A Workbook for

Advance computer Network

(22520)
Academic Year: 2023-24

SEMESTER V

Diploma in Computer Engineering

(CO)

Name of Student: …………………………………………………….

Roll No:………………………
 UNIT NO I: Network Layer and Protocols

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1 C State the concept of fragmentation in IPv4.
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Fragmentation: When the maximum size of datagram is greater than maximum size of data that can be held a
frame then the network layer divides the datagram received from x-port layer into fragments.
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Fragmentation is the division of a IP datagram into smaller units. After fragmentation, each fragment will
n have its own header with few fields changed and few fields remaining same.
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In fragmentation, a datagram is divided into smaller units. Most of the fields of the original header are copied
w into the fragment header. The Three fields Flags, Fragmentation offset and Total length are altered.
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2 C Differentiate between IPV4 & IPV6?

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Sr. IPv4 IPv6

No.

1 IPv4 addresses are 32 bits IPv6 addresses are 128 bits i.e.

i.e. 4 bytes length 16 bytes length

2 Header length is 20 bytes Header length is 40 bytes

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n 3 Checksum is available in No Checksum in header
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header
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4 IPv4 allows 5 different IPv6 allows storing an
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classes of IP address unlimited of IP address

5 No packet flow Packet flow identification is

identification available

6 Limited addresses Larger address space

3 C Define Home agent & Foreign agent with respect to mobile IP

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● Mobile IP communication protocol refers to the forwarding of Internet traffic with a fixed IP address even
● outside the home network.
● It allows users having wireless or mobile devices to use the Internet remotely.
● Mobile IP is mostly used in WAN networks, where users need to carry their mobile devices across different
● LANs with different IP addresses. Mobile IP is not a wireless protocol.
● However, it could be employed for the IP infrastructure of cellular networks.

Mobile IP has three major components as mentioned below –

● Mobile Node: A device such as a cell phone, personal digital assistant, or laptop whose software enables
● network roaming capabilities.
● The Home Agent: A router on the home network serving as the anchor point for communication with
● the mobile node; its tunnel packets from a device on the Internet, called a correspondent node, to the
● roaming mobile node.
The Foreign Agent: A router that may function as the point of attachment for the mobile node when it roams
to a foreign network delivers packets from the home agent to the mobile node.
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4 2 C Explain VPN?
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VPN stands for the virtual private network. A virtual private network (VPN) is a technology that creates a safe and encrypted
connection over a less secure network, such as the internet. A Virtual Private Network is a way to extend a private
network using a public network such as the internet. The name only suggests that it is a Virtual “private network”
i.e. user can be part of a local network sitting at a remote location. It makes use of tunneling protocols to establish a
secure connection.

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5 C Describe the subnetwork address if the destination address
O is 200.45.34.56 and the subnet mask is 255.255.240.0
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To find the subnet address we have to AND the IP address and the subnet mask as shown below:
200.45.34.56

Destination address: 11001000 . 00101101 . 00100010.00111000

255.255.240.0 AND

Subnet mask 11111111 . 11111111 . 11110000.00000000

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n ANDing 200.45.32.0
s Subnet address 11001000 . 00101101 . 00100000.00000000
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Thus subnet address is 200.45.32.0
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r To find the subnet address, keep the network bits in the IP address as it is, and make all host bits as 0‟s.:
200.45.34.56
Destination address 11001000 . 00101101 . 00100010.00111000

With subnet mask as 255.255.240.0, network bits are 20 and host bits are 12.
Keeping first 20 bits as it is, and making host bits as 0, the subnet address is obtained as given below.
Subnet address 11001000 . 00101101 . 00100000.00000000
Thus subnet address is 200.45.32.0

6 2 C Explain ICMP Protocol & describe the header format of ICMP?

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The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) supports the unreliable and connectionless Internet Protocol (IP).
 ● ICMP messages are encapsulated in IP datagrams. There are two categories of ICMP messages: error-reporting
and query messages. The error-reporting messages report problems that a router or a host (destination) may
encounter when it processes an IP packet. The query messages, which occur in pairs, help a host or
a network manager get specific information from a router or another host.
A ●
The checksum for ICMP is calculated using both the header and the data fields of the ICMP message.
n There are several tools that can be used in the Internet for debugging. We can find if a host or router is alive
s and running. Two of these tools are ping and traceroute
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An ICMP message has an 8-byte header and a variable-size data section. Although the general format
of the header is different for each message type, the first 4 bytes are common to all. As Figure shows,

● The first field, ICMP type, defines the type of the message.
● The code field specifies the reason for the particular message type.

● The last common field is the checksum field for checking errors
● The rest of the header is specific for each message type.
● The data section in error messages carries information for finding the original packet that had
the error. In query messages, the data section carries extra information based on the type of the query.

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UNIT NO II : Next Generation IP

Que. CO Questions
No.

1 COI502 Explain features of IPV6

.2
Marking Scheme 2M

--Advantages of IPv6:
● Larger address space.
● Better header format.
● New options for additional functionalities.
● Allowance for extension.
● Support for more security.
● More efficient routing
● More efficient packet processing
Answer ● Directed data flows
● Simplified Network configuration
● Support for new services
● Support for Security
● Auto configuration

2 COI502 Differentiate between IPv4 and IPv6. (any two)

.2

Marking Scheme 2M

Sr. IPv4 IPv6

No.
1 IPv4 addresses are 32 bits IPv6 addresses are 128 bits i.e.
i.e. 4 bytes length 16 bytes length
2 Header length is 20 bytes Header length is 40 bytes
3 Checksum is available in No Checksum in header
header
Answer 4 IPv4 allows 5 different IPv6 allows storing an
classes of IP address unlimited of IP address
5 No packet flow Packet flow identification is
identification available
6 Limited addresses Larger address space
3 COI502 State the four advantages of IPv6.
.2

Marking Scheme 4 marks

Advantages of IPv6:
● Larger address space.
● Better header format.
● New options for additional functionalities.
● Allowance for extension.
● Support for more security.
● More efficient routing
● More efficient packet processing
● Directed data flows
● Simplified Network configuration
● Support for new services
● Support for Security
● Auto configuration

Answer
4 COI502 Explain the transition method of IPV4 to IPV6
.2
Marking Scheme 4 marks

Explain different transition method of IPv4 to IPv6.

