Glandular secretion

The secretory portions of some exocrine glands are embraced by contractile

cells, which lie between the secretory cells and the basement membrane. The
contractile mechanism of these cells is thought to be similar to that of muscle
cells and has given rise to the term myoepithelial cells, their contraction aid in
expressing the products form the secretory units into the ductal system. It
occurs in sweat, mammary, salivary glands and glands along the bronchi and
eosophagus.

38
 CHAPTER 5: GENERAL CONNECTIVE/SUPPORTING TISSUES

5.1 Introduction

Connective tissues are derived from mesenchyme (cells of mesoderm).

Mesenchyme is typically a loose spongy tissue, which in early embryonic life is
found as packing between structures developing from other germ layers. It is
composed of stellate and fusiform cells forming a network and of an
amorphous intercellular substance containing a few scattered fibers.

Mesenchymal cells have multiple developmental potentialities. They are able to

differentiate along several different lines to produce many different kinds of
connective tissue cells. Connective tissues differ form epithelium by the
presence of abundant intercellular material or matrix. Matrix is composed of
fibers and an amorphous ground substance.

In any type of connective tissue there are three elements to consider: the cells,
the fibers and the amorphous ground substances. The elements are bathed in
tissue fluid. Connective tissues provide the supporting formwork for organs
and for the body itself and serve to connect distant structures as, for instance,
in the connection of muscle to bone by tendons. Connective tissues bind
organs and unite the organ components in to a functioning unit.

Connective tissues usually contain blood vessels and mediate the exchange of
nutrients, metabolites and waste products between tissues and circulating
system. Connective/supporting tissues occur in many different forms with
diverse physical properties. In most organs, loose connective tissues act as a
biological packing material between cells and other tissues with more specific
functions.

Dense forms of connective tissue provide tough physical support in the dermis
of the skin, comprise the robust capsules of organs such as the liver and
spleen, and are sources of great tensile strength in ligaments and tendons.
Cartilage and bone, the major skeletal components, are highly specialized form
of supporting tissue.

Connective tissues have important metabolic roles such as the storage of fat
(white adipose tissue) and the regulation of body temperature in the newborn
(brown adipose tissue). Cells of the immune system enter support tissues
where they assist in defense against pathogenic microorganisms. The process
of tissue repair is largely a function of supporting tissues.

39
5.2 Organization

All supporting/connective tissues have two major constituents; cells, and

extracellular matrix. The extracellular matrix is the dominant component and
determines the physical properties of each type of connective tissue.
Extracellular material consists of a matrix of organic material called ground
substance with in which are embedded a variety of fibers. A group of structural
glycoproteins comprises the third constituent of the extracellular matrix and
mediates the interaction of cells with the other constituents.

Fig. 5.1 Connective tissue components

5.3 The Cells of Connective Tissue

Connective tissue contains several different cell types. Some are indigenous to
the tissues: Others are transients derived from blood. The cells may be divided
according to their basic function.
a. Cells responsible for synthesis and maintenance of the extracellular
material are derived from precursor cells in mesenchyme. The most
common connective tissue cells are fibroblasts; large, flattened cells with
elliptical nuclei that contain one or two nucleoli. The cell body is
irregular and often appears stellate with long cytoplasm processes
extending along the connective tissue fiber. The boundaries of the cell are
not seen in most histological preparations, and the morphology varies
with the state of activity.

Myofibroblasts: are fibroblasts that contain aggregates of actin

microfilaments and myosin, which have additional contractile function.
There number increases following tissue injury. Myofibroblasts produce
collagen, and their contractile activity contributes the rotation and
shrinkage of early scar tissue.

40
b. Cells responsible for the storage of and metabolism of fat are known
as adipocytes and may collectively form adipose tissue. Individual fat
cells may be scattered through out loose connective tissue or may
accumulate/ crowded to form adipose tissue. Each fat cell acquires so
much lipid that the nucleus is flattened to one side of the cell and the
cytoplasm forms only a thin rim around a large droplet of lipid. In
ordinary sections, fat cells appear empty due to the loss of lipid during
tissue preparation, and groups of fat cells have the appearance of
chicken wire.

Stored fat with in adipocytes is derived from three main sources: dietary
fat circulating in the blood stream as chylomicrons; triglycerides
synthesized in the liver and transported in blood: and triglycerides
synthesized from glucose within adipocytes. Adipose tissue is important
in general metabolic processes in that it acts as a temporary store of
substrate for the energy-deriving process of almost all tissues. The rate of
fat depositions and utilization within adipose tissue is largely determined
by dietary intake and energy expenditure.

C. Cells with defense and immune functions are also derived from
mesenchyme. This group of cells includes the most cells and tissue
macrophages as well as all types of white blood cells. Traditionally, these
cells have been divided into two categories; fixed (intrinsic) cells and
wandering (extrinsic) cells.
The intrinsic defense cells are the tissue-fixed macrophages
(histiocytes) and mast cells. These macrophages are believed to be driven
from circulating monocytes and resident in connective tissues.

Macrophages (histiocytes) are almost abundant as fibroblasts in connective

tissue. They are actively phagocytic, ingesting a variety of materials like
bacteria, tissue debris, and whole blood cells. Macrophages may interact with
lymphocytes in combating infections. They can synthesize and release a
number of factors such as interleukin-1 and 4, fibroblast growth factor, tumor
necrosis factor, connective tissue enzymes such as collagenase and elastase.
Regardless of where they are found, macrophages have a common origin from
precursors in the bone marrow, and the monocytes of blood represent a transit
form of immature macrophages.

Mast cells are functionally analogous to basophils but there are structural
differences, which suggest that most cells are not merely basophils resident in
the tissues. They are present in variable numbers in loose connective tissue
and often collect along small blood vessels. They are large, ovoid cells with
large granules that fill the cytoplasm. Two populations of mast cells are known
to exist, connective tissue mast cells and mucosal mast cells.

41
Granules of mast cells contain heparin, a potent anticoagulant; histamine, an
agent that cause vasodilation and increased permeability of capillaries and
venules; and eosinophil chemotactic factor. Mast cells arise from bone marrow
stem cells. They are numerous along small blood vessels and beneath the
epithelia of the intestinal tract and respiratory system. Here they detect the
entry of foreign proteins and initiate a local inflammatory response by rapidly
discharging their secretory granules. Mast cells also can promote immediate
hypersensitivity reactions (hay fever, anaphylaxia, asthma) following their
release of secretory granules, which act as chemical mediators.

Plasma cells: are not common in most connective tissues but may be
numerous in the lamina propria of the gastrointestinal tract and present in
the lymphatic tissues. Plasma cells produce immunoglobulins (antibodies) that
form an important defense against infections. They are a differentiated form of
the B-lymphocytes.

The wandering category of defense and immune cells includes all the remaining
members of the white blood cells series. Although leukocytes are usually
considered as a constituent of blood, their principal site of a activity is outside
the blood circulation, particularly with in loose connective tissues. Leukocytes
are normally found only in relatively small numbers, but in response to tissue
injury and other disease processes their numbers increase greatly.

The supporting tissues of those regions of the body, which are subject to the
constant threat of pathogenic invasion, such as the gastrointestinal and
respiratory tracts, contain a large population of leukocytes, maintaining
constant surveillance.

Neutrophils are one type of leukocyte characterized by a lobed nucleus. They

are avidly phagocytic for small particles and are numerous at sites of
infections. They are major cellular component of pus.
Eosinophils: are characterized by lobed nuclei, but their cytoplasmic granules
are larger, more spherical. These cells are phagocytic and have a special avidity
for antigen-antibody complexes. They increase in number as a result of allergic
or parasitic types of disease.

Lymphocytes: are characterized by a single, round, non-lobed nucleus. They

are the smallest of the cells that migrate in to connective tissues. These cells
form part of the immunologic defense system and may give rise to antibody-
producing cells or elaborate non-specific factors that destroy foreign cells. Their
number increase in areas of chronic inflammation.

Monocytes: are the blood-borne forerunners of tissue macrophages. Monocytes

can fuse with one another to form multinucleated giant cells in an attempt to
engulf objects that are too large or resistant to phagocytosis by a single cells.

42
5.4 Ground Substance (Matrix)
The fibers and cells of connective tissue are embedded in an amorphous
material called ground substances. That is present as a transparent gel of
variable viscosity. Tissue fluid is loosely associated with ground substance,
thereby forming the medium for passage of molecules through out connective
tissues and for the exchange of metabolites with the circulatory system.
Ground substance consists of glycoproteins, glycosaminoglycans, and
proteoglycans that differ in amount and type in different connective tissues.

Fig. 5.2 Ground matrix

5.5 Fibers of connective tissue

The fibrous intercellular substances in connective tissue consists of collagen

(including reticulin which was formerly considered a separate fiber type) and
Elastic fibers.

5.5.1 Collagen fibers:

Collagen fibers are main fiber types present in all connective tissues and run
an irregular course with much branching. Although flexible, collagenous fibers
have extremely high tensile strength, the fibers vary in thickness and consist of
parallel fibrils, each of which represents a structural unit. These unit fibrils
are composed of macromolecules of tropocollagen. The tropocollagen
molecules lie parallel to each other, overlapping by about one-fourth of their
lengths, the overlap is responsible for the banding pattern.

