10010

ECG
interpretation

Patient and ECG details 216

Heart rate 216

ECG interpretation
Heart rhythm 217

Cardiac axis 218

P waves 219

PR interval 220

QRS complex 221

ST segments 222

QT interval 222

T waves 223

Arrhythmias 224

Interpretation of the standard 12-lead ECG usually

strikes fear into most junior (and some not so
junior) doctors. The fear of missing an important
diagnosis means that there is a degree of nervous-
ness when presented with one. But. . . look at
them you must and they really aren’t as scary as
they first appear.
Although pattern recognition is important in
making an ECG diagnosis, a systematic approach to
ECG interpretation cannot be beaten – and it may
allow you to make a diagnosis missed by your
seniors!
A detailed chapter on ECG diagnoses is beyond
the scope of this book but a basic summary is
outlined here.

215

Witham, 978-0-7234-3440-5
 10010

Patient and ECG details

Read the name, date and time on the top of the ECG. Make sure they all correlate
with the patient you are dealing with. If there are a number of ECGs for a single
admission, numbering them is useful, though writing anything else, e.g. diagnosis,
or highlighting abnormalities is strongly discouraged.

Heart rate
The standard paper speed is 25 mm/s. Hence one small square on the ECG is
equivalent to 0.04 s; one large square is 0.2 s
The quickest way to calculate the heart rate is to count the number of large
squares between QRS complexes and divide into 300, e.g. if there are three large
squares, the heart rate is 100 beats/min.
A heart rate of > 100 bpm is a tachycardia (Fig. 38); < 60 bpm is a bradycardia
(Fig 39).

Fig. 38 Sinus tachycardia.

Fig. 39 Sinus bradycardia.

216

Witham, 978-0-7234-3440-5
 10010

Heart rhythm

ECG interpretation
Is it regular or irregular?
If there is any doubt, use a piece of paper to map out three or four consecutive
beats and see whether the rate is the same further along the ECG.

Regular rhythms

P wave precedes every QRS complex with consistent PR interval is sinus rhythm.

No discernable P wave preceding each QRS but narrow regular QRS complexes
is a nodal or junctional rhythm.

Irregular rhythms

No discernable P waves preceding each QRS complex with an irregular rate is
atrial fibrillation.

P wave preceding each QRS with consistent PR interval, the rhythm is sinus
arrhythmia.

If P waves are present but there is progressive lengthening of the PR interval
ending with non-conducted P wave (‘dropped beat’) followed by a normally
conducted P wave with a shorter PR interval, the patient is in Wenckebach’s
(or Mobitz type I) 2nd degree AV block.

217

Witham, 978-0-7234-3440-5
 10010

Cardiac axis
There is nothing mysterious about working out the cardiac (or QRS) axis. It repre-
sents the net depolarization through the myocardium and is worked out using the
limb leads, in particular leads I and aVF. The directions of each of these leads
(the cardiac vector) are summarized in Fig. 40. By convention, the direction of lead
I is 0 ; and aVF points down (aV‘FEET’).

Left axis
deviation

I 0º

Normal
Right axis range
deviation
II
aVF
+90º

Fig. 40 The normal QRS or cardiac axis

The rules for working out the cardiac axis are as follows:

Calculate the net deflection of each lead – e.g. in lead I, if there is a Q wave
measuring three small squares and an R wave height of six small squares, the
net deflection is þ3. Do this for leads I and aVF.

A net positive deflection goes in the direction of the vector; negative deflections
go in the opposite direction of the vector – e.g. net deflection of þ3 in I goes 3
points in the direction of I; a net deflection of 5 in aVF goes in the opposite
deflection of the vector (i.e. upwards) by 5 points.

The cardiac vector is therefore the sum of the individual vectors from I and aVF –
e.g. þ3 in I, 5 in aVF gives a vector of about 60 (Fig. 41). A normal axis is
between 0 and þ90 ; anything to the left of 0 is termed left axis deviation;
anything to the right of 90 is right axis deviation.
Fig. 41 Example of an
–60º: hence left axis abnormal QRS Axis.
–5 deviation

I 0º
+3

aVF
+90º

218

Witham, 978-0-7234-3440-5
 10010

P waves

ECG interpretation
Look at the P wave shape.

