Course Title: Social Work Theory

Course Code: SWK 201; Unit Load: 2

Instructor: Dr. Ene Jacinta C.
Agha A. Agha
Sunday Obike E.

Course Description:
This course examines basic theories in the practice of social work. The philosophy, purpose and
methods of social work should be discussed. The functions and importance of theory will be
examined. The professional intervention through various tools and techniques of social work
appropriate to the Nigerian situation; case-work community action and problem solving. Some
basic theories in social work like systems theory, crisis intervention, behavior modification, role
theory and sociology theories.

Course outline
Module One: Definition/Explanations of key concepts
Unit 1: Social work, Model, Methods and Perspectives
Unit2: Differences between a theory and methods
Unit 3: The functions and importance of theory to social work practice
Unit 4: Why we need theory in social work

Module Two: Major theories/Models used in social work practice

Unit 1: Systems theory
Unit 2: Psychodynamic theory
Unit 3: Social learning theory
Unit 4: Conflict learning theory
Unit 5: Transpersonal theory
Unit 6: Psychosocial development theory

Module Three: Models used in social work practice

Unit 1: Problem solving model
Unit 2: Task-Centered-Treatment model
Unit 3: Solution-Focused treatment model
Unit 4: Behavior Modification Treatment model
Unit 5: Crisis intervention model
Module four: Perspectives, knowledge/skill base of social work practice
Primary perspectives used in social work practice
The strength perspective
The feminist perspective
The knowledge base of social work practice
Skill base of social work practice

Module Five: Code of ethics and ethical standard in social work practice
Unit 1: Code of ethics
Unit 2: Ethical standard in social work practice
Social work ethical responsibilities to clients
Social work ethical responsibilities to colleagues
Social work ethical responsibilities to himself
Social work ethical responsibilities to practice settings

Module Six: Application of theories and models in social work practice

Unit 1: Multiplicity of family problems
Unit 2: Dynamics of family system
Unit 3: Intervention methods in social work
Unit 4: Eclectic approach in social work practice.

Module One: Definition/Explanations of key concepts

Unit 1: Social work, Model, Methods and Perspectives
Unit2: Theory building and classification
Unit 3: The functions and importance of theory to social work practice
Unit 4: Characteristics of a good theory
Meaning of Social Work

Social work is one of the resources that society provides to help people in their
social functioning. It is an agent of change that is often seen as a multi-faceted
profession, usually carried out in both public and private agencies. It is a practice
based profession and an academic discipline that promotes social change,
development, cohesion and the empowerment and liberation of the people in order
to enhance their well-being (International Association of Social Work (IFSW)
2014). The profession is underpinned by theories, models and perspectives which
help to address life challenges and individuals’ interaction with the society.

What is Theory?

A theory is a set of concepts and propositions that presents an organized view of

phenomena. It refers to a set of principles on which an activity is based. It tells us
which of the many factors in a given situation are important and it provides
categories for classifying and as well imparting meaning to what we observe.
Theory can be an explanation of why something happens, when and how
something happens. It can be defined as a set of inter-related
constructs/concepts/definitions and propositions that presents a systematic view of
phenomenon by specific relations among variables with the purpose of explaining
the phenomenon. A good theory provides a reliable means of prediction. You
should understand that the particular meaning which a given theory imparts to a
particular set of observed behaviors is not necessary the only meaning that could
be given to them. Other theories may provide different and even antithetical
explanations of the same phenomenon. Hence, whatever theory one adopts, it
directs his attention to certain variables and gives a particular meaning to the
observed values of these variables. This is to say that theory tells us what to
observe and what to explain from our observations.

A researcher is expected to base his/her research on theories. This is because the

research presupposes the existence of some theory from which the hypothesis is
derived. Theory is not specific to a particular discipline, various discipline have
their theories. However, some of their theories are inter-disciplinary.
Some inter-disciplinary theory includes:

Gravitational theory: by Newton (law of gravity) from Physics.

Evolution theory: by Charles Darwin from sociology

Systems theory: This we will study next week.

Conflict theory: by Karl Marx from sociology discipline

Psychological theories: by Eric Erickson from psychology

Terms related to theory

There are certain terms related to the use of theory, they include concepts,
facts and hypothesis.

Concepts: This refers to the body of abstract and operational definitions.

Concepts are terms developed by discipline to describe a phenomenon with which
it is dealing. Concepts are used by professionals in various disciples to describe
events and phenomena in their discipline. For instance, the concept in social work
includes the self, relationship, client or practitioner.

Facts: This is seen as concept that has been empirically verified (eg women give
birth to babies). A good example of fact in social work is the principle of
acceptance of a client in the treatment process. In the profession, it is a known fact
that the discipline does not judge, segregate, nor chose clients.

Hypothesis: This is a tentative statement. It is a relationship between facts. It also

refers to a guess work or assumption (women teach better than men). Hypothesis
can be said to be a problem statement which seeks at the minimum to relate one
phenomenon/variable to the other. It is more like a sub-theory.

The relation that exist between these three things is that when we observe
phenomena, we give them names, the names we give them becomes concepts, as
studies are carried out, those concepts are tested and when they are found true, it
becomes a fact. Hypothesis emerge when we try to examine the relationship that
exists between the facts. If the hypothesis is tested and found to be correct, they
can lead to the development of a theory.
Theory building and classifications

However, theory does not just emanate from nowhere; generally, they are derived
from studies and research carried out by scholars. There are two acceptable ways
we can build theory:

1). Beginning with a research

2). Beginning with an already existing theory

1). Beginning with a research: In building a theory using this method, certain
steps are considered to be relevant.

a). Conceptualizing an idea: This is referred to as seeking for a study area or

topic. Look out on certain social problems and conceptualize an idea. (fast wealth
amongst youth).

b). Formulation of hypotheses: Based on the idea conceptualized, hypotheses are

formulated to guide the study. (boys indulge in fast wealth than girls).

c). Collection of data: In this step, the researcher proceeds to collect data for the
study. Data collected using quantitative method (using questionnaires) or
qualitative method (using FGD or IDI).

d). Data analysis: At the end of the data collection, the researcher proceeds with
analyzing the data. This can be done using statistical method with frequency tables
or transcribing coded notes.

e). Theory: Finally, the conclusion arrived after the unbiased data analysis
becomes the theory. (system theory)

2). Beginning with an already existing theory: This method upholds the view
that theory can be built beginning with already existing theory.

a) Already existing theory: Here, the researcher selects an already existing theory.