43
Each molecule of tropocollagen consists of three polypeptide chains called
alpha units arranged in a helix and linked by hydrogen bonds. In the
extracellular matrix, the tropocollagen molecules polymerize to form collagen.
Not all unit fibrils of the various collagens neither present a banded, fibrils
appearance, nor are they arranged in a similar fashion. At least 19 different
types of collagen have now been delineated on the basis of morphology, amino
acid composition and physical properties.
❖
Type I collagen: is found in fibrous connective tissue, the dermis of the
skin, ligaments and bones, in a variable arrangement form loose to dense
according to the mechanical support required.
❖
Type II collagen: is found in hyaline cartilage and consists of fine fibrils which
are dispersed in the ground substance.
❖
Type III collagen: makes up the fiber type known as reticulin which
was previously thought a separate fiber type because of its affinity for
silver salts. Reticulin fibers form the delicate branched “reticular”
supporting meshwork in highly cellular tissues such as the liver, bone
marrow and lymphoid organs. Reticular fibers are not seen in routinely
prepared sections but can be shown with silver stains or by the periodic
acid-schiff (PAS) reagent.
❖
Type V collagen: forms anchoring fibrils that link to basement
membrane, the remaining types of collagen are present in various
specialized situations.

5.5.2 Elastic fibers (elastin)

Elastic fibers appear as thin, homogenous strands that are similar and more
uniform size than collagen fibers. They cannot be distinguished in routine
sections and require special stains to make them visible. Elastin is synthesized

44
by fibroblasts in a precursors form known as tropoclastin, which undergoes
polymerization in the extracellular tissues.

In electron micrographs, elastic fibers are seen to consist of bundles of

microfibrils embedded around an amorphous component called elastin. Their
fibril consists of a non-sulfated glycoportein called fibrillin. Elastic fibers can
stretch more than 130% of their original length, and their presence permits
connective tissues to undergo considerable expansion or stretching with return
to the original shape or size when the deforming force is removed. In addition
to forming fibers, elastin may be present in fenestrated sheets as in some
arterial walls. Elastin is present in large amounts in tissues such as lung, skin,
urinary bladder and wall of blood vessels.

5.6 Structural Glycoproteins

Structural glycoproteins are a group of molecules composed principally of

protein chains bound to branched polysaccharide. The structural glycoproteins
include two fibril-forming molecules, fibrillin, and fibronectin, and a number
of non-filamentous proteins including laminin, entactin and tenascin, which
function as links between cells and extracellular matrix.

❖
Fibrillin is a constituent of elastic fibers where it appears to play role in
the deposition of fibers and enhance adhesion between extracellular
constituents.
❖
Fibronectin pays a part in controlling the deposition and orientation of
collagen in extra cellular matrix and the binding of the cell to the extra
cellular material. Cell membranes incorporate a group of
transmemberane protein complexes called integrins, which act as cell
adhesion molecules.

45
 ❖
Laminin is a major component of basement membranes, binding with
specific cell adhesion molecules so as to form links between cell
membranes %other constituents of the basement membrane.
❖
Entactin is non-fibrillary protein, which has the function of binding laminin to
type IV collagen in basement membranes.
❖
Tenascn binds to integrins and is important in the embryo where it appears to
be involved in control of nerve cell growth.

5.7 Basement Membranes

Basement membranes are sheet-like arrangements of extracellular matrix

proteins, which act as an interface between the support tissues and
parenchymal cells. They are associated with epithelial and muscle cells, as well
as formining a limiting membrane around the central nervous system. In the
context of muscle and nervous tissue the term external lamina may also be
applied.

Epithelia in particular are almost entirely composed of closely packed cells with
minimal intercellular material between them. The basement membrane
provides structural support as well as binding the epithelium to the underlying
connective tissue. Basement membrane is also involved in the control of
epithelial growth and differentiation, forming an impenetrable barrier to down
ward epithelial growth.

Epithelium is devoid of blood vessels and the basement membrane permit the
flow of nutrients, metabolites and other molecules to and from the epithelium.
In the kidney, the glomerular basement membrane is part of the highly
selective filter for molecules passing from the bloodstream into the urine.
Traditionally basement membranes were discovered as a unique epithelial
structure, because of their critical association with epithelial structures and
function but they are considered now as one of the connective tissues.

The main constituents of basement membranes and external laminae are the
glycosaminoglycan (heparin sulphate), the fibrous protein (collagen type IV),
and the structural glycoproteins (fibronectin, laminin and entactin). With the
electron microscope, the basement membrane is seen to consist of three layers;
A. The lamina Lucida, electro lucent layer abuts the basal cell
membrane of the parenchymal tissue;
B. The lamina densa, intermediate layer,
C. Lamina fibroreticularis broad, electrolucent layer beyond the
lamina densa.

5.8 Loose Connective Tissue

46
5.8.1 Embryonic connective tissue

a. Mesenchyme
Mesenchyme is a loose, spongy tissue that serves as packing between the
developing structures of the embryo. It consists of a loose network of state and
spindle-shaped cells embedded in an amorphous ground substance with thin,
sparse fibers. Mesenchyme cells undergo numerous mitotic cell divisions and
continuously change their shape and location to adapt to the transformations
that occur during embryonic growth. They can give rise to any of the adult
connective tissues, as well as blood and blood vessels.

b. Gelatinous/Mucoid tissue
It occurs in many parts of the embryo but is particularly prominent in the
embryonic hypodermis and umbical cord. It is characterized by stellate
fibroblasts with long processes that make contact with those of neighboring
cells, and the intercellular substance is soft and jelly-like and contains thin
collagen fibers, In the adult animal, mucoid connective tissue occurs in the
core of the papillae on the reticular folds, in the omasal laminae, in the bovine
glans penis, and in the core of the rooster comb.

47
 Mesenchymal tissue Mucoid tissue

5.8.2 Areolar/ Adult loose connective tissue

It is a loosely arranged connective tissue and is widely distributed in the adult
animal. It contains collagen fibers and a few elastic fibers embedded in a thin,
fluid-like ground substance. This kind of tissue forms the fascia that binds
organs and organ components together. It forms helices about the long axes of
expandable tubular structures such as the ducts of glands, the gastrointestinal
tract, and blood vessels.

Loose connective tissue is present around blood vessels and nerves and
between muscle bundles and the layers of smooth musculature of hollow
organs. It is found beneath many epithelia, where it provides support and a
vascular supply. Many important functions are carried out by loose connective
tissue, that range from the purely mechanical, such as support to more
sophisticated functions, such as tissue repair and defense activities
(inflammation). Cells and ground substance is more abundant than fibers in
loose connective tissue.

48
5.8.3 Adipose tissue
Adipose tissue differs from other connective tissue; Fat cells and not the
intercellular substances predominated, and unlike other connective tissue
cells, each fat cell is surrounded by its own basal lamina. Reticular and
collagenous fibers also extend around each fat cell to provide a delicate
supporting framework that contains numerous capillaries. In addition to
performing insulating and mechanical functions, adipose tissue plays and
important role in the metabolism of the organism. Two types of adipose tissue,
white and brown, are distinguished in most mammals by differences in color,
vascularity, structure and function.

White (unilocular) adipose tissue comprises up to 20-25% of total body

weight in normal. It is distributed through out the body particularly in the deep
layers of the skin. It acts as a thermal insulator under the skin and functions
as a cushion against mechanical shock in such sites as around the kidneys.

Brown (multilocular) adipose tissue: is found in newborn mammals and

some hibernating animals, where it plays an important part in body
temperature regulation.

49
 White adipose tissue Brown adipose tissue

5.8.4 Reticular connective tissue

Reticular connective tissue is characterized by a cellular framework as seen in
lymphatic tissues and bone marrow. Reticular cells are stellate, with processes
extending along the reticular fibers to make contact with neighboring cells. The
reticular cell is equivalent to the fibroblast of other connective tissues and is
responsible for the production and maintenance of the reticular fibers, which
are identical to those found in loose connective tissue.

Reticular tissue
5.9 Dense Connective Tissue

Dense connective tissue differs from loose connective tissue chiefly in the
concentration of fibers and reduction of the cellular and amorphous ground
substance. It is commonly classified into dense irregular and dense regular
connective tissue.

5.9.1. Dense irregular connective tissue

It contains abundant, thick, collagenous bundles that are woven into a
compact network. Among the collagen fibers is an extensive network of elastic

50
fibers. Dense irregular connective tissue is found in a variety of locations, such
as the propria of the initial portions of the digestive system, the visceral pleura
of the lung, the capsule of the various organs (spleen, liver, kidney, testis),
fasciae, aponeuroses, joint capsules, pericardium, and dermis.

5.9.2 Dense regular connective tissue

It contains a predominance of collagen fibers arranged in bundles, but these
have a regular, precise arrangement. The organization of the collagen bundles
reflects the mechanical needs of tissue. Dense regular connective tissue occurs
in two varieties, as collagen tendon and ligament and as elastic ligaments. In
both types, the fibers are arranged in the same plane and direction, according
to specific functional requirements.

Dense regular connective tissue

Collagen tendons and ligaments: the great tensile strength of collagen

tendons and ligaments is reflected in their structure. They consist of fascicles
of parallels collagen fibers.

51
Elastic ligaments: branching and interconnected parallel elastic fibers
surrounded by loose connective tissue make up elastic ligament. e.g
ligamentum nuchae and elastic facial of the abdominal musculature of
herbivores.