Peaked P waves (P pulmonale) suggest right atrial hypertrophy – e.g. pulmonary
hypertension or tricuspid stenosis (Fig. 42).

Fig. 42 Tall P wave.

Bifid broad P waves (P mitrale) suggests left atrial hypertrophy – e.g. mitral
stenosis (Fig. 43).

Fig. 43 Bifid P wave.

219

Witham, 978-0-7234-3440-5
 10010

PR interval
The PR interval is measured from the beginning of the P wave to the R wave and is
usually 1 large square in duration (0.2 s). A short PR interval represents rapid con-
duction across the AV node, usually through an accessory pathway (e.g. Wolff–
Parkinson–White syndrome) (Fig. 44).

Fig. 44 Short PR interval.

A long PR interval (>1 large square) but preceding every QRS complex by the
same distance is first degree AV block (Fig. 45). This is usually not significant,
though it is worth checking the patient’s drug history for beta-blockers or rate-
limiting calcium antagonists, e.g. verapamil and diltiazem.

Fig. 45 First degree AV block.

A PR interval that lengthens with each consecutive QRS complex, followed by a

P wave which has no QRS complex and then by a P wave with a short PR interval,
is Wenckebach’s (or Mobitz type I) 2nd degree AV block (Fig. 46).

Fig. 46 Second degree AV block; Mobitz I.

If the P waves that are followed by a QRS complex have a normal PR interval,
with the occasional non-conducted P wave – i.e. a P wave with no subsequent
QRS complex (a ‘dropped beat’), the rhythm is said to be Mobitz type II 2nd degree
AV block (Fig. 47).

Fig. 47 Second degree AV block;

Mobitz II.

220

Witham, 978-0-7234-3440-5
 10010
If the P waves regularly fail to conduct, say every 2 or 3 beats, the patient is said
to be in 2:1 (or 3:1 etc.) heart block.

ECG interpretation
If the P waves are regular (usually at a rate of about 90) and the QRS complexes
are regular (heart rate about 40 bpm), but there is no association between the
two, then the rhythm is complete (or 3rd degree) AV block (Fig. 48). This rhythm
will need to be discussed with your seniors as will usually require cardiac pacing,
and if the patient is compromised, e.g. hypotensive, will need insertion of a
temporary pacing wire.

Fig. 48 Third degree AV block.

QRS complex
First, look at the width of the QRS, then the morphology.
Normal QRS duration is less than three small squares (0.12 s) and represents
normal conduction through the AV node and the bundle of His.
A broad QRS complex signifies either:
1. The beat is ventricular in origin, e.g. an ectopic beat, or
2. There is a bundle branch block.
A broad QRS complex with an RSR pattern in V1 represents right bundle branch
block.
A broad QRS with an ‘M’ pattern in lead I represents left bundle branch block
(Fig. 49).

Fig. 49 Wide QRS (showing LBBB in lead 1).

The first negative deflection of a QRS complex is the Q wave. If the Q wave is
> 2 mm (two small squares), it is considered pathological (Fig. 50).

Fig. 50 Deep Q wave.

221

Witham, 978-0-7234-3440-5
 10010

ST segments
There are basically three abnormalities seen in the ST segement:
1. ST depression – could signify cardiac ischaemia (Fig. 51).

Fig. 51 ST depression.

2. ST elevation – highly suggestive of infarction (Fig. 52).

Fig. 52 ST elevation.

3. ‘Saddle shaped’ – concave ST segments usually seen across all the ECG,
suggesting a diagnosis of pericarditis.
If there is any evidence of ST segment abnormality, particularly in the context of a
patient with chest pain, seek senior advice at once.
It is important to note that ST segments are abnormal and cannot be interpreted
in patients with bundle branch block, especially LBBB.