Three Transition from IPv4 to IPv6 strategies are
1. Dual Stack
2. Tunnelling
3. Header Translation

Answer 1. DUAL STACK

In this kind of strategy a station has a dual stack of protocols run IPv4
and IPv6 simultaneously.
To determine which version to use when sending a packet to a
destination, the source host queries the DNS. If the DNS returns an IPv4
address, the source host sends an IPv4 packet. If the DNS returns an
IPv6 address, the source host sends an IPv6 packet.
 Fig. Dual Stack

2. Tunnelling
Tunnelling is a strategy used when two computers using IPv6 want to
communicate with each other and the packet must pass through a region
that uses IPv4.
⮚ To pass through this region, the packet must have an IPv4 address.
So the IPv6 packet is encapsulated in an IPv4 packet when it enters the
region.
⮚ To make it clear that the IPv4 packet is carrying an IPv6 packet as
data the protocol value is set to 41.

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5 COI502 Explain IPV6 extension header?
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Marking Scheme 4M

In IPv6, the Fixed Header contains only that much information which is necessary, avoiding
those information which is either not required or is rarely used. All such information is put
between the Fixed Header and the Upper layer header in the form of Extension Headers. Each
Extension Header is identified by a distinct value.
When Extension Headers are used, IPv6 Fixed Header’s Next Header field points to the first
Extension Header. If there is one more Extension Header, then the first Extension Header’s
‘Next-Header’ field points to the second one, and so on. The last Extension Header’s ‘Next-
Header’ field points to the Upper Layer Header. Thus, all the headers points to the next one in
a linked list manner.
Answer
If the Next Header field contains the value 59, it indicates that there are no headers after this
header, not even Upper Layer Header.
The following Extension Headers must be supported as per RFC 2460:

6 COI502 Write different representation of IPV6 addressing

 .2

Marking Scheme 4 marks

)Dotted decimal
2)Colon hexa decimal
3)Mixed representation
4)CIDR notation
We prefer hexa-decimal notation for IPv6 address.
An IPv6 address is made of 128 bits divided into eight 16-bits blocks. Each block is
then converted into 4-digit Hexadecimal numbers separated by colon symbols.
For example, given below is a 128 bit IPv6 address represented in binary format and
divided into eight 16-bits blocks:
0010000000000001 0000000000000000 0011001000111000 1101111111100001
0000000001100011
Answer 0000000000000000 0000000000000000 1111111011111011
Each block is then converted into Hexadecimal and separated by ‘:’ symbol:
2001:0000:3238:DFE1:0063:0000:0000:FEFB
Even after converting into Hexadecimal format, IPv6 address remains long.

7 3 COI502 Explain the concept of IPV6 Unicast Address

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Marking Scheme 4M
A global unicast address provides a unique identity to the interface in the global IPv6
Internet. The following image shows how the format of global unicast

The first three bits of global unicast addresses are always set to 001. The next 45 bits are
allocated by the Internet Register authorities.
Answer The next 16 bits are known as subnet bits. Subnet bits allow network administrators to create
a hierarchy within the organization or the site. Network administrators may define up to 65534
subnets by uniquely assigning values in subnet bits for each subnet.
The next 64 bits are known as interface ID. Interface ID provides a unique identity to the
interface. Interfaces use the modified EUI-64 algorithm to calculate the interface ID. EUI-64
algorithm uses the MAC address of the interface to calculate the interface ID of the interface.
It makes two changes in the original MAC address. First, it changes the universal bit of the
MAC address and then adds extra 16 bits to the MAC address.
MAC addresses are 48 bits in length. The first 24 bits identify the company while the
last 24 bits identify the interface. The EUI-64 algorithm inserts the hexadecimal
value FFFE (16 bits in binary) between the company identifier and the interface identifier.
The seventh bit in the company identifier field is known as the universal (u) bit. The "u" bit
 defines the type of MAC address. The EUI-64 algorithm sets this bit to 1. The
value 1 indicates that the address is locally defined

8 COI502 Explain auto configuration feature of IPV6 in detail

.2

Marking Scheme 4 marks

IPv6 supports both stateful and stateless auto configuration mode of its host devices.

Stateless autoconfiguration for IPv6 is like a “mini-DHCP” server for IPv6. Routers running
IPv6 can give the prefix of the network and a gateway address to clients looking for an IPv6
address. IPv6 uses the NDP (Neighbor Discovery Protocol) and one of the things this
protocol offers is RS (Route Solicitation and (RA) Router Advertisement messages that help
an IPv6 device to automatically configure an IPv6 address. Let’s take a look at a
configuration exam

When we start an IPv6 interface, the interface checks whether a valid IP configuration exists.
Answer If a valid IP configuration does not exist, the interface automatically initiates the address
autoconfiguration process.
In the first step, the autoconfiguration process creates a link-local address. A link-local
address allows the interface to communicate with other interfaces on the same link. To create
a link-local address, the interface uses the following procedure.
To create the network ID, the first 10 bits are set to 1111 1110 10 and the remaining 54 bits
are set to 0. In hexadecimal notation, the binary number 1111111010 is written as the FE80.
In IPv6, a continuous set of 0 can be abbreviated as double colons (::). Because of these two
rules, the network ID of the link-local address always remains as FE80::/64.
To create the interface ID, the interface uses the EUI-64 algorithm. This algorithm uses the
hardware address (MAC) of the interface. The hardware address consists of 48 bits. The first
24 bits identify the company while the last 24 bits identify the interface. The EUI-64 algorithm
inserts the hexadecimal value FFFE (16 bits in binary) between the company identifier and
th
the interface identifier. It also sets the 7 bit of the MAC address to 1 which indicates that the
address is locally defined.
Let's take an example. Suppose the MAC address of an interface is AC:62:E8:49:5F:62. Then
the link-local address created by the autoconfiguration process will
be FE80::AE62:E8FF:FE49:5F62. In this address, FE80:: is the network ID (address)
and AE62:E8FF:FE49:5F62 is the interface ID (address).
The following image shows how the interface ID is calculated in this address.
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 UNIT NO 3 : Unicast and Multicast Routing Protocols

1 COI502.3
Explain ospf messages.
Marking Scheme 4 marks

Hello Packet :
OSPF v2 Hello Packet, Field length in bytes hide

24 4 2 1 1 4 4 4 4

Header Router Backup

Network Hello Router Designated Neighbor
Options Dead Designated
Mask Interval Priority Router ID ID
Interval Router ID