Nucheal elastic ligament Dense elastic connective tissue

CHAPTER 6: SPECIAL CONNECTIVE TISSUE:

SKELETAL TISSUES (CARTILAGE, BONE, AND JOINTS)

5.1 Cartilage

Cartilage is a semi-rigid form of supporting tissue. It contains the usual

elements of connective tissue; cells, fibers and ground substances.
proteoglycans, disposed in proteoglycan aggregates of 100 or more molecules,
make up the ground substance and accounts for the solid, yet mixable,
consistency of cartilage. sulphated glycosaminoglycans (chondroitin sulphate
and keratin sulphate) predominate in the proteoglycan aggregates with
molecules of the non-sulphated GAG, hyaluronic acid, forming the central
backbone of the complex. The ground substance gives the cartilage its firm
consistency and ability to withstand compression force. Collagen and elastic
fibers embedded in the ground substance import tensile strength and elasticity.

The fibers and ground substance form the matrix. Cartilage differs from other
connective tissues in that it lacks nerves, a blood supply, and lymphatic is
nourished by diffusion of material from blood vessels in adjacent tissues.
Based on differences in the abundance and type of fibers in the matrix;
cartilage is classified into hyaline, elastic and fibrous cartilage.

52
5.1.1 Hyaline cartilage
Hyaline cartilage is the most common type that forms the costal cartilages,
articular cartilage of joints and cartilage of the nose, larynx, trachea, and
bronchi and the sternal ends of the ribs. It is also present in the growing ends
of long bones. In the fetus, most of the skeleton is first laid down as hyaline
cartilage. Cells of cartilage are called chondroblasts/condrocytes and reside
in a small space called lacunae scattered in an amorphous matrix of ground
substance reinforced by collagen fibers.

The collagen in hyaline cartilage rarely forms bundles but is present as a

feltwork of slender fibrils. Collagen in cartilage appears to be less polymerized
than in other tissues and only type II collagen is present. Except for the free
surfaces of articular cartilages, hyaline cartilage is enclosed by a condensed
sheath of connective tissue called perichondrium containing chondroblasts
with cartilage forming potential, the outer layers of the perichondrium consists
of well-vascularized, dense, irregular connective tissue that contains elastic
and collagen fibers.

5.1.2 Elastic cartilage

Elastic cartilage contains branched elastic fibers in the matrix. Type II collagen
fibers are present. Deep in the cartilage, elastic fibers form a dense, closely
packed mesh that obscures the ground substance. The chondrocytes are
similar to those of hyaline cartilage. Elastic cartilage is more flexible than
hyaline cartilage and is found in the external ear, auditory tube, epiglottis, and
smaller laryngeal cartilages.

5.1.3 Fibrous cartilage

Fibrous cartilage represents a transition between dense connective tissue and
cartilage. It consists of alternating layers of hyaline cartilage matrix and thick
layers of dense collagen fibers oriented in the direction of the functional
stresses. It also consists of typical cartilage cells enclosed in lacunae, but only
small amount of ground substance is present in the immediate vicinity of the
cells. The chondrocytes lie singly, in pairs or in short rows between bundles of
dense collagen fibers.

Fibrous cartilage lacks a perichondrium and merges into hyaline cartilage,

bone or dense fibrous connective tissue. It is found in the intervertebral discs,
some areticular cartilages, the symphasis pubis, and in association with dense
collagenous tissue in joint capsules, ligaments and the connections of some
tendons to bone.

5.1.4 Cartilage growth

Cartilage grows in two different ways. When we consider how a long bone
develops and lengthens is that one of the ways in which cartilage grows is by
interstitial growth.

53
 ▪
Interstitial growth: young chondrocytes embedded in cartilage matrix
are able to divide and causes the cartilage matrix as a whole to expand
from within called interstitial growth.
▪
Appositional growth: The other way in which cartilage grows is by
having more matrix deposited on its surface. This growth depends on the
formation of new matrix-secreting chondreoblasts at the cartilage
surface.

5.1.5 Functions
Cartilage functions as a rigid yet light weigh and flexible supporting tissue. It
forms the framework for the respiratory passages to prevent their collapse,
provides smooth bearings at joints, and forms a cushion between the vertebrae,
acting as a shock absorber for the spine. Cartilage is important in determining
the size and shape of bones and provides the growing area in many bones. Its
capacity for rapid growth while maintaining stiffness makes cartilage suitable
for the embryonic skeleton. About 75% of the water in cartilage is bound to
proteoglycans, and these compounds are important in the transport of fluids,
electrolytes, and nutrients throughout the cartilage matrix.

5.2 Bone

Bone is a connective tissue specialized for support. It is composed of cells and

predominantly collagenous extracellular matrix called osteoid. The matrix in
the bone is mineralized and forms a dense and hard substance with high
tensile, weight bearing, and compression strength. Despite its strength and
rapidity, bone is a dynamic, living tissue constantly turning over, being
renewed and reformed through out life.

5.2.1 Structure
Grossly, cancellous and compact forms of bone can be identified. Cancellous
(spongy) bone consists of irregular bars or trabeculae of bone that branch and
unite to form an interlacing network of bony rods, delimiting a vast system of
small communicating spaces that in life are filled with bone marrow. Compact
(dense) bone appears as a solid, continuous mass in which spaces cannot be
seen with the naked eye. The two types of bone are not sharply delimited and
merge into one another.

Except the articular surfaces and where tendons and ligaments insert, bone is
covered by fibroblastic connective tissue called periosteum. The marrow cavity
of the diaphysis (shaft) and the spaces with in spongy bone are lined by
endosteum.

A fundamental characteristic of bone is the arrangement of its mineralized

matrix into layers or plates called lamellae. Small ovoid, spaces, the lacunae,
occur uniformly within and between the lamellae, each occupied by a single

54
bone cell or osteocyte. Slender tubules called canaliculi radiate from each
lacuna and penetrate the lamellae to link up with the canaliculi of adjacent
lacunae.

In compact bone, osteons or haversian systems make up the structural units of

bone. Osteons consist of 8-15 concentric lamellae that surround a wide space
occupied by blood vessels. In immature animals, the medullary cavities of most
bones contain active (red) marrow, responsible for the production of the cellular
elements of blood. Interstitial lamellae appear as angular, irregular bundles
of lamellar bone that fill the spaces between osteons.

The outer and inner circumferential lamellae are present at the external
surface the bone, beneath the periosteum and on the inner surface, just
beneath the endosteum, respectively. The longitudinally oriented neurovascular
channels at he center of osteons are the Haversian canals. They communicate
with one another by oblique branches and transverse connections called
volkmann’s canals that penetrate the bone form the endosteal and periosteal
surfaces. Spongy bone also shows a lamellar structure but differs from
compact bone in that it is not traversed by blood vessels. Therefore, osteons are
rare or lack the irregular rods of lamellar bone.

5.2.2 Cells of bone

Osteoblasts: are bone-forming cells, which synthesize osteoid and

mediate its mineralization. They are found lined up along bone
surfaces.
Osteocytes: are the chief cells found in mature bone and take the
shape of the lacunae in which they are housed, they may assist in
nutrition of bone. dsteocytes are also responsible for maintaing
bone. Plays an active role in regulating calcium concentration in
the body fluids, and is implicated in the resorption of bone.
Osteoclasts: are phagocytic cells which are capable of eroding bone
and which are important, along with osteoblasts, in the constant
turn over and refashioning of bone. They are large, multinucleated
gaint cells; often lie within shallow depressions (how ship’s
lacunae) along the surface of the bone.
Ostcoblasts and osteocytes are derived form a primitive mesenchymal cell
called osteoprogenitor cell. Osteoclasts are derived form the macrophage-
monocyte cell line.

5.2.3 Bone matrix and mineralisation

Bone matrix forms the bulk of bone and consists of collagen, ground
substance, and inorganic components. Mature compact bone is made up of
about 70% inorganic salts and 30 % organic matrix by weight. The ground
substance contains proteoglycans similar to that of cartilage but in a lesser

55
concentration and mainly consists of chondroitin sulphate and hyluronic acid.
The ground substance controls the water content of bone and probably
involved in regulating formation of collagen fibers in a form appropriate for
subsequent matrix mineralization.

Collagen fiber makes up over 90% of the organic component. The non-collagen
organic material includes osteoclacin, involved in binding calcium salts during
mineralisation process, osteonectin that may serve in binding bone cells to the
matrix.

The inorganic component is responsible for the rigidity of bone and consists
of calcium phosphate and carbonate with small amounts of calcium and
magnesium fluoride. The minerals are present as crystals with a
hydroxyapatite structure and are present on and within the collagen at regular
intervals along the fibers.

5.2.4 Bone development and growth

The fetal development of bone accurse in two ways, both of which involve
replacement of primitive collagenous supporting tissue by bone. The two types
of bone development are intramembranous and endochondral. The bones of
the vault of skull, the maxilla and most of the mandible are formed by the
deposition of bone is known as intramembranous ossification and the bones
so formed are called membrane bones.

The long bones, vertebrae, pelvis and bones of the base of the skull are
preceded by the formation of a continuously growing cartilage model which is
progressively replaced by bone; this process is called endochondral
ossification and the bones formed are called cartilage bones.

Bone can grow only by an appositional mechanism. Interstitial growth, as in

cartilage, is impossible in bone because the presence of live salts in the matrix
prevents expansion within the interior. Bone development in controlled by
growth hormone, thyroid and sex hormones.

5.2.5 Functions
Bone forms the principal tissue of support and is capable of bearing great
weight. It provides attachment for muscles of locomotion, carries the joints,
serves as a covering to protect vital organs, and houses the hemopoietic tissue.
Bone is the major store house of calcium and phosphorous in the body.