Eg Conflict theory
b). Formulation of hypothesis: Based on the know theory, the researcher
formulates the hypotheses. Eg social existence upholds conflict

c). Data collection: The researcher collects data through qualitative or quantitative
method.

d). Data analysis: At the end of data collection, the researcher proceeds to analyze
the data collected.

e). Theory: Finally, a conclusion is drawn based on the findings of the research or
study. The conclusion can either conform with the idea of the existing theory or
lead to the emerges of a new theory.

Basic classification of social work theory

The social work theories are basically classified into two broad categories.

The assessment theory and the intervention theory

1). The Assessment theory is concerned with how we obtain our understanding of
people, their situations and problems. It includes a typology of assessment
procedures, a rationale and a set of practice principles. It enables us arrive at
descriptive and prescriptive judgments about what is wrong, what the problem is to
be called, how it is to be explained and what kind of targets and talks can be
chosen.

2). Intervention Theory: This type of theory describes the conditions appropriate
for the use of intervention procedure and techniques. It helps set the conceptions
and expectations for the different types of helping roles (for instance a mediator, a
friend or a resource person). It gives guidelines for the initial interview,
management of resistive clients, how to formulate a problem and how to reduce a
problem to achievable goals.

Social work theory and case treatment

The essence of social work theories in case treatment cannot be over emphasized.
To social workers, theory is their tool for practice. The theories on which social
work profession is built are essentially related to the nature and style of social
work practices (working with individuals, groups/communities). Social work
theories and techniques are closely related in current practice. Thus theories
strongly influence case treatment.

Importance of theories to social worker in case treatment

1). Prediction: This is the most essential and important contribution of theory for
the social worker seeking to offer responsible and effective intervention. It is the
ability to predict outcomes or the ability to explain. Without the confidence in
predicting outcomes based on a presumed understanding of situations and persons,
practice remains in the area of guess work.

2). Understand new Situation: Theory helps the social worker to understand,
recognize and explain new situations. If they understand the phenomena with
which they are dealing and their inter-relationship sufficiently well, they should
therefore have the conceptual tools to deal with some unexpected or unanticipated
observations in the behavior they met.

3). Movement of situation: Theory also enables the social workers to carry over
ideas or issues from one situation to the other. It also aids the worker to recognize
what is similar or different in their ongoing practice experiences. For instance, it
enables the social worker see not only how a client or situation is but how he is
different from other clients or situations.

4). Transfer of knowledge: A sound and logically consistent theoretical structure

permits social workers to explain their activity to others, to be able to transfer their
knowledge and skills in a testable/demonstrable way and to permit their activities
to be scrutinized and evaluated by others.

5). Understands unknown situation: Theory further helps the social worker to
recognize when they have new situations that indicate gaps in their knowledge.
Hence, when the application of a theoretical concept does not result in the expected
outcome, the social workers are made aware that they have misunderstood or that
what they have is not sufficient to deal with the situation at hand.

6) Assurance to the worker: Theory also gives assurance to the social worker.
Theory gives a sense of security to the social worker, thus increasing his certainty
and his effectiveness.
7). Assessment of other theories: Additionally, theory permits social workers to
assess other theories that is, if the social workers are clear about which of their
concepts are empirically verifiable and empirically connected, then social workers
are in a much better position to compare what they know with other emerging
issues.

8) Use of multiple theories: You must understand that the social worker can apply
more than one theory in a case. The type of theory to be applied in a case depends
on the nature of the case

Some characteristics of a good theory

There are certain characteristics expected of a good and adequate theory. They
include:

1). A good theory must be compatible with observation and also with previously
valid theories.

2). It must explain data adequately.

3). It must be stated in simple terms.

4). It must be based on empirical facts and relationship.

5). A good theory must provide for means of verification and interpretation.

The social work profession utilizes various sociological, psychological and other
theories from related disciplines. You will learn some of these theories, their
philosophy, assumptions and application in case study/treatment.

PART B

MODULE 1: Major theories used in social work practice.

Theory 1: System theory

This is referred as the general system theory in social work

A system is a regularly interacting or interdependent group of items forming a

unified whole. For instance the systems theory views the family as a system of
interlocking forces that regulate the ways it and its members operates. As such, the
whole is greater than its parts, and the whole must be known for the parts to be
understood. Each part contributes to the system and the malfunction for whatever
reason affects the balance or equilibrium of the total system. Hence, the three (3)
key concept of the general systems theory is wholeness, relationship and
homeostasis.

The concept of wholeness means that the object or element within the system
produce is greater than the additive sums of the separate parts. It asserts that no
system can be adequately understood or totally explained once it has been broken
down into its components parts.

The concept of relationship asserts that the patterning and structuring among the
elements in a system are as important as the elements themselves.

The concept of homeostasis suggests that most living systems seek a balance
(equilibrium) to maintain and preserve the system.

Social workers are trained to have a system perspective in their work with
individuals, groups, families, organizations and communities. A system
perspective is based on a way of conceptualizing problems and forming
actions/treatment plans. It highlights the importance of looking beyond the client’s
problems in order to assess the complexities of his or her life. The system theory
was proposed in the 1940’s by the biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy and further by
Ross Ashby (1964). According to Pincus and Minaham (1973), they theorized that
there are four basic systems in social work practice; a change agent system, a client
system, a target system and an action system.
1). The change agent system: This include the social worker and the agency
employing him/her. Agency has guidelines and values that directs or restricts the
worker

2). The client system: The client, the family, group, community requesting the
services of the agency social worker. The social worker usually agrees with the
client system on the nature of help required. The client need not be the party to
helped directly.

3). The target system: This is the system to be changed by the intervention of the
social worker. It varies in sizes, level of individual, family, group, agency among
others. When the client‘s difficulty is located outside itself, the change effort may
be directed to an external target.

4). The action system: This system comprised of all the people who have
organized to bring about change. It includes the client system, social worker and
target system. The action system is essential for the as it facilitates clear thinking
about the roles to be taken by the worker and the kinds of intervention to follow.

Types of system
There are two major types of systems
The open system and the close system.
1). The open system: This is the central idea in system theory. For the system to
continue to exist and perform its functions there is an interchange with the
environment. The essential thing is that it receives inputs from other system in the
environment and sends out output to the other system in the environment.
2). The close system: A close system refers to an entity or system where there is no
interchange with the environment. There is little or no interaction with the
elements or sub-systems that makes up the system. Close system neither receives
nor sends out output to the other system. The fact remains that no social system is
completely closed.
Characteristics of open and closed system
Open Close
Esteem: The esteem here is high. Esteem here is low.
Rules: Rules changes when the need arises, is This has fixed rigid rules, may be
flexible and not static, it encourages freedom out of date. No rule freedom.
Communication: This is cordial and direct It is indirect deceitful and does not
This type of communication favors growth favor growth.
Outcome: Things are done positively and Things are negative and are done in
appropriately in (eg, the family) this system an inappropriate way.