OSPF v3 Hello Packet, Field length in bytes

OSPF's Hello messages are used as a form of greeting, to allow a router to discover other adjacent routers
on its local links and networks. The messages establish relationships between neighbouring devices
Answer (called adjacencies) and communicate key parameters about how OSPF is to be used in the autonomous
system or area. During normal operation, routers send hello messages to their neighbours at regular
intervals (the hello interval); if a router stops receiving hello messages from a neighbour, after a set period
(the dead interval) the router will assume the neighbour has gone down.
Database description DBD:
OSPF v2 and v3 Database description, Field length in bytes hide

16 or 24 2 1 1 1 4 Variable

Header
Interface MTU Hello Interval Options Flags DD sequence number LSA Headers

Database description messages contain descriptions of the topology of the autonomous system or area.
They convey the contents of the link-state database (LSDB) for the area from one router to another.
Communicating a large LSDB may require several messages to be sent by having the sending device
designated as a master device and sending messages in sequence, with the slave (recipient of the LSDB
information) responding with acknowledgments.
Link state packets

Link state request (LSR)

Link state request messages are used by one router to request updated information about a portion of the
LSDB from another router. The message specifies the link(s) for which the requesting device wants more
current information.
Link state update (LSU)
Link-state update messages contain updated information about the state of certain links on the LSDB.
They are sent in response to a link state request message, and also broadcast or multicast by routers on a
regular basis. Their contents are used to update the information in the LSDBs of routers that receive them.
 Link state acknowledgment (LSA)
Link-state acknowledgment messages provide reliability to the link-state exchange process, by explicitly
acknowledging receipt of a Link State Update message

2 COI502.2
Describe the RIP message format.
Marking Scheme 4 marks

he message format is used to share information among different routers. The RIP
contains the following fields in a message:

Answer

● Command: It is an 8-bit field that is used for request or reply. The value of
the request is 1, and the value of the reply is 2.
● Version: Here, version means that which version of the protocol we are
using. Suppose we are using the protocol of version1, then we put the 1 in this
field.
● Reserved: This is a reserved field, so it is filled with zeroes.
● Family: It is a 16-bit field. As we are using the TCP/IP family, so we put 2
value in this field.
● Network Address: It is defined as 14 bytes field. If we use the IPv4 version,
then we use 4 bytes, and the other 10 bytes are all zeroes.
● Distance: The distance field specifies the hop count, i.e., the number of
hops used to reach the destination.

3 COI502.3
Explain the 3 intra domain routing protocols.
Marking Scheme 6 marks

.Distance Vector Routing:

● Require only local state (less overhead smaller footprint)
● Harder to debug
 ● Can suffer from loops
● Distance vector Routing Protocol:
● Here Distance vector:
● Current best known cost to reach a destination
● Idea: exchange vectors among neighbors to learn about lowest cost paths.
● Distance vector protocols advertise their routing table to all directly connected
neighbors at regular frequent intervals using a lot of bandwidth and are slow to converge.
● When a route becomes unavailable, all router tables must be updated with that new
information.
● The problem is with each router having to advertise that new information to its
neighbors, it takes a long time for all routers to have a current accurate view of the network.
● Distance vector protocols use fixed length subnet masks which aren‟t scalable.
Answer o periodically (on the order of several seconds to minutes)
o whenever table changes (called triggered update)
● Each update is a list of pairs:
- (Destination , Cost )
● Update local table if receive a “better” route
o smaller cost
from newly connected/available neighbor
● Refresh existing routes; delete if they time out
i.e. RIP-Routing Information Protocol

ii. Link State Routing:

o Have a global view of the network
o Simpler to debug
o Require global state
Link State Strategy
● each router shares the information/knowledge of its neighborhood with every other
router in the internetwork.
● Send to all nodes (not just neighbors)
● Send only information about directly connected links not entire routing table)
Link State Packet (LSP)
● ID of the node that created the LSP
● Cost of link to each directly connected neighbor
● Sequence number (SEQNO) Time-to-live (TTL) for
this packet
i.e. OSPF-Open Shortest Path First

iii. RIPv2:
_ Runs over UDP port 520
_ Limits networks to 15 hops (16 = 1)
_ Depends on count to infinity for loops
_ Supports split horizon, poison reverse
_ RFC 1812 specifies what options routers should or must have.

iv. MOSPF (Multicast Open Shortest Path First):

o This protocol is an extension of the OSPF protocol that uses multicast link state routing
to create source-based trees.
 o The protocol requires a new link state update packet to associate the unicast address of a
host with the group address or addresses the host is sponsoring. This packet is called the group
membership LSA. In this way, we can include in the tree only the hosts (using their unicast
addresses) that belong to a particular group.
o Thus a tree that contains all the hosts belonging to a group, but we use the unicast address
of the host in the calculation.
For efficiency, the router calculates the shortest path trees on
demand (when it receives the first multicast packet).
● In addition, the tree can be saved in cache memory for future use by the same
source/group pair.
● MOSPF is a data-driven protocol; the first time an MOSPF router sees a datagram with
a given source and group address, the router constructs the Dijkstra shortest path tree.

v.Multicast Distance Vector Routing (DVMRP):

The Distance Vector Multicast Routing Protocol (DVMRP) is an implementation of
multicast distance vector routing. It is a source-based routing protocol, based on RIP.
● Unicast distance vector routing is very simple; extending it to support multicast routing
is complicated.
● Multicast routing does not allow a router to send its routing table to its neighbors.
● The idea is to create a table from scratch using the information from the unicast distance
vector tables.
● Multicast distance vector routing uses source-based trees, but the router never actually
makes a routing table.
● When a router receives a multicast packet, it forwards the packet as though it is
consulting a routing table.
● After its use (after a packet is forwarded) the table is destroyed.
● To accomplish this, the multicast distance vector algorithm uses a process based on four
decision-making strategies.

vi. PIM-DM (Protocol Independent Multicast, Dense Mode):

● PIM-DM is used when there is a possibility that each router is involved in multicasting
(dense mode).
● In this environment, the use of a protocol that broadcasts the packet is justified because
almost all routers are involved in the process.
● PIM-DM is a source-based tree routing protocol that uses RPF and pruning/grafting
strategies for multicasting.
● Its operation is like DVMRP; however, unlike DVMRP, it does not depend on a specific
unicasting protocol.
It assumes that the autonomous system is using a unicast protocol and each router has a
table that can find the outgoing