5.3 Joints

The sites where two or more components of the skeleton, whether bone or
cartilage, meet are referred to as joints, or articulations. They may be either
temporary or permanent. Temporary joints occur during the period of growth;

56
for instance, the epiphysis of a long bone is united to the bone of the shaft by
hyaline cartilage of the epiphyseal disc. Such a joint disappears which growth
ceases and the epiphysis fuses with the shaft. Most joints are permanent and
they are classified on the basis of their structural features as fibrous,
cartilaginous, or synovial.

5.3.1 Fibrous joints

Fibrous joints are those held together by dense fibrous connective tissue and
permit little or no movement. Sutures are immovable fibrous joints found in
the skull. They are temporary joints; with aging the fibrous connective tissue
gradually is replaced by bone to form a permanent bony union (synostosis).
The adjoining edges of the bones are highly irregular and interlock to create a
firm union.

A syndesmosis, occurs at the interior tibiofebular joint, contains much more

connective tissue that does a suture, allowing some what more movement. The
third type of fibrous joint is the gomphosis, a peg-and-socket joint restricted to
fixation of the teeth in to the jaws.

5.3.2 Cartilaginous joints

Cartilaginous joints are present when bones are united by a continuous plate
of hyaline cartilage or a disc of fibro-cartilage. The hyaline cartilage of an
epiphyseal plate forms a temporary joint uniting the shaft and epiphysis of a
long bone during its development, such immovable joint called synchondrosis
(primary joint).

Permanent or secondary joints are represented by symphyses, unions between

the pubic bones (pubic symphysis) and between the vertebral bodies. The thin
layer of hyaline cartilage that covered the articulating surfaces are joined to a
central disc of fibrous cartilage. In the spine, specialized dieses of fibrous
cartilage form the intervertebral discs, connections between adjacent vertebral
bodies.

5.3.3 Synovial joints

In synovial joints, the participating bones are held together by an articular
capsule and their opposed surface, covered with articular cartilage, are
separated by an arrow interval containing synovial fluid. synovial joints are
known as diarthroses. Synovial joints are complex, freely mobile joints capable
of a wide range of motion. Most of the joints of the limbs are synovial joints.

Most of the joints of the limbs are synovial joints; the bones involved in the
joint are contained within and linked by a capsule of dense over the
articulating bones. The articular cartilages that covered the opposing bony
surfaces provide low-friction gliding surfaces.

57
A synovial membrane that elaborates the lubricating synovial fluid lines the
inner surface of the capsule. An articular disc may be imposed completely or
partially between the articular surfaces, a partial disc is called a meniscus.
Discs and meniscus are connected to the capsule and consists of fibrous
cartilage.

Articular cartilages usually are hyaline in type although the matrixes contain
abundant collagen fibers. They lack a perichondurim, and joint contact is made
between the free, uncovered surfaces of the opposing cartilages. The deepest
layer of the articular cartilage is calcified and firmly adherent to the underlying
bone. Articular cartilage possesses no nerve fibers of blood vessels.

Sandoval membrane is a loose-textured, highly vascular connective tissue that

lives the fibrous capsule and extends on to all intra articular surfaces. The
articular cartilages, articular discs and meniscus are not covered by synovial
membranes, The free surface of the synovial membrane consists of one to three
layers of flattened synovial cells embedded in a granular, fiber free matrix. The
synovial membrane is responsible for the production of synovial fluid. This
fluid is viscous and acts as a lubricant and contributes to the nutrition of the
articular cartilage.

5.4 Repair of cartilage and bone

5.4.1 Cartilage
The ability to regenerate an area of cartilage that has been lost or damaged is
limited due to poor vascularity. Damaged regions of cartilage become necrotic
and filled in by connective tissue from the perichondrium. Some of the
connective tissue may slowly differentiate into cartilage, but most remains as
dense irregular connective tissue that may later calcify or even ossify.

5.4.2 Bone
The size of the bone, the thickness of its compact bone, and the complexity of
the fracture influence repair of a broken bone. After a fracture there is
hemorrhage from ruptured blood vessels and clotting. Proliferating fibroblasts
and capillaries invade the clot and form granulation tissue. The granulation
tissue becomes dense fibrous tissue and later transforms in to a mass of
cartilage that unites the fractured bones. Osteoblasts develop from the
periosteum and endosteum and lay down spongy bone that progressively
replaces the cartilage in a manner similar to endochondral ossification. Bony
union of the fracture is achieved. The spongy bone undergoes reorganization
into compact bone and excess bone is reabsorbed.

58
 CHAPTER 7: SPECIAL CONNECTIVE TISSUE:
BLOOD AND HAEMOPOIESIS

7.1 Components of Blood

Blood is defined as a special connective tissue, in which the extracellular

substance is a fluid. Blood is a fluid tissue that circulates through vascular
channels to carry nutrients to the cells and waste products to the excretory
organs. The total volume of circulating blood is kept remarkably constant and
is expressed relative to body weight (% or ml/kg). The blood volume of large
domestic animals is about 8-11% and that of common laboratory animals, from
mice to monkeys, is approximately 6-7% of their body weights.

Blood consists of a cellular component, the blood cells, and a protein rich fluid
components, the plasma, the cellular component contains erythrocytes (red
blood cells), thrombocytes (platelets), and leukocytes (white blood cells). The
leukocytes in the blood of most vertebrates are five types; neutrophils,
lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, and basophils. The blood plasma
contains 91.92 % water and 8-9% solutes (e.g. proteins, lipids, electrolytes).

Centrifuged or settled blood consists of three distinct layers. The layer, about
45 % of the blood volume, is red, consists of erythrocytes, and is called the
packed-cell volume (PCV) or hematocrit. A thin gray-white middle layer, the
buffy coat, lies above the erythrocytes and accounts for above 1% of the blood
volume. The buffy coat is composed of platelets and leukocytes. The uppermost
layer of centrifuged blood is the plasma, which contains proteins; albumin,
globulin, and fibrinogen, serum is obtained from clotted or defibrinated blood
and does not contain fibrinogen.

7.2 Structure of Blood Cells

7.2.1 Erythrocytes (Red blood cells)

Mature erythrocytes are non-nucleated biconcave discs; the degree of concavity
varies among the domestic animals, typical biconcave erythrocytes are present
in the dog, cow, and sheep; those in the horse and cat have a shallow
concavity; and most of the erythrocytes of the goat and pig are flat. The mature
erythrocyte has a central place area surrounded by orange (hemoglobinized)
cytoplasm, the central pallor of erythrocytes is visible in the dog, less evident in
cat and horse, and absent in the cow, sheep, goat and pig.

59
The size and number of erythrocytes vary among the animal species. The
smaller the red cell, the greater the umber per unit volume of blood, the dog
has the largest erythrocyte (7.0 Nm) and the goat has the smallest (4.1 Nm).
Slight anisocytosis (variation in size) of erythrocytes is common among animal
species, where as poikilocytosis (Variation in shape) is normally present in the
goat and deer. Spindle, pear, rod, and triangular-shaped erythrocytes are seen
in the goat. Erythrocytes of camel have a characteristic elliptic shape.

Erythrocytes adhere to each other and form chains, known as rouleau

formation, is prominent in horse and cat blood, intermediate in dog and pig
blood, and rare in blood of ruminants. Howell-jolly bodies and reticulocytes are
seen in the dog and cat, but not present in horse and ruminants. Howell-jolly
bodies are small, round, pyknotic, duphy basophilic DNA fragments with in
erythrocytes and are derived from nuclear karyorrhexis. Reticulocytes are
immature erythrocytes that appear polychromatic (pinkish-blue color) on
wrights stained blood film. The erythrocytes are highly adapted for their
principal function of oxygen and carbon dioxide transport.

7.2.2 Leukocytes (white blood cells)

In the blood for fewer leukocytes than are present erythrocytes. Based on the
presence and type of granule in their cytoplasm and the shape of the nucleus,
leukocytes are classified into two groups:
1. granulocytes (polymorphonuclear luckocytes); consisting of neutrophils,
eosinophls, and basophiles
2. argranulocytes (mononuclear leukocytes), consisting of lymphocytes and
monocytes.
Granulocytes have nucleic with two or more lobes, and they are named
according to the staining characteristics of their specific cytoplasmic granules.

The eosinophils have pronounced acidophilic granules, basophils possers

distinct basophilic granules, and neutrophils have neutral granule.

The proportion of different types of leukocytes varies among the animal species.
Neutrophils predominate in the dog and cat, where as they exceed lymphocytes
in horse. In ruminants and laboratory animals’ lymphocytes are predominant.
All granulocytes have a life span of a few days, dying by apoptosis
(programmed cell death) in the connective tissue.

Agranulocytes don not have specific granules, but spherical cells. Leukocytes
leave the capillaries by passing between endothelial cells and penetrating the
connective tissue by means of a process called diapedesis. Diapedesis is
increase in individuals infected by micro-organisms. The number of leukocytes
in the blood varies according to age, sex, and physiologic conditions.

a. Neutrophils

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Neutrophils constitute 40-75% circulating leukocytes. Mature neutrophils are
12-15 mm in diameter, with a nucleus consisting of 2-5 lobes linked by fine
threads of chromatin. The cytoplasm is pale grayish blue and contains a
moderate number of fine pinkish or pale granules, depending of the animal
species. The immature neutrophil (band form (has a non segmented nucleus in
the shape of a horse-shoe. The immature neutrophlis are normally restricted to
the bone marrow but they may be release into the blood during the
granulocytic response to a disease process.