The truth remains that there is no closed family/agency/system, but it may have the
characteristics of a closed system. As such no social system (agents of
socialization) is closed.

The importance of system theory to a social worker

1) The concepts related to the system theory are equally applied to the range of
clients, families, communities and groups.
2) The theory makes the social worker to see man as an active personality that is
capably of initiating own behavior. Man is seen as an autonomous individual.
3). System theory shifts attention from the characteristics that is possessed by the
individual or the system itself to the interaction between them. The interaction
process of the system theory helps the social worker in his diagnosis.
4) The theory puts the client, family, community or group in one unit as a client
system. As such it encourages multiple client practice which offers the social
worker the opportunity to deal with more than one client.
5) It highlights the importance of the populace that are isolated.
6) The system theory ensures collective effort of the action system in order to
achieve positive change of the client(s).

Theory 2: Psychodynamic theory

Have you ever wondered how you have become the person you are today? You
must have had different experiences and influences from others that have helped to
shape your identity. This leads to the psychodynamic theory of human
development. This theory is one of the psychological theories including
psychoanalytical and psychosocial among other theories in psychology which
emphasized the importance of drives and other forces in human development and
functioning. This pertains particularly to unconscious drives and motivations. The
theory holds that childhood experience is the basis for adult personality and
relationships. The theory originated from Sigmund Freud psychoanalytical theories
and includes other theories based on his ideas and experiences with patients during
therapy. The term psychoanalytic and psychodynamic are often used
interchangeably. They difference is that the term psychoanalytic only refers to
theories developed by Freud (it encourages clients to verbalize their thoughts .It
includes analysis of dreams and fantasies from which the therapist depicts an
understanding of the client problem) while the term psychodynamic refers to both
Freud’s theories and those that are based on his ideas such as Erick Erickson’s
psychosocial theory of human development. This theory is based on the
assumption that behaviors and mental well-being are influenced by childhood
experiences and inappropriate repetitive thoughts and feelings of the human
personality.

According to Freud, the human mind and personality is made up of three parts:
1). The id: This is the unconscious and irrational part of the brain that functions
unconsciously based on what Freud called the pleasure principle. This part of
personality is driven by instant gratification and pleasure; while avoiding anything
that would cause discomfort and pain.
2). The ego: This is the mediator between the id and the superego. It is the
personality part that negotiates between the id and the real world. The ego exists to
provide balance for the id which is motivated by self-interest.
3) The superego: This exists to keep a person from deviating from social
expectations/engaging in a moral behavior. It is the most conscious part of the
personality. It adheres to all the things children learn in the very early part of their
lives such as social or cultural standards.
As such humans are born with the id, develop the ego as toddlers and add
the super ego around 12 years. For instance, the id unconsciously desires to eat
junk food and drink. The ego consciously knows that these things are unhealthy
and socially unacceptable and try to prevent you from doing them. The superego
operates on the moral lessons learned in childhood, knows that junk food are bad
and may result to side effects and reinforces the prevention of the unconscious
pleasure motivation driven behavior.

Goals of the theory

1). It enhances the client self awareness of himself.
2). It fosters understanding of the client‘s thoughts, feelings and beliefs in relation
to their past experiences, particularly his/her experiences as a child
Some assumptions of the theory
1). The unconscious mind (id) is one of the most powerful drivers of human
behavior and emotion.
2). No behavior is without cause.
3).Childhood experience exert a significant influence on thoughts, emotions and
behaviors as an adult.
4). Important conflict during childhood development shape our overall personality
as adults.
5). The theory is applied in situation like rape, accidents, act of terrorism,
traumatic family event, acute psychological disturbance e.t.c.
Psychodynamic therapists attempts to help clients find patterns in their emotions,
thoughts and beliefs in order to gain insight into their current self.
For further reading on this topic click http://www.thoughts.com>psych

Some limitations of the theory

1). The theory could be expensive because of the long term commitment that it
requires.
2). People with busy schedules may not be able to set out time for this sort of
therapy as it requires at least several sessions that spans through hours.
3). It requires deep digging, probing and sharing personal history.
4). It requires dedication as it takes long time
5). It is difficult to test in an empirical manner
Theory 3: Social learning theory
The social learning theory was propounded by Albert Bandura in 1977. The
theory emphasized the importance of observing the behaviors, attitudes, emotional
feelings and reactions of others (Bandura, 1977). The theory emphasized on the
importance of transferring learning through observation, imitation or through
education intervention programmes (Cherry, 2018, McLeod, 2016).). Also learning
can occur through the observation of rewards and punishments given to significant
persons. This is a process known as vicarious reinforcement.
This could be associated to the fact that knowledge acquired through these
actions serves as a guide for others to emulate. The theory posits that individuals
who have never learnt intervention techniques may have no knowledge of coping
with their needs. This implies that individuals through social learning process must
acquire basic fundamental knowledge. Social learning can be related to going to
school or acquiring education through mass enlightenment programmes,
workshops, seminars, training and other (individual and group) counseling
programmes. The training empowers individuals with the needed knowledge of
management and coping with their problems (Cherry, 2013).
The social learning theory has some strength and weakness. One of the
weaknesses of the theory is that there may be several possible resistances, which
may occur when individuals learn (for instance fear of failure, limited
understanding of theoretical requirement among others) and can be reduced by this
approach. Another weakness of the theory is that training of persons (with little or
no prior knowledge) needs time which is associated with financial resources and
most cases the duration is kept very short (Zemlin, 2013). Despite the limitation of
the theory, it allows flexible adaptation of the performance steps to the currently
shown capabilities of the observer and the option to immediately ask questions.
The theory is helpful in increasing the person’s motivation to learn in that
knowledge is transferred practically rather than theoretically which can induce
resistance (Vergara, 2018). Also, a lot of knowledge can be transferred directly
(particularly where there is language barrier) in a short time, which is
advantageous from the economic point of view. It is an essential method of
training individual (of any age) since it is practiced directly and develops an
empathetic attitude.

Steps/principles involved in the social learning theory

There are four basic steps involved in the social learning theory. They include:

1). Attention: You need to pay attention in order to learn. Distracted attention will
have a negative effect on observational learning.

2). Retention: The ability to store information. It ensures the ability to assimilate
and internalize information and later the coded information will be acted (cognitive
learning).

3). Reproduction: This is the time to actually perform the assimilated information
you have observed or acquired after being attentive and retaining the information
(example semester examination).