Describe modern computer use dynamic routing. Explain with example how distance vector
routing is used to route the packet & why count-to-infinity problem arises and how does it get
solved ?
Dynamic routing uses a dynamic routing protocol to automatically select the best route to
put into the routing table. So instead of manually entering static routes in the routing table,
dynamic routing automatically receives routing updates, and dynamically decides which
routes are best to go into the routing table. This intelligent and hands-off approach that makes
dynamic routing so useful in modern era.
Dynamic routing protocols vary in many ways and this is reflected in the various administrative
distances assigned to routes learned from dynamic routing. These variations take into account
differences in reliability, speed of convergence, and other similar factors.
Distance vector routing:
1. Distance Vector Routing is one of the dynamic routing algorithm.
2. It is suitable for packet switched network.
3. In distance vector routing, each router maintains a routing table.
4. It contains one entry for each router in the subnet.
5. This entry has two parts:
. The first part shows the preferred outgoing line to be used to reach the destination.
a. Second part gives an estimate of the time or distance to the destination.
In distance vector routing, a node tells its neighbor about its distance to every other node in
the network.
Count to infinity problem:
1. One of the important issue in Distance Vector Routing is Count to Infinity Problem.
2. Count to infinity is just another name for a routing loop.
In distance vector routing, routing loops usually occur when an

interface goes down.

4. It can also occur when two routers send updates to each other at the same time.
OR
For a routing protocol to work properly, if a link is broken (cost becomes infinity), every other
router should be aware of it immediately, but in distance vector routing, this takes some time.
The problem is referred to as count to infinity. It takes several updates before the cost for a
broken link is recorded as infinity by all routers.

Count to infinity problem can be solved by following methods:

1. Defining Infinity
2. Split Horizon
3. Split Horizon an Poison Reverse

Fig: Example

Imagine a network with a graph as shown above in figure 4.8.

 ● As you see in this graph, there is only one link between A and the other parts of the
network.
● Now imagine that the link between A and B is cut.
● At this time, B corrects its table.
● After a specific amount of time, routers exchange their tables, and so B receives C's
routing table.
● Since C doesn't know what has happened to the link between A and B, it says that it has
a link to A with the weight of 2 (1 for C to B, and 1 for B to A -- it doesn't know B has no link
to A).
B receives this table and thinks there is a separate link between

C and A, so it corrects its table and changes infinity to 3 (1 for B to C, and 2 for C to A, as C
said).
● Once again, routers exchange their tables.
● When C receives B's routing table, it sees that B has changed the weight of its link to A
from 1 to 3, so C updates its table and changes the weight of the link to A to 4 (1 for C to B,
and 3 for B to A, as B said).
● This process loops until all nodes find out that the weight of link to A is infinity.
● This situation is shown in the table below
● In this way, Distance Vector Algorithms have a slow convergence rate.
● One way to solve this problem is for routers to send information only to the neighbors
that are not exclusive links to the destination.

4 C
O Describe the path vector routing algorithm.
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Scheme

● Path vector routing proved to be useful for interdomain routing.

● The principle of path vector routing is similar to that of distance vector routing. In path
vector routing, we assume that there is one node (there can be more, but one is enough for our
conceptual discussion) in each autonomous system that acts on behalf of the entire autonomous
system.
● Let us call it the speaker node. The speaker node in an AS creates a routing table and
advertises it to speaker nodes in the neighboring ASs.
● The idea is the same as for distance vector routing except that only speaker nodes in
each AS can communicate with each other.
● However, what is advertised is different. A speaker node advertises the path, not the
metric of the nodes, in its autonomous system or other autonomous systems.
Initialization
● At the beginning, each speaker node can know only the reachability of nodes inside its
Answer
autonomous system.
● Figure 1 shows the initial tables for each speaker node in a system made of four ASs.

● Node Al is the speaker node for ASl, Bl for AS2, Cl for AS3, and Dl for AS4.
● Node Al creates an initial table that shows Al to A5 are located in ASI and can be
reached through it. Node Bl advertises that Bl to B4 are located in AS2 and can be reached
through Bl.
Sharing
 ● Just as in distance vector routing, in path vector routing, a speaker in an autonomous
system shares its table with immediate neighbors.
● In Figure 1, node Al shares its table with nodes Bl and Cl. Node Cl shares its table with
nodes Dl, Bl, and Al.
● Node Bl shares its table with Cl and Al. Node Dl shares its table with Cl.
Updating
● When a speaker node receives a two-column table from a neighbor, it updates its own
table by adding the nodes that are not in its routing table and adding its own autonomous system
and the autonomous system that sent the table.
● After a while each speaker has a table and knows how to reach each node in other ASs.
● Figure 2 shows the tables for each speaker node after the system is stabilized.

Figure 2: Stabilized tables for three autonomous system

5 C Distinguish between RIP and OSPF routing protocol

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RIP OSPF

RIP stands for Routing Information OSPF stands for Open Shortest Path First.
Protocol.

Works on Bellman-Ford algorithm. Works on Dijkstra algorithm.

It's a Distance Vector protocol that It is a link-state protocol that determines the
determines the transmission path based on shortest path by analyzing many factors such as
the distance or hops count. speed, cost, and path congestion.
 RIP permits a maximum of 15 hops. No such limit on hops

The metric is calculated in terms of Hop The metric is calculated in terms of bandwidth.
Count.
Answer
The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is OSPF is a protocol that works with IP (Internet
used by RIP. Protocol).

6 C
O Describe modern computer use dynamic routing. Explain with example how distance vector routing
I is used to route the packet & why count-to-infinity problem arises and how does it get solved?
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Scheme

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Dynamic routing uses a dynamic routing protocol to automatically select the best route to
put into the routing table. So instead of manually entering static routes in the routing table,
dynamic routing automatically receives routing updates, and dynamically decides which
routes are best to go into the routing table. This intelligent and hands-off approach that makes
dynamic routing so useful in modern era.
Dynamic routing protocols vary in many ways and this is reflected in the various administrative
distances assigned to routes learned from dynamic routing. These variations take into account
differences in reliability, speed of convergence, and other similar factors.
Distance vector routing:
1. Distance Vector Routing is one of the dynamic routing algorithm.
2. It is suitable for packet switched network.
3. In distance vector routing, each router maintains a routing table.
4. It contains one entry for each router in the subnet.
Answer 5. This entry has two parts:
. The first part shows the preferred outgoing line to be used to reach the destination.
Second part gives an estimate of the time or distance to the
b. destination.
In distance vector routing, a node tells its neighbor about its distance to every other node in
the network.
Count to infinity problem:
1. One of the important issue in Distance Vector Routing is Count to Infinity Problem.
2. Count to infinity is just another name for a routing loop.
In distance vector routing, routing loops usually occur when an
 interface goes down.
4. It can also occur when two routers send updates to each other at the same time.
OR
For a routing protocol to work properly, if a link is broken (cost becomes infinity), every other
router should be aware of it immediately, but in distance vector routing, this takes some time.
The problem is referred to as count to infinity. It takes several updates before the cost for a
broken link is recorded as infinity by all routers.