Being highly motile and phagocytic, the principal function of neutrophils is in

the acute inflammatory response to tissue injury where they ingest and destroy
damaged tissue and invading microorganisms, particularly bacteria.

b. Eosinophils:
Eosinophils are far less numerous than neutrophils, constituting only 2-8%
leukocytes in normal blood. They are 10-15 Nm in diameter and contains a
characteristic bilobed nucleus or less dense and segmented than those of
neutrophils. The size, shape, number, and staining characteristics of
eosinophils vary among different species. Eosinophils of the sheep, goat, cow
and pig have numerous, uniform, spherical granules that stain bright arrange
and nearly fill the cell. The eosinoplils of the horse have the largest granules,
stain bright orange, have a mulberry-like appearance, and fill the cell
completely.

Eosinophils remain in the bone marrow for several days after production, and
the majority enters the skin, pulmonary or gastro-intestinal mucosa from
which they may migrate into local secretions. Their principal function is
defense against parasites. Increased number of eosinophils in blood
(eosinophilia) is associated with allergic reactions and helmlinthic (parasitic)
infection.

c. Basophils
Basophils are rare in normal blood and account for 0-1.5% of the total
leukocyte count. They are about 10-15 Nm in diameter and have a less
heterochromatic nucleus than do other granulocytes. The nucleus is divided
into irregular lobes, but the overlaying specific granules usually obscure the
division. The size, number and staining reaction of granules vary among
animal species. Basophilic specific granules contain heparin and histamine
which secret substance that cause contraction of smooth muscle.

There is some similarity between granules of basophils and those of mast cells.
Both cells can liberate their granule content in response to certain antigens.
Despite the similarities they are not the same and originate from different stem
cells in the bone marrow.

d. Lymphocytes

61
The number of circulating lymphocytes varies among the species, of the total
leukocyte count. Lymphocytes account for 20-40% in ruminants, mice and
rats, and 50-60% in pigs. Morphologically, lymphocytes are classified as small
(6-9Nm) and large (9-15Nm) lymphocytes. Lymphocytes are the smallest cells in
the white cell series, being slightly larger than erythrocytes. They are the
second most common leukocytes in circulating blood; increased numbers are
commonly seen during viral infections. Lymphocytes are characterized by a
round, densely stained nucleus and small amount of pale basophils, non-
granular cytoplasm. Small lymphocytes are present in the cow, sheep, and
goat. Large lymphocytes represent activated B-lymphocyte en route to the
tissues where they will become antibody secreting plasma cells, lymphocytes
are the only leukocytes that return form the tissue back to the blood, after
diapedesis,

e. Monocytes
Monocytes are the largest of the leukocytes (12-20 Nm diameter), and account
for 3-8% of the total leukocyte count. They have a highly pleomorphic nucleus.
The nucleus is oval, horse-shoe or kidney-shaped, eccentrically place, which is
stained less intensely than that of other luckocytes. The chromatin is less
condensed and has more fibrillar arrangement than lympholytes. The
cytoplasm of monocyte is basophilic and contains very fine azurophilic
granules (lysosomes), a bluish-gray color in stained smears.

Blood monocytes are precursor cells of the macrophages, large phagocytic cells
of various types found in peripheral tissues and lymphoid organs. After
crossing capillary walls and entering monocyte-macrophage system, consists of
the circulating monocytes, their bone marrow precursors, and tissue
macrophages both free and fixed (histocytes). The kupffer cells of the liver,
microglia of the CNS, langerhans cells of the skin, antigen-presenting cells of
the lymphoid organs and the osteoclasts of bone are included in the system.

7.2.3 Platelets (thrombocytes)

Blood platelets are non–nucleated, disc-like cell fragments, round or long
bodies, 2-4Nm in diameter, with a pale-blue cytoplasm containing a cluster of
reddish-purple (azurophlic) granules. Platelets originate from giant polyploid
megakaryocytes that reside in the bone marrow. In stained blood smears,
platelets often appear in clumps. Platelets promote blood clotting and help
repair gaps in walls of blood vessels, preventing loss of blood.

Firstly, they form plugs to occlude sites of vascular damage by adhering to

collagenous tissue at the margin of the wound: later the platelets plug is
replaced by fibrin.

Secondly, they promote clot formation by providing a surface for the assembly
of coagulation protein complexes that are responsible for thrombin generation.

62
Thirdly, platelets secrete factors that are involved in vascular repair.

7.3 Haemopoiesis

Haemopoiesis is the process by which mature blood cells develop form

precursor cells. Bone marrow is the primary production site for all blood-cell
lines in adult animals. Sustained haemopoietic activity depends on the ability
of the marrow to attract and hold a pool of stem cells that are capable of
differentiating into a variety of blood-cell types. The red marrow is
haemopoietically active.

7.3.1 Prenatal haemopoiesis

Hemopoiesis begins in mammals in the wall of yolk sac (mesoderm) during
intrauterine life. Later during development of the embryo, the hemopoietic cells
migrate to the liver. Subsequently, the bone marrow, spleen, lymph nodes, and
thymus of the embryo are seeded with haemopoietic, stem cells from the liver
and become engaged in haemopoiesis.

7.3.2 Postnatal hematopoiesis

Bone marrow is the major site of haemopoiesis during late gestation and at
parturition. Extramedullary (out side marrow) haemopeiesis persists in the
liver and spleen for a few weeks after birth and gradually disappears. Early in
life, all the bone marrow is hemaopeietically active and produces all blood cell
lines. In adult animals, only the sternum, vertebrae, ribs, skull, and liver is
progressively dominated by fat cells, so that in mature mammals much of the
marrow is inactive and yellow in color, filled with fat cells,

Bone marrow consists of a meshwork of vascular sinuses and highly branched

fibroblasts with the interstices packed with haemopoietic cells. The production
of blood cells by the bone marrow is estimated daily out put of about 2.5 billion
erythrocytes, a comparable numbers of platelets, 50-100 billion granulocytes
as well as large numbers of monocytes and immunologically naive
lymphocytes. In addition to hemopoietic function, the bone marrow, along with
the spleen and liver, is one of the major sites of removal of aged and defective
erythrocytes from the circulation. Blood cells are produced in the hemopieotic
compartment and reach the blood stream by crossing the wall of vascular
sinuses.

7.3.3 Bone marrow

Bone marrow contains several types of self-replicating stem cells with different
proliferating capacity. Stem cells are generally in a resting phase, but they
proliferate and give rise to progenies that are capable of producing lymphocytes
(lymphoid stem cells) and the other blood cells (myeloid stem cells).

63
The progenies of multipotent stem cells differentiate in to unipotent stem cells,
each committed irreversibly to a specific cell lineage, such as erythrocytic,
granulocytic, eosinophilic, and megakaryocytic cell lines.

Local microenvironment and humeral factors influence hemopoiesis and

stimulate or suppress the proliferation and differentiation of single or multiple
cells lineages.

7.3.4 Erythropoiesis /red cell formation/

Erythropoiesis is defined as the developmental process that leads to the
formation of mature erythrocytes. The mass of circulating erythrocytes and
marrow erythropoietic tissue is called the erythron. The first recognizable
erythrocyte precursor is known as the proerythroblast, a large cell with
numerous cytoplamic organelles and no haemoglobin.

Further stages of differentiation are characterized by decreasing cell size,

progressive loss of organelles, and progressive increase in the cytoplasm

64
hemoglobin content. Hemoglobin synthesis begins during the early normoblast
stage and is complete by the end of the reticulocyte stage. Cell division ceases
with the early normoblast stage, after which the nucleus progressively
condenses and is finally extruded at the late normoblast stage.

The process of erythropoiesis from stem cell to erythrocytes takes about one
week. The rate of erythropoiesis is controlled by the hormon erythropotin
secreted by the kidney and by the availability of red cell components
particularly iron, folic acid, and vitamin B12 and protein precursors.

7.3.5 Granulopoiesis /Granulocytes formation

The maturational process that leads to production of mature granular
leukocytes is called granulocytopoiesis. During this process the cells
accumulate granules and the nucleus becomes flattened and indented, finally
assuming the lobulated form seen in the mature cell. The stages commonly
identified are myeloblast, promyelocyte, myelocyte, metamyelocyte, band form,
and polymorphonuclear or segmented granulocytes.

The myeloblast is the earliest recognizable stage in granulopoiesis. Myeloblasts

give rise to promyelocytes, which are characterized by the development of
azurophilic granules (primary granules). The next stage in differentiation is the
myelocyte, which is marked by the development of specific granules, the
process continuing through a further three cell divisions. From the myelocyte
state through the Metamyelocyte stage to the mature granulocyte forms, the
nucleus becomes increasingly segmented.

The immediate precursors of mature granulocytes tend to have an irregular

horse-shoe or sometimes ring-shaped nucleus and are termed stab cells or
band forms.

On reaching maturity, neutrophils enter the bloodstream where some appear to

become adherent to the endothelial walls of small vessels (marginated poll)
entering the circulating pool in response to exercise and stress’ exist from the
circulation appears to occur in a random manner. The bone marrow contains a
huge pool of stored neutropils which can be rapidly mobilized should the need
arise. corticosteroids increase the rate of release from the bone marrow and
reduce the rate of exit form the circulation.

7.3.6 Lymphopoiesis/lymphocyte formation

Only two precursor stages, the lymphoblast and the prohymphocyte, are
recognizable in the development of lymphocytes, the main feature of
lymphopoiestis is a progressive diminution in cell size. Unlike other blood cell
types, lymphocytes also proliferate outside the bone marrow. This occurs in the
tissues of the immune system (thymus and peripheral lymphoid organs splean,
lymphnodes, tonsils, etc.)