4). Motivation: This is the reinforcement and motivation received as an important

role in motivation.

References
Bandura, A.(1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall
Publishers.
Cherry, K. (2018). How social learning theory works. Retrieved from
https://www.verywellmind.com/social-learning-theory-2795074

McLeod, S., A.(2016). Bandura-social learning theory. Retrieved from

https;//www.simplypsychology.org/bandura.html
Zemlin, C. (2013). Transfer and implementation of knowledge and attitude: A
particular challenge for caregivers in dementia care. Journal of Nursing
Education Practice, 4(1), 81-88. https://dx.doi.org/10.5430/jnep.v4n1p81.

Theory 4: Conflict learning theory

The conflict theory suggested by Karl Marx; claims that society is in a state
of perpetual conflict because of competition of limited resources. It holds that
social order is maintained by domination and power rather than consensus and
conformity. The theory stipulates that those with wealth and power try to hold on it
by any means possibly and particularly by suppressing the poor and powerless. A
basic premise of conflict theory is that individuals and groups within society will
work to maximize their own benefits. It is the control of accumulation of wealth,
control of politics and the institutions that make up society. Crossman (2019)
stipulates that the theory has the following features:

Features of conflict theory:

1). It focuses on the competition between groups within society over limited
resources.
2). It views social and economic institutions as tools to the struggle between
groups/classes used to maintain inequality or dominance of the ruling class.
3) It perceives the society as being divided along lines of economic class between
the proletarian working class and the bourgeois ruling class.

4). Later versions of the theory looked at other dimensions of conflict among
capitalist factions and between various social, religious and other types of groups.
Assumptions of conflict theory

There are four primary assumptions of this theory;

1). Competition: This is a constant overwhelming factor in nearly every human
relationship and interaction. It exists as a result of the scarcity of resources
including material resources like money, property, commodities and more. Also,
people compete for intangible resources like dominance, social status, and sexual
partners among others. Conflict theorists assume that competition is the default,
rather than co-operation.
2). Revolution: This is one outcome of conflict between social classes. It believes
that changes to power dynamic are often abrupt and large in scale rather than
gradual and evolutionary (adaptation).

3). Structural inequality: Human relationships and social structures all experience
inequalities of power. As such, some individuals develop more power and rewards
than others. Those individuals tend to work to maintain those structures so as to
retain and enhance their power.

4). War: This is seen by the theorists as a unifier or as a cleaner of societies. It is

the result of a cumulative and growing conflict between individuals and groups and
between the whole societies. It may in some way unify the society but conflict still
remains.

For further understanding of this theory link to: https://www.thoughtco.com

Essential steps to conflict theory resolution

There are five essential steps to conflict resolution. They include:
1). Define the source of the conflict: This is extracting the root cause of the
problem. This is associated to the fact that when the root cause of the problem is
identified; the more easily you can help to resolve it.
2). Look beyond the incident: The rational for this step is that it is not the situation
of the problem that led to conflict but the point of view of the situation that caused
the anger to flourish.

3). Request solutions: After getting each party’s view point, the next step is to get
them to identify how the situation could be changed. As a mediator listen to both
verbal, non-verbal and body language of the clients.

4). Identify solutions both disputants can support: Point out the merits of various
ideas, not only from each other’s perspective but in terms of the benefits to the
organization.

5). Agreement: There is need to accept solutions in number 4 point and reach
negotiated agreement /write contract.

References

Crossman, A. (2020, Feb.11).Understanding conflict theory. Retrieved from

https://www.thoughtco.com/conflicttheory-3026622.

Theory 5: Transpersonal theory

The term transpersonal theory is a psychological theory introduced in the 1960’s
by psychologists like Abraham Maslow and Victor Frank. The theory is not only
concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of psychological problems but also
with difficulties associated in intervention. The theory proposed that there are
developmental stages beyond the adult ego, which involve experiences of
connectedness with phenomena considered outside the boundaries of the ego.

Transpersonal psychology contains a growing body of literature and theory related

to the spiritual dimension of human nature and higher states of consciousness. It is
important to note that transpersonal theory is the only theory that focuses on the
spiritual (dimension) experiences, mystical state and ritual. Additionally, the
theory legitimates the development of higher states of consciousness as being
exceptionally healthy or as representing the epitome of human potential (Marck,
Kasprow, Bruce, Scotton, 1999).

The practice challenges facing social workers in the adoption of this theory is not
only for the development of a more complex and inclusive understanding of what
it means to be fully human, but also for a transpersonal theory big enough to allow
and facilitate equal development of human consciousness (Cowley, 1993). As
such, the practice of transpersonal theory can include discussions, mystical state of
consciousness, mindfulness and meditative practice, demonic state, ritual, the
overlap of spiritual experiences with disturbed mental state like psychosis,
depression and other psychopathologies of the transpersonal dimensions of
interpersonal relationships, services and encounters with the natural world.

The transpersonal is a phenomenon or experience in which the sense of identity or

self extends beyond the individual or personal to encompass wider aspects of
human kind, life or psyche. If a social worker’s goal is to understand and help
individuals as a whole person, social worker will need to understand this aspect of
human behavior and the interactions of these behaviors in the environment.
However, social work ethics requires that workers practice in a manner that
respects religious, cultural and other forms of diversity. Transpersonal theories can
help us to build our knowledge and skills to demonstrate this respect (Carrier &
Mitchell, 2011). It then becomes essential to adopt this theory in social work
practice.

Some importance of transpersonal theory in social work practice

It provides non-sectarian conceptual framework for spiritually sensitive social
work practice by:
 Recognizing that religious and spiritual diversity are important aspect of
human diversity.
 Helping practitioners address the spiritual dimension of human behavior and
experience.
 Being congruent with social justice orientation, strength perspective and
empowerment practice approaches.

The theory can be used in addressing problems on:

Positive youth development, divorce, mental health recovery, chronic illness and
ageing among others.
In the view of these problems the theory can be adopted, scholars including
Robbins, Chatterjee and Canda (2012) have suggested that transpersonal theory has
solid implication in social work profession. This is associated to the fact that it
reaches across diverse practice populations in that it helps develop an
understanding of the whole person and the whole environment. Equally important
is that the theory has historically made an effort towards cultural balance by
addressing the needs of people regardless of their age, ethnicity and race.
Reference

Carrier, J.W.& Mitchell, N.G (2011). Transpersonal theory. In D. Capuzzi & D.R
Gross (Eds.), Counseling and Psychotherapy, American Counseling
Association (p335-353).
Cowley, ADS (1993). Transpersonal social work: A theory for the 1990’s. Social

Work Journal, 38 (5), 527-534. https://doi.org/10.1093/sw/38.5.527.