Count to infinity problem can be solved by following methods:

1. Defining Infinity
2. Split Horizon
3. Split Horizon an Poison Reverse

Fig: Example

Imagine a network with a graph as shown above in figure 4.8.

● As you see in this graph, there is only one link between A and the other parts of the
network.
● Now imagine that the link between A and B is cut.
● At this time, B corrects its table.
● After a specific amount of time, routers exchange their tables, and so B receives C's
routing table.
● Since C doesn't know what has happened to the link between A and B, it says that it has
a link to A with the weight of 2 (1 for C to B, and 1 for B to A -- it doesn't know B has no link
to A).
B receives this table and thinks there is a separate link between

C and A, so it corrects its table and changes infinity to 3 (1 for B to C, and 2 for C to A, as C
said).
● Once again, routers exchange their tables.
● When C receives B's routing table, it sees that B has changed the weight of its link to A
from 1 to 3, so C updates its table and changes the weight of the link to A to 4 (1 for C to B,
and 3 for B to A, as B said).
● This process loops until all nodes find out that the weight of link to A is infinity.
● This situation is shown in the table below
● In this way, Distance Vector Algorithms have a slow convergence rate.
 ● One way to solve this problem is for routers to send information only to the neighbors
that are not exclusive links to the destination.

7 C
O Describe Link State Routing with suitable example
I
5
0
2
.
3

Markin 4 marks
g
Scheme

Link state routing is a method in which each router shares its neighbourhood’s knowledge with every other
router in the internetwork. In this algorithm, each router in the network understands the network topology
then makes a routing table depend on this topology.
Each router will share data about its connection to its neighbour, who will, consecutively, reproduce the
data to its neighbours, etc. This appears just before all routers have constructed a topology of the network.
In LSP, each node transmits its IP address and the MAC to its neighbor with its signature. Neighbors
determine the signature and maintain a record of the combining IP address and the MAC. The Neighbor
Lookup Protocol (NLP) of LSP derives and maintains the MAC and IP address of every network frame
accepted by a node. The extracted data can support the mapping of MACs and IP addresses.
The link-state flooding algorithm prevents the general issues of broadcast in the existence of loops by
having every node maintain a database of all LSP messages. The creator of each LSP contains its identity,
data about the connection that has changed status, and also a sequence number.

Answer
Example

Step 1 − Prepare the link state packet at every router.

Seq

TTL

C 11

B 7

A 1

Seq

TTL

B 2

D 1

B
 Seq

TTL

A 2

D 7

C 3

Seq

TTL

D 11

B 3

Step 2 − Every router flood the link state packets to every offer router

At A −
Link state packet B, C, D

A 2

C 3

D 7
From B
B 3

D 11

From C
A 1

B 7

C 11
From D:
8 COI502.3
Distinguish between Unicast, Multicast and broadcast.
Marking Scheme 4 marks

1. Unicast –
This type of information transfer is useful when there is a participation of a single sender and a single recipient. So, in short,
you can term it as a one-to-one transmission. For example, if a device having IP address 10.1.2.0 in a network wants to send
the traffic stream (data packets) to the device with IP address 20.12.4.2 in the other network, then unicast comes into the
picture. This is the most common form of data transfer over the networks.
2. Broadcast –
Broadcasting transfer (one-to-all) techniques can be classified into two types :
● Limited Broadcasting –
Suppose you have to send a stream of packets to all the devices over the network that you reside, this broadcasting comes in
handy. For this to achieve, it will append 255.255.255.255 (all the 32 bits of IP address set to 1) called as Limited Broadcast
Address in the destination address of the datagram (packet) header which is reserved for information transfer to all the
recipients from a single client (sender) over the network.
●

Multicast:
In multicasting, one/more senders and one/more recipients participate in data transfer traffic. In this method traffic recline
between the boundaries of unicast (one-to-one) and broadcast (one-to-all). Multicast lets servers direct single copies of data
streams that are then simulated and routed to hosts that request it. IP multicast requires the support of some other protocols
like IGMP (Internet Group Management Protocol), Multicast routing for its working. Also in Classful IP
addressing Class D is reserved for multicast groups.
 Total Marks

Marks Obtained
Sign
 UNIT NO 4 : Transport Layer Protocols

1 COI502.4
The dump of a UDP header in hexadecimal format is as follows :
BC 82000 D 002 B 001 D
Obtain the following from it :
(i) Source port number
(ii) Destination port number
(iii) Total length
(iv) Length of the data
Marking Scheme 4 marks

The UDP header has four parts, each of two bytes.

That means we get the following interpretation of the header.
i) Source port number = BC8216 = 48258
ii) Destination port number = 000D16= 13
iii) Total length = 002B16 = 43 bytes
iv) Since the header is 8 bytes the data length is 43 − 8 =35 bytes.

Answer

2 COI502.4
Explain how TCP connections are established using the 3 way handshake?
What happens when 2 hosts simultaneously try to establish a connection ?
Marking Scheme 4 marks

communication is between two peers that know their local port numbers.
● Both TCPs go through SYN-SENT and SYN-RCVD states before going to the
ESTABLISHED state.
● Both processes act as client and server.
 ● The two SYN+ACK segments acknowledge the SYN segments and open the
connection.
OR
Simultaneous Close:
● It's permitted in TCP for both sides to do "active close", which is called
"Simultaneous Close". During "Simultaneous Close", 4 packets are exchanged, the
same as in normal situations.
● In this situation, both ends issue an active close.
● Both TCPs go to the FIN-WAIT-1 state and send FIN segments that are in
transit simultaneously.
● After receiving the FIN segment, each end goes to the CLOSING state and
sends an ACK segment.
Answer ● The CLOSING state takes the place of FIN-WAIT-2 or CLOSE- WAIT in a
common scenario.

3 COI502.4
Explain TCP congestion control?
Marking Scheme 6 marks

TCP’s general policy for handling congestion consists of following three phases-

Answer
1. Slow Start
2. Congestion Avoidance
3. Congestion Detection
1. Slow Start Phase-

● Initially, sender sets congestion window size = Maximum

Segment Size (1 MSS).
● After receiving each acknowledgment, sender increases
the congestion window size by 1 MSS.
● In this phase, the size of congestion window increases
exponentially.