65
7.3.7 Monopoiesis (Monocyte formation)
There is considerable evidence that monocytes and granulocytes have a
common progenitor, the granulocyte-monocyte colony forming unit (CFU-GH)
and that growth of colonies requires the presence of colony stimulating factors
(csf) with functions analogous to that of erythroprotien in erythrpoiesis.

Two morphological precursors of moncocytes are recognized, monoblasts and

promonocytes, with at least their cell divisions occurring before the mature
monocyte stage is reached. Monopoiesis is characterized by reduction in a cell
size and progressive indentation of the nucleus. Mature monocytes leave the
bone marrow soon after their formation and there is no reserve pool as for
neutrophils. Monocytes spend and overage of three days in the circulation
before migrating by diapedesis in to the tissues in an apparently random
fashion after which they are unable to re-enter the circulation.

7.3.8 Thrombopoiesis (platelet formation)

In adult animals, platelets originate in the red bone marrow by fragmentation
of the cytoplasm of mature megakaryocytes (Gr. Mega=big and
karyon=nucleus), which in turn, arise by differentiation of megakargyoblasts.

Megakaryocytes have a large irregular, multilobular nucleus containing

clumbed-dispersed chromatin and devoid of nucleoli. The cytoplasm is filled
with fine basophilic granules reflecting the profusion of cytoplasmic organelles.

The precursor of the megakaryocyte in the bone marrow is the mega karyoblast
withch undergoes as many as seven reduplications of nuclear and cytoplasmic
constituents with out cell division (endomitosis), each associated with
increasing ploidy, nuclear lobulation and cell size.

Cytoplasmic maturation involves the elaboration of granules, vesicles and

demarcation membranes and progressive loss of free ribosomes and rough
endoplasmic reticulum.

Plateletes are formed by fragmentation of the megakaryocyte cytoplasm with

the release of demarcated platelet fields; like platelets, they are very uneven in
size. Mature megakaryocytes appear to enter the bone marrow sinusoids intact
and pass to the pulmonary vascular bed where they fragment into platelets.

7.4 Functions of peripheral blood

Blood is important in the transport of materials through out the body, maintaining
the acid base balance, and providing defense mechanisms. Transport functions
include carriage of oxygen to all cells of the body, transport of nutrients, and
removal of waste products of cell metabolism. Blood aids in regulating body
temperature by dissipating heal-formed during metabolism and

66
distributes hormones, thus integrating the functions of the endocrine system.
Through its buffering capacities blood helps maintain the acid-base balance
and ensures and environment in which cells may function normally.

Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide is a function of erythrocytes and their

hemoglobin. The red cell plasma membrane provides mechanical protection as
well as enzymes, which prevent irreversible oxidation of hemoglobin. The
absence of a nucleus allows for a smaller cell and a more efficient distribution
of hemoglobin with in the cell. The biconcave shape gives hemoglobin optimal
accurse to the surface for gas exchange and allows the cell to under to increase
in volume with out rupturing. An iron in the hemoglobin serves as the binding
site for oxygen molecules.

Platelets have diverse functions concerned with maintaining the integrity of the
blood vasculature. They can cover and temporarily plug small gaps in blood
vessels. They play role in blood clotting, releasing factors that initiate the
clotting process; they are necessary for clot retraction, which results in a firm,
dense clot and reduces its bulk to prevent obstruction of the vessel.

Neutrophils are phagocytic and part of the first line of defense against bacterial
infections. Azurophilic granules (lysosomes) are associated with phagocytosis
for digestion of the ingested material. The cells also contains lysozyme, which
hydrolyzes glycosides in bacterial cell walls, and peroxides, which complexes
with hydrogen peroxide to release activated oxygen, and antibacterial agent
hydrolyzes glycosides in bacterial cell walls, and peroxides, which complexes
with hydrogen peroxide to release activated oxygen, and antibacterial agent.

Eosinophils have a special affinity for antigen-antibody complexes that bind

complement and induce cell lysis. Enzymes such as histaminase released by
eosinophils may dampen allergic responses by degrading histamine released
from mast cells and basophils. Eosinophils have a major role in controlling
parasitic infections. Eosinophils selectively interact with the larvae of some
helminthic parasites and damage them by oxidative mechanisms.

Basophil granules have a high content of heparin (an anticoagulant),

histamine, vasodilating agents, and slow-reacting substances (SRS). Histamine
induces vasodilatation that increases vascular permeability. Basophils play a
role in acute systemic allergic reactions; antigens that bind to specific sites on
cell membrane cause degranulation with release of agents that cause smooth
muscle spasm, mucous secretion, itching and rhinitis.

Lymphocytes are concerned primarily with the two major types of immune
responses, humoral and cellular. The basis of humoral immunity is the
production of antibodies and their diffusion through out the body fluids. As an
antigen enters the body, it is complexed on the surface of B-cells. The antigen

67
is internalized and trigger’s cell proliferation and the differentiation of the
lymphocytes in to antibody-producing cells.

Cellular immunity depends on T-cells. In response to an antigen cells

proliferate and release a variety of lymphokines that may inhibit macrophage
migration from the site of the antigen, increase the activity of macrophages,
interfere with virus replication, or lyse bacterial walls, T-cells recognize the
antigen as foreign and concentrate it on their surfaces for before presenting it
to B-cell,

Monocytes leave the blood and differentiate into tissue macrophages, they serve
as tissue scavengers, ingesting and removing particulate matter, tissue debris,
and infective agents and play a role in the immune response. Macrphages
liberate antiviral agents and a number of enzymes that digest collagen, elastin,
and fibrin.

The function of haemopoietic tissues is to provide blood with continuous

replacement of cells. It provides the blood with small cells that can more easily
circulate through fine capillary beds.
 CHAPTER 8: MUSCLE

8.1 Introduction

Muscle is the basic tissue in which the property of contractility is preeminent.

The purpose full movements of the body and the maintenance of posture are
the result of contractions of muscles attached to the skeleton. Muscular

68
contraction is responsible for beating of the heart, breathing, constriction of
blood vessels, movements of the intestines, emptying of the bladder and other
vital processes.

The unit of structure of muscle is the muscle cells, which because of its
elongated shape also called a fiber. Functionally the shape of the cell is
important because of a greater unidimensional contraction can be achieved by
an elongated cell than by a globular cell of the same volume, with in a muscle
mass the fibers are oriented in the direction of movement.

Muscle cells can be divided in to three types;

Skeletal muscle
Smooth muscle
Cardiac muscle

8.2 Skeletal muscle

Skeletal muscle is composed of extremely elongated, multinucleate contractile

cells, often described as muscle fibers, bound together by collagenous
supporting tissue. Individual muscle fibers vary considerably in diameter form
10 to 100 m and may extend through out the whole length of a muscle
reaching up to 35 cm in length.

Skeletal muscle is responsible for the movement of the skeleton and organs
such as the globe of the eye and the tongue. Skeletal muscle contraction is
controlled by large motor nerves, individual nerve fibers branching with in the
muscle to supply a group of muscle fibers collectively described as a motor
unit. Excitation of any one motor nerve results in simultaneous contraction of
all the muscle fibers of the corresponding motor unit.

The individual muscle fibers are grouped together into elongated bundles called
fasciculi with delicate supporting tissue called endomysium occupying the
spaces between individual muscle fibers. Each fascicle is surrounded by loose
collagens tissue called perimysium. Most muscles are made up of many
fasciculi and the whole muscle mass is invested in a dense collagenous sheath
called the epimysium. Large blood vessels and nerves enter the epimpsium
and divide to ramify throughout the muscle in the perimysium and
endomysium. The arrangement of the contractile proteins gives rise to the
appearance of prominent cross-striations in some histological preparations and
hence the name striated muscle is often applied to skeletal muscle. Skeletal
muscle is specialized for relatively force full contractions of short duration and
under fine voluntary control.

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8.2.1 Striations of skeletal muscle fiber
They are composed of alternating broad light I bands and dark A bands. The
fine dark lines called Z bands can be seen bisecting the light I bands. The Z
bands are the most electron dense and divide each myofibril in to numerous
contractile units, called sarcomeres, arranged end to end. The sarcomere is
the interval between two adjacent Z-lines.

The sarcomere consists of two types of myofilament, thick filament and thin
filament. The thick filaments, which are composed mainly of the protein
myosin, are maintained in register by their attachment to a disc-like zone
represented by the M line. Similarly the thin filaments, which are composed
mainly of the protein actin, are attached to a disc like zone represented by the
Z line. The I and H bands, both areas of low electron density, represent areas
where the thick and thin filaments do not overlap one another.

The thin and thick filaments remains constant in length irrespective of the
state of contraction of the muscle since contraction is not due to a shortening
of individual filaments, it must be due to an increase in the amount of over lap
between the filaments.

During contraction the A band remains constant in width, in contrast the I

band decrease in size as thin filaments penetrate the A band concomitantly,
the H-band (parts of the A band with only thick filaments) diminished in width
as the thin filaments completely overlap the thick filaments. The net result is
that each sarcomere, and consequently the whole cell (fiber) is greatly
shortened. The widely accepted sliding filament theory proposes that under
the influence of energy released form ATP, the thick and thin filaments slide
over one another, thus causing shortening of the sarcomere.

8.3. Smooth muscle

Smooth muscle fibers are elongated, spindle-shaped cells with tapered ends,
which may occasionally be bifurcated. Smooth muscle fibers are generally
much shorter than skeletal muscle fibers and contain only one nucleus, which
is elongated and centrally located in the cytoplasm at the widest part of the
cell. The fibers vary in length indifferent organs, form 20 m in small blood
vessels to 500 to 600 m in the pregnant uterus.