Marck, C. Kasprow, D.W, Bruce, W., Scotton, M.D.(1999) review of

Transpersonal theory and its application to the practice of psychotherapy.
The Journal of Psychotherapy Practice and Research, 8(1), 12-23.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov>pmc

Theory 6: PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY

The psychosocial development theory was developed in the 1940’s by Eric
Erikson. He believed that personality developed in a series of stages. The theory
described the impact of social experience across the whole life span. He studied
how social interaction and relationship played a role in the development and
growth of human beings. Each stage in his theory builds on the preceding stages
and paves the way for the following periods of development. In each stage, Erikson
believed that people experience a conflict that serves as a turning point in
development. In his view, these conflicts are centered on either developing a
psychological quality or failing to develop that quality. During these times, the
potential for personal growth is high but so is the potential for failure. If people
successfully deal with the conflict, they emerge from the stage with psychological
strengths that will serve them well for the next of their lives. If they fail to deal
effectively with these conflicts, they may not develop the essential skills needed
for a strong sense of self. Each stage is concerned with becoming competent in an
area of life. If they fail to deal effectively with these conflicts, they may not
develop the essential skills needed for a strong sense of self. Each stage is
concerned with becoming competent in an area of life. If the stage is handled well,
the person will fell a sense of mastery which is sometimes referred to as ego
strength or ego quality; but if not the person will emerge with a sense of
inadequacy in that aspect of development (Cherry & Gans, 2017).

Stages in psychosocial theory

Stage 1 Basic conflict: Trust versus mistrust

Age: From birth to 18 months
Important event: Feeding
Outcome: The first stage of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development occurs
between birth and one year of age and is the most fundamental stage in life. At this
first stage, a child is totally dependent on the adult caregivers for everything that
he/she needs to survive including food, love and security among others. If a child
successfully develops trust, he/she will feel safe and secure in the world. Failure to
develop trust will result in fear and a belief that the world is in inconsistent and
unpredictable.

Stage 2 Basic conflict: Autonomy versus shame and doubt

Age: 2-3 years
Important event: Toilet training
Outcome: This stage takes place during early development of a child. It is focused
on children developing a greater sense of personal control. At this point children
start performing basic actions and decisions on their own. This will help them to
develop a sense of autonomy (toilet training learning to control one’s bodily
functions leads to a feeling of control and sense of independence). Those who
successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident while those who do not
are left within self doubt and shame.

Stage 3 Basic conflict: Initiative versus guilt

Age: 3-5 years
Important event: Exploration
Outcome: This stage takes place during the preschool years. At this point in
psychosocial development, children begin to assert their power and control over
the world through directing play and other social interactions. Children who are
successful at this stage feel capable and are able to lead others while those who fail
are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt and lack of initiative.

Stage 4 Basic conflict: Industry versus inferiority

Age: 6-11 years
Important event: School
Outcome: This takes place at 6-11years. Through social interactions, children
begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishment and abilities. Children
who are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers develop a feeling of
competence and belief in their skills. Those who receive little or no encouragement
from parents, teachers or peers will doubt their abilities to be successful and feel
inferior.

Stage 5 Basic conflict: Identity versus confusion

Age: 12-18 years
Important event: Social relationships
Outcome: This occurs during the often turbulent teenage years. This stage plays an
essential role in developing a sense of personal identity which will continue to
influence behavior and development for the rest of the person’s life. Those who
receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal exploration will
emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self and feelings of independence
and control while others will feel insecure and confused about themselves and their
future. However, individual’s identity refers to all the beliefs, ideals and values that
help shape and guide a person’s behavior. In this stage Erickson placed emphasis
on the development of ego identity. This is the conscious sense of self that we
develop through social interaction and becomes a central focus during the identity
versus confusion stage of psychosocial development.

Stage 6 Basic conflict: Intimacy versus isolation

Age: 19-40 years
Important event: Personal relationships
Outcome: This is the early adulthood stage of exploring personal relationship.
Remember that each stage builds on skills learned in previous relationship. As
such, strong sense of identity is essential for developing intimate relationships.
Those with poor sense of self do tend to have less committed relationship and are
more likely to suffer emotional, isolation and pressure. However, successful
resolution of this stage results in the virtue known as ‘‘Love’’.

Stage 7 Basic conflict: Generativity versus stagnation

Age: 40-65 years
Important event: Work and parenthood
Outcome: During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career
and family. Those who are successful will feel that they are contributing to the
world by being active in their homes and community. Those who fail to attain this
skill will feel unproductive and uninvolved in the world.

Stage 8 Basic conflict: Integrity versus despair

Age: 65 years to death
Important event: Reflection on life
Outcome: This is the final stage which occurs in old age and focused on reflecting
back on life. At this stage, people look back on the event of their lives to ascertain
how successful or if they have regrets. Those who are unsuccessful will feel that
their life has been wasted and will experience despair and regrets while those who
are proud of their accomplishment will feel a sense of integrity.

The psychosocial theory allows us to emphasize the social nature of human beings
and the important influence that social relationship have on development.

For further reading link: https://www.verywellmind.com

Reference
Cherry K. & Gans, S. (2017). Erik Erikson stages of psychosocial development.
Retrieved from https://www.verywellmind.com

MODULE TWO
MODELS USED IN SOCIAL WORK PRATICE
UNIT 1: PROBLEM SOLVING MODEL
The idea of the problem solving theory is attributed to John Dewey in his book
‘‘How we think’’ published inb1933. In this book, he described human begins as
being constantly involved in problem solving process. In social work, problem
solving as a treatment model was originated by Helen Haris Perlman and she
borrowed her ideas from John Dewey. The model rests on the assumption that
every human individual has the desire to be active in life and to exercise
meaningful control over his purposes and life, and thus give the needed assistance
which can bring about positive changes in life. The problem solving model can be
describe as the process by which the social worker and the client decide:
a) On the problem that they want to work on
b) The desired outcome of the work
c) The causes of the problem in spite of the clients desires to have the problem
solved
d) The procedures that will be used to change the situation or solve the problem
and
e) The specific actions that will be taken to implement the procedure and how
the actions have worked out.

When using the problem solving model, the client and social worker should begin
with the problem as seen by and at whatever level the client may present it. Social
workers run into difficulties when they focus on their own definition of the
problem or their concern with the real problem or cause of the problem that they do
not listen or hear the client. As such the social worker should start from where the
client is. The professional who is using the problem solving model requires and
needs to possess certain skills to enable him/her tackle the phase of the problem
solving model. However, the phase of the problem solving model and the skills
required are presented below:

1). Contact/engagement phase: In this first stage there are certain activities
expected from both the social worker and the client. These activities include:

1a) Engagement and problem definition

1b) Definition of the problem for work

1c) Goal identification

1d) Negotiation of preliminary contract

1e) Exploration, investigation and data collection.