QT interval
The QT interval is usually about 0.4 s (two large squares) and is important as pro-
longation can lead to serious ventricular arrhythmias such as torsades de pointes. It
can be prolonged for several reasons – including drugs such as amiodarone, sotalol
and some anti-histamines – so a drug history is crucial if this abnormality is seen. A
family history of sudden cardiac death is also important as a congenital long QT syn-
drome may be present.

222

Witham, 978-0-7234-3440-5
 10010

T waves

ECG interpretation
T waves should be upright in all leads other than leads III and V1 where an inverted
T wave can be a normal variant.
Tall tented T waves could represent hyperkalaemia (Fig. 53).

Fig. 53 Tall T wave.

T wave inversion can represent coronary ischaemia, previous infarction or elec-

trolyte abnormality such as hypokalaemia (Fig. 54).

Fig. 54 T wave inversion.

223

Witham, 978-0-7234-3440-5
 10010

Arrhythmias
Arrhythmias – be they tachyarrhythmias or bradyarrhythmias – should be treated in
the context of the patient’s clinical condition. Thus, vital signs – e.g. blood pressure,
oxygen saturations, conscious level – should all be known before treatment is insti-
tuted. You are much more concerned about the patient with a heart rate of 140 bpm
and a systolic blood pressure of 60 mmHg than you are about the patient with a
heart rate of 40 bpm with a normal blood pressure eating their lunch.

Bradyarrhythmias
Any heart rate below 60 bpm is considered a bradycardia. This heart rhythm could
be anything from a sinus bradycardia or atrial fibrillation with a low ventricular rate
to some form of heart block as outlined above.
Treatment of a compromised patient usually requires the insertion of a temporary
pacing wire and your seniors should be alerted immediately in the event.

Tachyarrhythmias
Patients with tachyarrhythmias and any evidence of haemodynamic compromise
should be considered for emergency DC cardioversion.
There are broadly two types of tachyarrythmia:
1. Narrow complex (QRS duration <120 ms)
2. Broad complex (QRS duration >120 ms)
Narrow complex tachycardias are supra-ventricular (i.e. above the ventricle) in ori-
gin. If the rhythm is irregular, the likely diagnosis is that of atrial fibrillation with a
fast ventricular response (Fig. 55).

Fig. 55 Atrial fibrillation.

If the rhythm is regular with a heart rate of about 150 bpm, there is a strong like-
lihood that the rhythm is atrial flutter with 2:1 AV block (Fig. 56). Administration of
adenosine (6–12 mg IV) can be useful in increasing the degree of AV block and
reveal underlying flutter waves.

Fig. 56 Atrial flutter with 2:1 block.

224

Witham, 978-0-7234-3440-5
 10010
If the rhythm is regular with a high rate (150–220 bpm), the likely diagnosis is a
supraventricular tachycardia (either an AV nodal re-entrant tachycardia (AVNRT)

ECG interpretation
(Fig. 57) or an AV re-entrant tachycardia (AVRT).

Fig. 57 AV re-entrant tachycardia.

Broad complex tachycardias are either:

ventricular in origin (ventricular tachycardia (VT)) or

supra-ventricular in origin but have a pre-existing or rate-related bundle branch
block. An old ECG may be helpful in this group.
As a general rule, any patient with a history of ischaemic heart disease with a broad
complex tachycardia should be treated as if it were VT unless proven otherwise. Call
your senior.
The following are useful features to look out for that favour a diagnosis of VT over
an SVT with bundle branch block:

capture beats – normal narrow complex beats ‘captured’ between the broad
beats of the tachycardia (Fig. 58).

Fig. 58 Ventricular tachycardia with capture

beat.

fusion beats – similar to capture beats but the narrow QRS complex is
superimposed by the broad ventricular beats.

extreme axis deviation, usually left axis deviation.

chest lead concordance – the chest leads V1–V6 all point the same way, i.e. all
positive deflections or all predominantly negative directions.

225

Witham, 978-0-7234-3440-5