This type of muscle forms the muscular component of visceral structures such
as blood vessels, the gastrointestinal tract, the uterus and the urinary bladder
giving rise to the alternative name of visceral muscle. Since smooth muscle is
under the inherent autonomic and hormonal control, it is also described as
involuntary muscle.

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Smooth muscle is specialized for continuous contractions of relatively low
force, producing diffuse movements resulting in contraction of the whole
muscle mass rather that contraction of individual motor unit. Contractility in
an inherent property of smooth muscle, occurring independently of
neurological innervation often in arrhythmic or wave like fashion.
Superimposed on this inherent contractility are the influences of the autonomic
nervous system, hormones and local metabolites, which modulate contractility
to accommodate changing functional demands.

Smooth muscle fibers are bound together in irregular branching fasciculi and
these fasciculi, rather than individual fibers are the functional contractile
units. With in the fascicule, individual muscle fibers are arranged roughly
parallel to one another with the thickest part of one cell lying against the thin
parts of adjacent cells. The contractile proteins of smooth muscle are not
arranged in myofibrils as in skeletal and cardiac muscle, and thus visceral
muscle cells are not striated and in the usual histological preparations appear
homogeneous. Between individual muscle fibers and between fascicule there is
a network of supporting collagens tissue.

The contraction mechanism of smooth muscle differs from that of striated

muscle. Because the contractile proteins arranged in acriss-cross lattice
inserted around the cell membrane, contraction results in shortening of the
cell, which assumes a globular shape in contrast to its elongated shape in the
relaxed state.

Unitary smooth muscle present in the walls of hallow viscera (e.g gut, ureter,
fallopian tube), cells tend to generate their own low level of rhythmic
contraction, which may also be stimulated by stretch and is transmitted from
cell to cell via the gap junctions, such smooth muscle is richly innervated by
the autonomic nervous system, which increases or decreases levels of
spontaneous contraction rather than actually initiating it. This is termed tonic
smooth muscle and is characterized by slow contraction, no action potential
and low content of fast myosin.

A second arrangement of smooth muscle is typified by that in the iris of the

eye. Here, rather than simply modulating spontaneous activity, autonomic
innervations precisely controls contraction, resulting in opening and closing of
the pupil. Similar neurally controlled or multiunit smooth muscle is found in
the vasdeferens and some large arteries. This is termed phasic smooth muscle
and is characterized by rapid contraction associated with an action potential.

8.4. Cardiac muscle

Cardiac muscle fibers are essentially long cylindrical cells with one or at most
two nuclei, centrally located with the cell. The fibers may divide at their ends

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before joining to adjacent fiber and thus from a network of branching fibers.
Between the muscle fibers, delicate collagenous tissue analogous to the
endomysium of skeletal muscle supports the extremely rich capillary network
necessary to meet the high metabolic demands of strong continuous activity.

Cardiac muscle exhibits many structural and functional characteristics

intermediate between those of skeletal and visceral muscle. Like the former, its
contractions are strong and utilize a great deal of energy, and like the latter the
contraction are continuous and initiated by inherent mechanism, although
they are modulated by external autonomic and hormonal stimuli. Cardiac
muscle provides for the continuous, rhythmic contractility of the heart.

Cardiac muscle fibers have an arrangement of contractile proteins similar to

that of skeletal muscle and are consequently striated in similar manner. How
ever, this is often difficult to visualize with light microscope due to the irregular
branching shape of the cells and their myofibril.

Between the ends of adjacent cardiac muscle cells are specialized intercellular
junctions called intercalated discs which not only provide points of anchorage
for the myofibrils but also permit extremely rapid spread of contractile stimuli
from one cell to another and provide areas of low electrical resistance for the
rapid spread of excitation through out the myocardium.

The intercalated disc is an interdigitating junction and consists of three types

of membrane-to-membrane contact;
Fascia adherens: the predominant type of contact.
The actin filaments at the ends of terminal sarcomeres insert in to
the fasciae adherents and there by transmit contractile forces from
cell to cell.
Desmosomes occur less frequently and provide anchorage
for intermediate filaments of the cytoskeleton
Gap (nexus) junctions are present mainly in the longitudinal
portions of the interdigitations and are sites of low electrical
resistance through which excitation passes from cell to cell.

8.5 Regeneration of muscle tissue

The three types of adult muscle have different potentials for regeneration after
injury. Cardiac muscle has virtually no regenerative capacity beyond early
child hood. Defects or damage (e.g infracts) in heart muscle are generally
replaced by the proliferation of connective tissue forming myocardial scars.

In skeletal muscle, although the nuclei are incapable of under going mitosis,
the tissue can under go limited regeneration. The source of regenerating cells is
believed to be the satellite cells. The satellite cells are a sparse population of

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mononucleated spindle shaped cells that lie with in the basal lamina
surrounding each mature muscle fiber. They are considered to be in active
myoblasts that persist after muscle differentiation. After injury or certain other
stimuli, the normally quiescent satellite calls become activated, proliferating
and fusing to form new skeletal muscle fibers. The regenerative capacity of
skeletal muscle is limited, how ever, after major muscle trauma or
degeneration.

Smooth muscle is capable of an active regenerative response, after injury,

viable mononucleated smooth muscle cells and pericytes from blood vessels
under go mitosis and provide for the replacement of the damaged tissue.

CHAPTER 9: NERVOUS TISSUE

9.1 Introduction

Nervous tissue consists of nerve cells (neurons) and supporting cells (neuoglia).
Nerve cells are highly specialized to react to stimuli and conduct the excitation
from one region of the body to another. The nervous system shows both
irritability and conductivity, properties that are essential to the functions of
nervous tissue to provide communication and to coordinate body activities.
Thus the function of the nervous system is to receive stimuli from both the
internal and external environments, which are then analyzed and integrated to
produce appropriate, coordinated responses in various effector organs.

Nerve tissue is distributed through out the body as an integrated

communications network. Anatomically, the nervous system is divided into the
central nervous system (CNS) consisting of the brain and the spinal cord; and
the peripheral nervous system (PNS) composed of nerve fibers and small
aggregates of nerve cells called nerve ganglia.

Nervous tissue specialized to perceive external stimuli are called a receptor,

from which sensory stimuli are carried by the peripheral nervous system to the
central nervous system. Other neurons, the effectors, conduct nerve impulses
from the CNS and other tissues, where they elicit an effect. The specialized
contacts between neurons are called synapses; the impulses are transferred
between nerve cells by electrical couplings or chemical transmitters.

Functionally, the nervous system is divided into somatic nervous system,

which is involved in voluntary functions, and the autonomic nervous system,

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which exerts control over many involuntary functions. By creating, analyzing,
identifying and integrating information, the nervous system generates two great
classes of functions, stabilization of the intrinsic conditions (e.g. blood
pressure, o2 and co2 content, PH, blood glucose levels, and hormone levels) of
the organism within normal ranges; and behavioral patterns (e.g feeding,
reproduction, defense, interaction with other living creatures).

9.2 Neurons

Nerve cells or neurons are independent structural and functional units of

nervous tissue. They are responsible for the reception, transmission, and
processing of stimuli. Neurons are usually large and complex in shape, consist
of three parts; the cell body; or the perikaryon, which represents the tropic
center for the whole nerve cell and is also receptive to stimuli the dendrites,
which are multiple elongated processes specialized in receiving stimuli from the
environment. Sensory epithelial cells, or other neurons, and the axon, which is
a single process, specialized in generating or conducting nerve impulses to
other cells (nerve, muscle and gland cells).

Action potentials arise in the cell body as a result of integration of afferent

(incoming) stimuli; action potentials are then conducted along the axon to
influence other neurons or effector organs. Axons are commonly referred to as
nerve fibers. In general the cell bodies of all neurons are located in the central
nervous system.

9.3 Basic Neuron Types

Neurons have a wide variety of shapes, which fall in to three main patterns
according to the arrangement of the axon and dendrites with respect to the cell
body. The most common form is the multipolar neuron in which numerous
dendrites project from the cell body; the dendrites may all arise from one pole
of the cell body or may extend from all parts of the cell body. In general,
intermediate, integratory and motor neurons conform to this pattern. Bipolar
neurons have only a single dendrite, which arises from the pole of the cell body
opposite to the origin of the Oxon. Their unusual neurons act as receptor
neurons for the senses of smell, sight and balance.

Most other primary sensory neurons are described as pseudo-unipolar neurons

since a single dendrire and the oxon arise form a common stem of the cell
body. As a general rule, neuron impulses are conveyed along dendrites tow
wards the nerve cell body (afferent) whilst oxons convey impulses away form
the nerve cell body (efferent).

Neurons are terminally differentiated cells and are completely incapable of cell
division and replacement in the event of cell death. However, regeneration of

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oxons and dendrites can occur in the event of damage, provided the neuron cell
body remains viable.

Neurons can be classified according to their functional roles. Motor (efferent)

Neurons control effector organs such as muscle fibers and exocrine and
endocrine glands; sensory (efferent) neurons are involved in the reception of
sensory stimuli from the environment and form with in the body.

In the central nervous system, nerve cell bodies are present only in the gray
matter, while matter contains neuronal processes but no nerve cell bodies. In
the peripheral nervous system, cell bodies are found in ganglia and in some
sensory regions (e.g olfactory mucosa).

9.4 Cell body (perikaryon)

The cell body contains the nucleus and surrounding cytoplasm, exclusive of
the cell processes, the perikaryon of most neurons receives a great number of
nerve endings that convey excitatory or inhibitory stimuli generated in other
nerve cells.