The followed formula is-

Congestion window size = Congestion window size + Maximum

segment size

This is shown below-

● After 1 round trip time, congestion window size = (2) 1
= 2 MSS
● After 2 round trip time, congestion window size = (2) 2
= 4 MSS
● After 3 round trip time, congestion window size = (2) 3
= 8 MSS and so on.

This phase continues until the congestion window size

reaches the slow start threshold.

Threshold

= Maximum number of TCP segments that receiver window can accommodate

/2

= (Receiver window size / Maximum Segment Size) / 2

2. Congestion Avoidance Phase-

After reaching the threshold,

● Sender increases the congestion window size linearly to

avoid the congestion.
● On receiving each acknowledgement, sender increments
the congestion window size by 1.

The followed formula is-

Congestion window size = Congestion window size + 1

This phase continues until the congestion window size becomes equal to the
receiver window size.
3. Congestion Detection Phase-

When sender detects the loss of segments, it reacts in different ways depending on
how the loss is detected-

Case-01: Detection On Time Out-

● Time Out Timer expires before receiving the

acknowledgement for a segment.
● This case suggests the stronger possibility of
congestion in the network.
● There are chances that a segment has been dropped in
the network.

Reaction-

In this case, sender reacts by-

● Setting the slow start threshold to half of the current

congestion window size.
● Decreasing the congestion window size to 1 MSS.
● Resuming the slow start phase.

Case-02: Detection On Receiving 3 Duplicate Acknowledgements-

● Sender receives 3 duplicate acknowledgements for a

segment.
● This case suggests the weaker possibility of congestion
in the network.
 ● There are chances that a segment has been dropped but
few segments sent later may have reached.

Reaction-

In this case, sender reacts by-

● Setting the slow start threshold to half of the current

congestion window size.
● Decreasing the congestion window size to slow start
threshold.
● Resuming the congestion avoidance phase.
4 COI502.4
Explain TCP connection management with the help of TCP connection management finite state machine
Marking Scheme 4 marks

Answer
 To keep track of all the different events happening during connection establishment,
connection termination, and data transfer, TCP is specified as the Finite State
Machine –FSM
TCP State Machine:
● TCP uses a three way handshake to close connection
● Singled by the FIN bit in the packet header

The figure shows the two FSMs used by the TCP client and server combined in one
diagram.
● Ovals/rectangle represents states.
● Transition from one state to another is shown using directed lines.
● Each line has two strings separated by a slash.
● The first string is the input, what TCP receives.
● The second is the output, what TCP sends.
● The dotted black lines in the figure represent the transition that a server
normally goes through;
● The solid black lines show the transitions that a client normally goes through.
● Sometimes in some situations, a server transitions through a solid line or a
client transitions through a dotted line.

5 COI502
Difference between TCP and SCTP ?
.4

Marking Scheme 2 marks

Answer
Characteristics TCP UDP
Connection TCP is connection UDP is connection less
oriented Protocol Protocol
Reliability It provides reliable It provides unreliable
delivery of delivery of messages
messages
Error Handling TCP makes checks UDP does error checking
for errors and but no reporting.
reporting
Flow controlling TCP has flow UDP has no flow control
control
Data transmission TCP gives No guarantee of the data
order guarantee that the transmission order
order of the data at
the receiving end
is the same as the
sending end
Header Size 20 bytes 8 bytes
Acknowledgment TCP UDP has no
acknowledges the acknowledgment Section
data reception
Use Used where Used where time
reliability is sensitivity is more
important important.
 Data Interface to Stream-based: No Message based data:
application particular structure Data sent in discrete
for data packages by application
Overhead Low Very low
Speed High Very high
Application FTP, Telnet, DNS, BOOTP, DHCP,
SMTP, DNS, TFTP, RIP
HTTP, POP

6 COI502.3
Explain TCP Segment header with neat diagram?
Marking Scheme 4 marks

The header of a TCP segment can range from 20-60 bytes. 40 bytes are for options. If there are no options, a header
is 20 bytes else it can be of upmost 60 bytes.
Header fields:

● Source Port Address –

A 16-bit field that holds the port address of the application that is sending the data segment.

● Destination Port Address –

A 16-bit field that holds the port address of the application in the host that is receiving the data segment.

● Sequence Number –
A 32-bit field that holds the sequence number, i.e, the byte number of the first byte that is sent in that particular
segment. It is used to reassemble the message at the receiving end of the segments that are received out of order.

● Acknowledgement Number –
A 32-bit field that holds the acknowledgement number, i.e, the byte number that the receiver expects to receive
next. It is an acknowledgement for the previous bytes being received successfully.

● Header Length (HLEN) –

This is a 4-bit field that indicates the length of the TCP header by a number of 4-byte words in the header, i.e if the
header is 20 bytes(min length of TCP header), then this field will hold 5 (because 5 x 4 = 20) and the maximum
length: 60 bytes, then it’ll hold the value 15(because 15 x 4 = 60). Hence, the value of this field is always between 5
and 15.

● Control flags –
These are 6 1-bit control bits that control connection establishment, connection termination, connection abortion,
flow control, mode of transfer etc. Their function is:
o URG: Urgent pointer is valid
o ACK: Acknowledgement number is valid( used in case of cumulative acknowledgement)
o PSH: Request for push
o RST: Reset the connection
o SYN: Synchronize sequence numbers
o FIN: Terminate the connection
● Window size –
This field tells the window size of the sending TCP in bytes.
● Checksum –
This field holds the checksum for error control. It is mandatory in TCP as opposed to UDP.

● Urgent pointer –
This field (valid only if the URG control flag is set) is used to point to data that is urgently required that needs to
reach the receiving process at the earliest. The value of this field is added to the sequence number to get the byte
number of the last urgent byte.

Answer

7 COI502.4
List two advantages of using UDP over TCP?
Marking Scheme 2 marks
1) UDP is connection less and unreliable transport layer protocol.
i.e. It does not require to maintain a connection.
2) UDP is transaction oriented and suitable for simple query response protocols.
3) UDP is faster since it does not require acknowledgment.
Useful when time sensitivity is more important

8 COI502.4
Explain the services SCTP services
Marking Scheme 4 marks
 SCTP services

The services provided by the SCTP are as follows −

● Process-to-Process Communication − SCTP uses all ports in the

TCP space.
● Multiple Streams − SCTP allows multi stream service in every
connection, which is called association in SCTP terminology. If any one
of the streams is blocked, then the other streams can deliver their data.
● Multihoming − The sending and receiving host can define
multiple IP addresses in each end for an association. In this approach
when one path fails, another interface is ready to deliver without
interruption. This fault-tolerant is used when we are sending and
receiving real-time payload like Internet telephony.
Answer
Full-duplex Communication − Data can flow in both directions at the
same time.