Skills needed for this phase include

1a) Ability to use self in the interest of the client system based on self awareness
and understanding of change agent system, resources and possible target and
action systems.
1b) Listen with one third ear.
1c) Communication of empathy, respect and support.
1d) Use of such techniques like paraphrasing, clarifying, perception, checking
focusing, questioning, neglecting, summarizing, confronting, interpreting, assuring
and reassuring.
1e) Skill in using different data collection methods such as the use of records tests,
conferences, interview and other written materials and documentary evidence.

1f) Skill in using a theoretical knowledge base to guide the collection of salient and
relevant information.
2) Contract phase
Activities include:
2a) Assessment and evaluation
2b) Formulation of an action plan
2c) Prognosis

Skills needed in the contract phase include:

2a) All of the skills listed in contact phase.
2b) Ability to use the basic theory of the growth, development functioning,
malfunctioning, interactions and transactions of human systems to assign meaning
and to analyses the data collected.
2c) Knowledge and ability to collect and organize data in such a way as to suggest
useful actions.
2d) Ability to generate a range of alternative plans.
2e) Ability to put all the above together in a statement of action to be taken, when
and by or with what systems within the time frame.

3). Action phase

Activities in this third stage include;
3a) Carrying out plan
3b) Termination
3c) Evaluation

Skills needed for the action phase include

3a) All the skills listed in contact and contract phases.
3b) Skills is use of a range of social work methods as appropriate to roles
necessary to carry out the plan.
3c) Evaluation skills
3d) Ending and disengagement skills.

UNIT 2: TASK-CENTERED TREATMENT MODEL

TASK CENTERED TREATMENT (T.C.T) MODEL
The task-centered system is a social work model developed by social
workers including Williams Reid and Laura Epstein. It is one of the treatment
models in social work profession. Research by Reid and Shyme (1969) informed
the development of the approach as an action-oriented model in which problem
solving activities occurred within a limited time frame. The model is eclectic; with
this in mind one can make use of various theories that are relevant to the client
situation for instance, cognitive restructuring theory can inform task strategies
when feelings of anxiety/ fear is influenced by belief or irrational thought patterns
Reid (1992).
Types of problems treated with T.C.T
1). Interpersonal problem
2). Dissatisfaction in social relationship
3).Problem with formal organization
4). Difficulty in role performance
5). Decision problem
6). Reactive emotional distress
7). Inadequate resource
8). Problem of social transition
1). Interpersonal problem: This has to do with the problem of the situation that is;
between persons, for instance parent and child, husband and wife, teachers and
pupil, staff and boss and so on.
2). Dissatisfaction in social relationship: This deal with problems or situations
where individuals are having problems in relating with others. This could be as a
result of loneness and over dependent, which may result to burnout.
3).Problem with formal organization: This implies a situation where organizational
staff have problems in their relationship with formal organizations including but
not limited to work place, school, hospital e.t.c
4). Difficulty in role performance: This is a situation where individuals fell to
satisfactorily carry out social roles for instance failure to observe one’s role as a
father, mother, spouse staff or student.
5). Decision problem: In this situation individuals have difficulties in decision
making. As such the individual may fake the problem or have problems in making
the right decision example; choice of school, career, employment, husband or wife.
6). Reactive emotional distress: This has to do with problems of anxiety, emotion
or depression caused by some event or situation. The event or situation might be
resulting to lack of money, accommodation, lost or search for job, transfer from
one situation to another e.t.c
7). Inadequate resource: This refers to a situation where the individual lack the
necessary resources to make end meet. It implies having little or no access to
resources. For instance, with no formal education there will be ineffective
communication of ideas among others.
8). Problem of social transition: It could be as a result of actual or contemplated
changes in role or social situation for instance Tsunami disaster, Chibok girls
abduction in 2014.
However, the central theme of this approach is that people are capable of solving
their own problems and that it is important to work on problems that are identified
by the client. This indicates that clients’ identification of priority concerns and the
collaborative relationship are empowering aspects of the model.

Assumptions of the T.C.T

The T.C.T is built on the assumption that the client can be helped to formulate
solution to his/her problems through the use of specific tasks. As such the primary
focus of change in this model is the client. The social worker assists the client to
formulate, define and implement specific tasks. It is a short social work treatment
model ranging from 6-12 sections time limited period, the model attempts to
reduce problems in living situations. It involves seven steps in treatment.
The seven (7) steps of the T.C.T model
1). Problem specification
2) Contract
3) Task planning
4) Establishment of incentives
5) Analysis and establishment of obstacles
6) Stimulation and guided practice
7) Task review and termination

1). Problem specification: The social worker and the client explore and clarify the
problem of the client. The problems are stated in definite terms. Efforts should be
made by the social worker to ensure that the real problems are adequately
identified.

2) Contract: The social worker and client form the contract at this stage. It can be
oral or written. Also, it is at this stage that they both will discuss on the length of
duration of the number of sessions for the treatment. This contract can be
negotiated if it is realized that the goals set was not accomplished particularly at
the agreed time.

3) Task planning: It is here that the task is defined. The task refers to what is to be
done by the social worker and the client in solving the problem. It includes all the
activities and skills exhibited by the social worker and client. The planned task
may involve other persons like parents, siblings, teachers e.t.c. They task are
carefully planned and selected by both the social worker and client. It may be in
general or specific terms.

General task is where the task is defined in broad terms for instance; Ada lost
admission and set to study harder.

Specific task: This is where the task is define in a specific and definite manner for
instance how is the final result and jamb score etc.

4) Establishment of incentives: In this stage, the worker and client establish a

rational/purpose for carrying out the task. This is normally stated in terms of
potential benefits to be gained in carrying out the task.

5) Analysis and establishment of obstacles: Here they both identify and clarify
obstacles that may be encountered in the cause of carrying out the task. The
obstacles may be either psychological or environmental or the both. They both will
discuss ways of removing these obstacles.

6) Stimulation and guided practice: The professional assists the client to rehearse
intended/task. It involves role playing and modeling (repeating what social worker
have done). As such, the professional has to demonstrate to the client the role/task
he is expected to perform; after which the client imitates him by repeating what he
has done. It is during this rehearsal of role performance that necessary corrections
are made by social workers.