Most nerve cells have a spherical, usually large, euchromatic (pale-staining)

nucleus with a prominent nucleus. The cell body contains a highly developed
rough endoplasmic reticulum. Rough endoplasmic reticulum and free
ribosmoes appear under light microscope as a basophilic granular area called
Nissl bodies. Neurofilaments are abundant in perikaryons and cell processes.
Nerve cells occasionally contain inclusions of pigments such as lipofuscin.

9.5 Nerve processes (dendrites and axons)

Nerve processes are cytoplasmic extension of the cell body and occur as
dendrites and axons. Each neuron has several dendrites that extend form the
perikaryone and form branch like extensions,/dendrites increase the receptive
area of the cell. Most neurons have only one axon; a very few have no axon at
all. All axons originate form a short pyramid-shaped region, the axon hillock.
The plasma membrane of the Oxon is called axolemma. All axon branches are
known as collateral branches.

9.6 Synaptic communication

The synapse (Gr.synapsis-union) is responsible for the unidirectional

transmissions of nerve impulses.synapses are the sites where contact occurs
between neurons or between- neurons and other effector cells (eg. Muscle and
glands cells). The function of the synapse is to convert an electrical signal
(impulse) from the presynaptic cell into a chemical signal that can be
transferred to the postsynaptic cell releasing chemical messengers.

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9.7 Neuroglia

Neurons from a relatively small proportion of the cells in the central nervous
system. Most of the cells are non-neuronal supporting cells called neuroglia.
Neuroglia account for over half the weight of the brain. They are smaller than
neurons and found scattered among neurons and their processes. Neuroglia
includes ependymal cells, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and microglia.
Astrocytes and oligodendrocytes are called macroglia.

a. Astrocytes are star shaped cells with many branching cytoplasmic

processes, visible only after impregnation techniques. They are important as
supporting or structural element in the CNS. After brain damage, astrocytes
remove neuronal debris and form a ‘seal’ around damaged areas, some times
leading to scarring.

b. Oligodendrocytes are smaller than astocytes with fewer, shorter cell

processes. They occur mainly in two locations, in the gray matter closely
associated with the cell body of neurons (perineuronal satellite cells).,and
among bundles of axons in white matter (interfascicular oligodendrocytes).
They are responsible for myelin formation, extending to wrap-around nerve
fibers in a spiral fashion they have several processes and forms myelin sheaths
around several adjacent nerve fibers.

c. Microglia are small, elongated cells with short, spiny processes, they lie in
both white and gray matter, usually near blood vesicles, they are the main
source of phapoeytic cells in CNS.

d. Ependyma are cells lining the cavities (ventricles of brain and central canal
of the spinal cord. They are cuboidal epithelial type with few cilia.

9.8 Ganglia

A collection of nerve cell bodies located outside the CNS is called a ganglion,
although not all ganglia lie outside the CNS. Ganglia are of two main types:
those of the craniospinal group (sensory ganglia), and those of the autonomic
nervous system (visceral, motor ganglia). Each ganglion has a connective
tissue capsule, which may be quite dense around large ganglia.

a. Sensory ganglia: receives afferent impulses that go to the CNS. Two types of
sensory ganglia exist. Some are associated with cranial nerves (cranial ganglia);
others are associated with the dorsal root of the spinal nerves and are call
spinal ganglia.

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Schwann cells

Schwann cells have same function as oligodendrocytes but are located around
axons on the peripheral nervous system. A single schwann cell forms myelin
around one axon, in contrast to the ability of oligodendrocytes to branch and
serve more than one neuron and its processes.

b. Autonomic ganglia: They appear as bubous dilatations in autonomic

nerves. Some are located within certain organs, especially in the walls of the
digestive tract, where they constitute the intramural ganglia. They have
multipolar neurons. The neurons are frequently enveloped by a layer of satellite
cells.

9.9 The central nervous system

The central nervous system consists of the cerebrum, cerebellum, and spinal
cord; it has virtually no connective tissue and is therefore a relatively soft gel-
like organ.

White and gray matter: when sectioned, the cerebrum, cerebellum and spinal
cord show regions of white (white matter) and gray (gray matter). The
differential distribution of myelin in the central nervous system is responsible
for these differences. The main component of white matter is myelinated axons
and the myelin-production oligodendrocytes.

Gray matter contains neuronal cell bodies, dendrites, and the initial
unmyelinated portions of the axons and glial cells, this is the region where
synapses occur. Gray matter is prevalent at the surface of the cerebrum and
cerebellum, forming the cerebral cerebellar cortex, where as while matter is
present in more central regions. Aggregates of neuronal cell bodies forms lands
of gray matter embedded in the while matter are called nuclei.

Neurons of some regions of the cerebral cortex register afferent (sensory)

impulses; in other regions, efferent (motor) neurons generate motor impulses
that control voluntary movements, cells of the cerebral cortex are related to the
integration of sensory information and the initiation of voluntary motor
responses.

The cerebral cortex has three layers; an outer molecular layer, a central layer of
large purkinje cells, and an inner granule layer. They purkinje cells have a
conspicuous cells body and their dendrites are highly developed.
In cross sections of the spinal cord, white matter is peripheral and gray matter
is central, assuming the shape of an H. In the horizontal bar of this H is an
opining, the central canal, which is a remnant of the lumen of the embryonic

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neural tube. It is lined by ependymal cells, the gray matter of the legs of the H
forms the anterior horns, those contain motor neurons whose axons make up
the ventral roots of the spinal nerves. Gray matter forms the posterior horns,
the arms of the H, which receive sensory fibers form neurons in the spinal
ganglia (dorsal root)

9.9.1 Meninges:

The CNS is protected by the skull and the ventral column. It is also encased in
membranes of connective tissue called the meanings, starting with the outer
most layer, the meanings are the duramater, arachnid, and pia matter. The
arachnoid and the pia matter are linked together and are often considered a
single membrane called the pia arach neid.

Dura matter: is the external layer and is composed of dense connective tissue
continuous with the perioseum of the skull. It is separated from the arachnoid
by the thin subdural space. The internal and external surface of dura mater in
the spinal cord is covered by simple squamus epithelium of mesenchymal
origin.

Arachnoid: has two components; a layer in contact with the duramatter, and a
system of trabeculae connecting the layer with the pia mater. The cavities
between the trabeculae from the subarachnoid space, which is filled with
cerebrospinal fluid and is completely separated form the subdural space. This
space forms a hydrautic cushion that protects the CNS from trauma. The
arachnoid is composed of connective tissue devoid of blood vessels.

Pia matter: is a loose connective tissue containing many blood vessels.

Although it is located close to the nerve tissue, it is not in contact with nerve
cells or fibers. It forms a thin layer of neuroglia processes forming a physical
barrier at the periphery of the CNS that separates the CNS from the cerebro
spinal fluid.

Blood vessels penetrate the CNS through tunnels covered by pia mater-the
perivascular space.

9.10 Peripheral Nervous system

The peripheral nerves are anatomical structures, which may contain any
combination of afferent or efferent nerve fibers of either the somatic or
autonomic nervous systems. The cell bodies of fibers coursing in peripheral
nerves are either located in the CNS or in ganglia in peripheral sites.

The main components of the peripheral nervous system are the nerves, ganglia,
and nerve endings. Each peripheral nerve is composed of one or more bundles

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(fascicles) of nerve fibers. within the fascicles, each individual nerve fiber, with
its investing schwann cell, is surrounded by a delicate packing of loose
vascular supporting tissue called endoneurium.

Each fascicle is surrounded by a condensed layer of robust collagenous tissue

called the perineurium.In peripheral nerves consisting of more than one
fascicle, a further layer of loose collagenous tissue called the epineurium binds
the fascicles together and is condensed peripherally to form a strong cylindrical
sheath.

Peripheral nerves receive a rich blood supply via numerous penetrating vessels
from surrounding tissues and accompanying arteries.

9.11 Peripheral nerve endings

Nerve endings increase the surface contact area between nervous and non-
nervous structures and allow stimuli to be transmitted from nerve endings to
musceles, causing them to contract, or to epithelial cells, causing them to
secrete. When stimulated, dendrites at the periphery generate impulses that
are transferred along the nerve fibers to sensory ganglia and ultimately to the
central nervous system.

Peripheral efferent (motor) nerve fibers can be divided into somatic and visceral
efferent groups. Somatic efferent fibers end in skeletal muscle as small, oval
expansions called motor-end plates. Visceral efferent nerve fibers stimulate
smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glandular epithelium. Visceral motor
endings of smooth muscle terminate as two or more swellings that pass
between individual muscle cells.

Terminal peripheral nerve fibers that are excitable to stimuli are receptors and
can transform chemical and physical stimuli in to nerve impulses. Receptors
vary in morphology, may be quite complex, and often are grouped in to free
(naked), diffuse, and encapsulated nerve endings.

9.12 Nerve fibers

Nerve fibers consist of axons enveloped by a special sheath derived from cells of
ectodermal origin. Nerve fibers exhibit differences in their enveloping sheaths,
related to whether the fibers are part of CNS or PNS.

Most axons in adult nerve tissue are covered by single or multiple folds of a
sheath cell. In peripheral nerve fibers the sheath cell is the schwann cell, and
in central nerve fibers it is the oligodendrocyte. Axons of small diameter are
usually unmyelinated nerve fibers. Progressively thicker Axons are generally
sheathed by increasingly numerous concentric wrappings of the enveloping

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cell, forming the myelin sheaths. There fibers are known as myelinated nerve
fibers.