Like TCP, SCTP offers full-duplex service, in which data can flow in both
directions at the same time. Each SCTP then has a sending and receiving buffer,
and packets are sent in both directions.

5. Connection-Oriented Service:

Like TCP, SCTP is a connection-oriented protocol. However, in SCTP, a

connection is called an association. When a process at site A wants to send and
receive data from another process at site B, the following occurs:

9 COI502.5
Explain Flow control in SCTP?
Marking Scheme 4 marks
 At Sender Site

Answer

At Reciever site

Flow control in SCTP is similar to that in TCP. In SCTP, we need to handle two
units of data, the byte and the chunk. The values of rwnd and cwnd are expressed in
bytes; the values of TSN and acknowledgments are expressed in chunks. Current
SCTP implementations still use a byte-oriented window for flow control.

Receiver Site:

The receiver has one buffer (queue) and three variables. The queue holds the
received data chunks that have not yet been read by the process. The first variable
holds the last TSN received, cumTSN. The second variable holds the available
buffer size; winsize. The third variable holds the last accumulative
acknowledgment, lastACK. The following figure shows the queue and variables at
the receiver site.

1.When the site receives a data chunk, it stores it at the end of the buffer (queue)
and subtracts the size of the chunk from winSize. The TSN number of the chunk is
stored in the cumTSN variable.

2. When the process reads a chunk, it removes it from the queue and adds the size
of the removed chunk to winSize (recycling).
 3. When the receiver decides to send a SACK, it checks the value of lastAck; if it is
less than cumTSN, it sends a SACK with a cumulative TSN number equal to the
cumTSN. It also includes the value of winSize as the advertised window size.

Sender Site:

The sender has one buffer (queue) and three variables: curTSN, rwnd, and
inTransit, as shown in the following figure. We assume each chunk is 100 bytes
long.

The buffer holds the chunks produced by the process that either have been sent or
are ready to be sent. The first variable, curTSN, refers to the next chunk to be sent.
All chunks in the queue with a TSN less than this value have been sent, but not
acknowledged; they are outstanding. The second variable, rwnd, holds the last
value advertised by the receiver (in bytes). The third variable, inTransit, holds the
number of bytes in transit, bytes sent but not yet acknowledged. The following is
the procedure used by the sender.

1. A chunk pointed to by curTSN can be sent if the size of the data is less than or
equal to the quantity rwnd - inTransit. After sending the chunk, the value of
curTSN is incremented by 1 and now points to the next chunk to be sent. The value
of inTransit is incremented by the size of the data in the transmitted chunk.

2. When a SACK is received, the chunks with a TSN less than or equal to the
cumulative TSN in the SACK are removed from the queue and discarded. The
sender does not have to worry about them anymore. The value of inTransit is
reduced by the total size of the discarded chunks. The value of rwnd is updated
with the value of the advertised window in the SACK.

Total Marks

Marks Obtained
Sign
 UNIT NO 5 : Application Layer Protocols

1 COI502.6
State the transmission modes of FTP?
Marking Scheme 2 marks

Transmission modes of FTP:

1. Stream mode
2. Block mode
3.Compressed mode

1. Stream Mode

This is called a default mode. In this mode, data transforms from FTP to TCP in the
form of stream bytes. Here TCP is responsible for fragmenting data into small
segments. If transforming data are already in the form of stream bytes, then the data
connection is automatically closed. Otherwise, it is closed by the sender.

2. Block Mode

Block mode transforms data from one host to another in the form of blocks. Each
Answer block is preceded by a 3-byte header. The first byte contains all the information
about the block hence know for the description block. Oher two blocks containing
the size of the block in the form of bytes.

3. Compressed Mode

Compress mode is used in the case of big file size. If the file size is big, it cannot
send over the internet connection because of the size limit. In Compressed mode, a
large file is compressed into a small size and then sends over the internet.

2 COI502.6
Explain FTP with Basic model?
Marking Scheme 4 marks

● File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is an application layer protocol that is used to transfer the files
between the local devices (PC, smartphone, etc.) to a server. It transfers both text and binary files over
the Internet.

Control Connection
A Control Connection is established on Port number 21. It is the primary connection and is
used to send commands back and forth between the client and the server. It is used for sending
 the control information like user identification, password, and remote directory, etc., once the
control connection is established.

Data Connection
Data Connection is initiated on Port number 20. Using the established Control Connection, the
client and server will create a separate Data Connection to transfer the requested data.
The Data Connection stays open until the transfer is complete, after that the Data Connection
is closed.

Answer

Fig: FTP Basic model

3 C Difference between FTP and TFTP?

O
I
5
0
2
.
6

Marking 4 marks
Scheme
Answer

4 COI502.6
Explain SMTP protocol?
Marking Scheme 2 marks

1. End-to-end method
2. Store-and- forward method

The end-to-end model is used to communicate between different organizations

whereas the store and forward method is used within an organization. An SMTP
client who wants to send the mail will contact the destination’s host SMTP directly,
in order to send the mail to the destination. The SMTP server will keep the mail to
itself until it is successfully copied to the receiver’s SMTP.
The client SMTP is the one that initiates the session so let us call it client- SMTP
and the server SMTP is the one that responds to the session request so let us call it
receiver-SMTP. The client- SMTP will start the session and the receiver-SMTP
will respond to the request.

Model of SMTP system

In the SMTP model user deals with the user agent (UA), for example, Microsoft
Answer Outlook, Netscape, Mozilla, etc. In order to exchange the mail using TCP, MTA is
used. The user sending the mail doesn’t have to deal with MTA as it is the
responsibility of the system admin to set up a local MTA. The MTA maintains a
small queue of mails so that it can schedule repeat delivery of mails in case the
receiver is not available. The MTA delivers the mail to the mailboxes and the
information can later be downloaded by the user agents.
 Both the SMTP-client and SMTP-server should have 2 components:

1. User-agent (UA)
2. Local MTA

Communication between sender and the receiver :

The sender’s user agent prepares the message and sends it to the MTA. The MTA’s
responsibility is to transfer the mail across the network to the receiver’s MTA. To
send mails, a system must have a client MTA, and to receive mails, a system must
have a server MTA.