7) Task review and termination: In this stage the client progress is reviewed after
sometime by the social worker in order to ascertain the extent he has gone in
carrying out the task of achieving the set objectives/goals. On the contrary, the
contract can be re-negotiated when it is discovered that the set goal is not yet
accomplished.

However, the central theme of this approach is that people are capable of solving
their own problems and that it is important to work on problems that are identified
by the client. This indicates that clients’ identification of priority concerns and the
collaborative relationship are empowering aspects of the model.

Reference
Reid, W.J (1992). Task strategies. New York; Columbia University press.
Reid, W.J & Fortune, A.E (2002). The task-centered model. In A.R. Robert &G. J.
Greene (Eds.). Social workers Desk Reference. New York: Oxford
University press, pp101-104.

UNIT 3: SOLUTION-FOCUSED TREATMENT MODEL

Solution –focused is a postmodern constructivist approach with a unique focus on
what people want to achieve rather than on the problems that made seek help. It
focuses on resolving client’s concerns (Murray & Murray 2004). It grew out of
Steve de Shazer and Imsooo Kim Berg and their associates’ work at the brief
family therapy center in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. The basic assumption of the
theory is that people have untapped unconscious resources which can be released
by shifting their perspectives. As the professional the social worker has an active
role to firstly: Helping clients to question self-defeating construct and then
assisting them to construct new and more productive perspectives. Effective work
with client is facilitated by having them identify and prioritize solutions. The
model is based on the premise that change can occur over a brief period of time.

Tenets of the model

The approach has emerged over the past years as a strategy for working with
families, minors and adults who are voluntary. In the view of the DeJong and Berg
(1998) traditional practice was saturated with an emphasis on problems, often
without emphasis on client’s strength and capacities. Although client may begin
with a problem statement, a key belief is that problems and analysis does not
necessarily predict a client’s ability to problem solving (Corcoran, 2008). Further
the approach emphasizes that solutions and problems are not necessarily
connected. Therefore it is preferable to engage clients in developing solutions
rather than assessing and discovering how problems developed.

Theoretical framework
The solution focused approach borrows from social constructivists the belief that
people use language to create their reality. Reality is constructed by culture and
context as well as perceptions and life experiences. Therefore it is more important
for one to understand the way in which clients constructs the meaning of their
experiences and relationships. The approach also draws form cognitive-behavioral
theory the assumption that cognitions guide language and behavior.

Uses of the solution-focused treatment model

The model is utilized in a variety of settings and with diverse populations. The
model is used in pre-marital counseling to assist couples to build a vision for their
marriage (used as couple therapy). It is also used in treatment of male domestic
violence offenders. In working with them, the professional empowers to identify
solutions to their behavior rather than focusing on their violent behavior. Also, the
model can be used on women in abusive relationship were clients (women) are
made to away from their focused saturated problem and to engage them in
solutions.
Solution-Focused procedures and techniques
The following are the procedure used in this model
1). Engagement: This is the stage the worker and client get to know each other
better. At this stage, they try to establish a working relationship. They decide to
devote time, energy and resources to work.
2). Assessment: The social worker conducts an assessment following the
engagement made. The avenues for assessment include the signs, thoughts and
feelings of the problem.
3) Goal setting: Well formed goals drive the plans for actions that are important to
the client, feasible and attainable. In this stage, solutions sought by the client are
framed on the bases of exceptional.
4) Intervention: This is the treatment stage. The solutions sought by the client are
incorporated in the treatment plan. This will continue till the client indicates signs
that the problem is solved.
5) Termination: Treatment is terminated when the specified goal is achieved.
In the application of these stages, there are certain interview questions that engage
the client’s capacity to think about the future and identify solutions. They include:

1). How will you know when the problem is solved?

2).What will be different when the problem is solved?

3) What signs will indicate to you that you don’t have to see me anymore?

4). Can you describe what will be different in terms of your behavior, thought or
feelings?

5).What signs will indicate to you that others involved in this situation are
behaving, thinking or feeling differently?

These four questions typically guide the assessment, goal-setting and intervention
process in this model.

Strengths and limitations of the theory

 The solution focused model involves practical techniques and procedures

that can be readily learned and applied in many situations.
 The model encourages client to focus on and utilize their strengths and
resources.
 It supports the client’s construction of their reality which is an essential
factor in interaction.
 It offers a positive approach for working with groups.
 It encourages significant contribution in client’s commitment, empowerment
and a focus on strength and client’s capacities.
 One of the limitations is that the model is critics based on the simplicity and
practicality.

REFERNCES
Corcoran, J. (2008). Solution-Focused therapy. In N. Coady & P. Lehmann (Eds.),
Theoretical perspectives for direct social work practice
Murray, C.E & Murray T.L (2004). Solution-Focused premarital counseling:
Helping couples build a vision for their marriage. Journal of marital and
family therapy, 30 (3), 349-358.

UNIT 4: THE BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION TREATMENT MODEL

The behavior modification theory (model) was propounded by Sigmund Freud.
The origin can be tied to the learning of theoretical principals. As such, all
misbehavior is seen as learnt and it is possible to unlearn or relearn behaviors so as
to achieve a more appropriate behavior. The theory is focused on understanding
how problematic behavior is learnt and how the surrounding conditions can be
adapted to modify the behavior.

Some characteristics of Behavior Modification Theory (BMT)

1). BMT is focused on understanding how problematic behavior is learnt and
influenced by the environment.
2). It has more limited outcomes such as modification of problematic behavior only
in defined situations.
3). Another characteristics is that the performers often are more interested in
assessing the results.
4). In the BMT, the change of behavior is the major goal.
5). It is easier to adopt as the goals are more defined and linked to behavior.
6). BMT is developed in relation to the learning of skills and modification of
inappropriate behavior and in the treatment of psychological illnesses.

Basic assumption of the BMT

The BMT has been recognized as the most useful and useable approach in milieu
therapy and residential work. To understand its dominance in milieu therapy, the
answer also lies in the visibility of the methodology and rather simple
approachability for people from different professional backgrounds and people
without any formal professional competency. The theory emphasis clear defined
goals that can be evaluated easily, which can be encouraging in the work. Also, for
the client, it can be motivational to concentrate on clear attainable goals.
Methods used in BMT
1). Aversion therapy: Aversion therapy used for drug addicts is one method with
origin in behaviorism. By the use of Apomorfin (an antabus) which is placed under
the skin, the client experiences great physical discomfort if alcohol is consumed.
By this connection of stimulus and response, the goal is that the client after a while
will feel aversion and discomfort when confronted with alcohol.
2). Treatment of phobias: The thought behind this procedure is that anxiety is
learnt and connected to certain events. One method starts with the client learning
physical relaxation and thereafter mentally bringing forward pictures from the
anxiety provoking situation. This method is called ‘‘desensitizing’’ and takes place
in stages. The client first learns how deep relaxation can take place. Here obvious
method can be used. The next step is to mentally recall the situations that create the
anxiety. Here the client is to move from the situations with least anxiety to the
situations which create the strongest fear. Rather than confronting the fearful
situations only mentally, they can also be visited in reality.