SENDING EMAIL:
Mail is sent by a series of request and response messages between the client and the
server. The message which is sent across consists of a header and a body. A null
line is used to terminate the mail header and everything after the null line is
considered as the body of the message, which is a sequence of ASCII characters.
The message body contains the actual information read by the receipt.

RECEIVING EMAIL:
The user agent at the server-side checks the mailboxes at a particular time of
intervals. If any information is received, it informs the user about the mail. When
the user tries to read the mail it displays a list of emails with a short description of
each mail in the mailbox. By selecting any of the mail users can view its contents
on the terminal.

5 COI502.4
Describe HTTP request message format?
Marking Scheme 4 marks
 The request message is sent by the client that e of a request line, headers, and
sometimes a body

Request Lines: The first line in a request message is called a request line

Answer

URL: A client that wants to access the document in an internet needs an address
and to facilitate the access of documents, the HTTP uses the concept of Uniform
Resource Locator (URL).

The Uniform Resource Locator (URL) is a standard way of specifying any kind of
information on the internet.

(b) Header

The header exchanges additional information between the client and the server.
 For example, the client can request that the document be sent in a special format,
or the server can send extra information about the document.

The header can consist of one or more header lines. Each header line has a
header name, a colon, a space, and a header value . We will show some header
lines in the examples at the end of this chapter.

Header name : Header value

Space

6 COI502.4
List and explain web document?
Marking Scheme 2 marks

Static document
Dynamic document
Static. A static web document resides in a file that it is associated with a web
server. The author of a static document determines the contents at the time the
document is written. Because the contents do not change, each request for a static
document results in exactly the same response.
Dynamic. A dynamic web document does not exist in a predifined form. When a
request arrives the web server runs an application program that creates the
document. The server returns the output of the program as a response to the
browser that requested the document. Because a fresh document is created for each
Answer
request, the contents of a dynamic document can vary from one request to another

7 COI502.
Explain the Architecture of Email with neat diagram?
6

Marking Scheme 4 marks

 1. First Scenario

Answer In the first scenario, the sender and the receiver of the e-mail are users (or
application programs) on the same system, they are directly connected to a shared
system.

The administrator has created one mailbox for each user where the received
messages are stored A mailbox is part of a local hard drive, a special file with
permission restrictions.

Only the owner of the mailbox has access to it. When Alice, a user, needs to send a
message to Bob, another user, Alice runs a user agent (VA) program to prepare the
message and store it in Bob's mailbox.

The message has the sender and recipient mailbox addresses (names of files). Bob
can retrieve and read the contents of his

mailbox at his convenience, using a user agent.

2. Second Scenario

In the second scenario, the sender and the receiver of the e-mail are users (or
application programs) on two different systems.

message needs to be sent over the Internet Here we need user agents (VAS) and
message transfer agents (MTAs).

UA: User agent

MTA: Message transfer agent

3.Third Scenario

In the third scenario, Bob, as in the second scenario, is directly connected to his
system. Alice, however, is separated from her system.
Either Alice is connected to the system via point-to-point WAN, such as a dial-up
modem Fourth Scenario
 In the fourth and most common scenario, Bob is also connected to his mail server
by a WAN or s LAN

After the message has arrived at Bob's ma

server, Bob needs to retrieve it

Here, we need another set of client/server agents, which we call message access
agents (MAAS) Bob uses an MAA client to retrieve his messages. The client sends
a request to the MAA server, which is running all the time, and requests the

transfer of the messages.

8 COI502.6
Explain IMAP and POP3?
Marking Scheme 4 marks

POP3?
POP3 (or Post Office Protocol Version 3) is an application layer protocol used by
email clients to retrieve email messages from mail servers over TCP/IP network.
POP was designed to move the messages from server to local disk but version 3 has
the option of leaving a copy on the server
POP3 is a very simple protocol to implement but that limits its usage. For example,
POP3 supports only one mail server for each mailbox. It has now has been made
obsolete by modern protocols like IMAP.
IMAP?
The Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP) is an Internet standard protocol for
retrieving email messages from a mail server via a TCP/IP connection by email
clients. RFC 3501 is the standard that defines IMAP.
Because IMAP was created with the purpose of allowing many email clients to
Answer handle an email box simultaneously, clients typically leave messages on the server
until the user explicitly deletes them. The port number 143 is usually used by an
IMAP server. The port number 993 is given to IMAP via SSL/TLS.
IMAP is designed to retrieve messages from multiple mail servers and consolidate
them all in the user’s mailbox. A typical example is a corporate client handling
multiple corporate accounts through a local mailbox located on her system.
All modern email clients and servers like Gmail, Outlook and Yahoo Mail
support IMAP or POP3 protocol. Following are some of the advantages
that IMAP offers over POP3 −
● Faster response time than POP3
● Multiple mail clients connected to a single mailbox simultaneously
● Keep track of message state like read, deleted, starred, replied, etc.
● Search for messages on the server
9 COI502.6 Explain working of www?

Marking Scheme 4 marks

The Web is a repository of information in which the documents, called web pages,
are distributed all over the world and related documents are linked together.
The WWW today is a distributed client-server service, in which a client using a
browser can access a service using a server.
The service provided is distributed over many locations called sites. Each site holds
one or more web pages. Each web page can contain some links to other web pages
in the same or other sites.
• Simple web page has no links to other web pages.
• Composite web page has one or more links to other web pages.
Each web page is a file with a name and address.
The web page is stored at the web server. Each time a request arrives, the
corresponding document is sent to the client.

Answer

10 COI502
.6 What is HTTP protocol? Explain type of messages in http?

Marking Scheme 4 marks

The HTTP protocol can be used to transfer the data in the form of plain text,
hypertext, audio, video, and so

This protocol is known as Hyper Text Transfer Protocol because of its efficiency
that allows us to use in a hypertext environment where there are rapid jumps from
one document to another document.

HTTP is similar to the FTP as it also transfers the files from one host to another
host. But, HTTP is simpler than FTP as HTTP uses only one connection, i.e., no
control connection to transfer the files.

HTTP is used to carry the data in the form of MIME- like format.
 HTTP is similar to SMTP as the data is transferred between client and server. The
HTTP differs from the SMTP in the way the messages are sent from the client to
the server and from server to the client. SMTP messages are stored and
forwarded while HTTP messages are delivered immediately.

Answer Messages:
Request and Response
The formats of the request and response messages are similar, both are shown in
Figure. A request message consists of a request line, a header, and sometimes a
body.