3). Another method of eliminating behavior is the use of punishment: The main
idea for the adoption both in child rearing and behavior therapy has been to
strengthen reinforcement of wanted behavior and diminish punishment of
unwanted behavior. However, the use of punishment in a therapeutic context raises
both ethical and judicial concerns.

Steps in Behavior Modification Theory

1). Problem identification/Baseline: Here you identify the problem to be treated.
This leads to baseline which is the number of times the behavior occurs and other
events that prompted the behavior eg, smoking, bedwetting.
2). Contract stage: At this stage the client and professional state the decision on
what to do, periods, and durations of monitoring.
3). Setting of goals: Set the major objective for the use of the therapy; what are the
goals you wish to achieve.
4). Intervention: Plan on what to do and endeavor to carry out action planned.
5). Evaluation: At this stage you assess what you have done so far. If adequate, you
follow up the intervention process, if not you start afresh.
6). Follow-up: Be certain that the position (designated attitude) is still carried out.
7). Termination: This is done at the end of the treatment and the expiration of the
stated time.

Importance of the BMT

1). Increasing behavior: Increase behavior, positive reinforcement is the major
technical aim of the BMT. It is also used for rehearsal. Positive reinforcement
usually goes with token as congratulations, hand shaking, complimentary cards,
gifts and others. In rehearsal, after treatment you play a role model and allow the
client to put it into practice.
2). Decreasing behavior: This can be achieved using systematic desensitization.
This is a form of punishment usually used when treating a client with phobia. In
working with a client like this, you first;
1). Make him relax his muscles
2).Talk sense with the client
3). Present imaginable objects that represents the object
4). Present the client with real objects
5). Terminate the treatment.
Punishment: This should be used only at the extreme cases for example flogging,
imprisonment, shouting and so on. Punishment can as well be used when there is
no alternative.

UNIT 5: CRISIS INTERVENTION MODEL

The crisis intervention model is an equilibrium model which is based on basic

crisis theory. A crisis may be challenge, loss, a treat or traumatic event. It is
defined as a perception of an event or situation as an intolerable difficulty that
exceeds the resources or coping mechanism of the client (John, 2008). For instance
job loss, death, divorce, domestic violence, child abuse, crime/relocation, natural
disaster e.t.c. Crisis intervention model posits that people’s reaction go through
several stages:

Stage 1: The initial tension is accompanied by shock and perhaps denial of crisis
provoking event (denial of the fact).

Stage 2: To reduce the tension, the individual attempts to utilize his/her usual
emergency problem solving skills (singing/murmuring). If these skills fail to result
in the lessening of the tension, the stress level will become heightened.

Stage 3: The individual experiences severe tension, feels confused, overwhelmed,

helpless, angry or perhaps acutely depressed. The length of this phase varies
according to the nature of the hazardous event, the strength and coping capacities
of the person, and the degree of responsiveness from social support systems.

Assumption of the crisis intervention model

Specifically, crisis intervention differs from other brief treatment approaches in
that its goal is to recognize and correct temporary affective, behavioral and
cognitive distortions as a result of a traumatic event (James, 2008). The theory is
designed to reduce stress, relieve symptoms, restore functioning and prevent
further deterioration.
Types of crisis
In differentiating the various types of crisis, Okun (2002) has integrated six
categories of crisis.
1).Dispositional crisis: This occurs when an individual lacks the information
needed to make a decision.
2). Anticipated life transition: This is the (expected) normative life transition or
the developmental events such as marriage, divorce, changing jobs or careers,
entering into a different stage of life (middle/ageing).
3).Traumatic stress: Situations that are imposed on an individual by
circumstances or events out of his or her control and that emotionally overwhelms
the individual. Example includes unexpected death, rape, receiving health status
information and illness.
4). Maturational/ Developmental crisis: This is crisis emanating from crucial
transitions and points in the lifespan process that mark significant developmental
changes, such as midlife crisis, leaving home as a young adult, adolescent identity
and independence.
5). Psychopathological crisis: This is an emotional crisis that is precipitated by a
pre-existing psychopathology and emerges during a time of distress because of
situational or environmental factors related to transitions, trauma or developmental
age.
6).Psychiatry emergency: Occurs when an individual’s functioning becomes
severely impaired such that he/she is incapable of performing daily living
functions, poses a danger to self and others, or sometimes both.
Hence, understanding the type of crisis, the perception of treat, the harm to or
vulnerability to those involved and the client’s affective, emotional and behavioral
functioning will assist you to response and plan appropriate interventions.
Otherwise, your intervention strategy may have little or no value to the client.

Process and procedure of Crisis intervention model

The process and procedure of the six step crisis intervention model was initially
developed by Gilliland (1982). Also these steps are consistent with the eclectic
problem solving approach which involves assessing through listening and acting
skills.
Listening: Attending, observing, understanding and responding with empathy,
genuineness, respect, acceptance, caring and non-judgmental attitude.

Acting: This involves becoming involved in the intervention at a non directive,

collaborative, or directive level according to the assess need of the client and the
availability of the environmental support.

1). Define the problem: The social worker should explore and define the problem
from the client point of view. Use active listening including open-ended questions
and attend to both verbal and non-verbal messages of the client. Cultural factors
and social class status are equally essential in assessing problem identification (eg
the case of a pregnant school teenager)
2). Ensure client safety: Assess the seriousness of threat to the client’s physical
and psychological safety. Also assess both the client’s internal events and the
situations surrounding the client. Ensure that the client is made aware of
alternatives to impulsive self –destructive action.
3). Provide support: Communicate to the client that the crisis worker is a valid
support person. Demonstrate (by words, voice and body language) a caring,
positive, non-judgmental, supportive, acceptant, personal involvement with the
client.
4). Examine alternatives: Assist client in exploring the choices he/she has
available to him or her own. Facilitate a search for immediate situational supports,
coping mechanisms, and positive thinking.
5). Make plans: Assist client in developing a realistic short term plan that
identifies additional resources and provides coping mechanisms. Then, state
definite action steps that the client can own and comprehend.
6). Obtain commitment: Help client commit him/herself to definite positive
action steps that the client can own and realistically accomplish or accept.