The Contemporary World | Preliminary Period

Lesson 1: Introduction to the Concept of Globalization

Lesson Objectives:

• Identify the underlying theories, concepts, and varying definitions of globalization

• Recognize specific instances when cultures spread globally
• Differentiate competing conceptions of globalization
• Identify the underlying philosophies of the varying definitions of globalization
• Determine how globalization affects lives at the micro-level

A. What is Globalization?

Globalization is often described with the phrase "the world is getting smaller,"
reflecting the profound impact it has on the contemporary world. This concept is
complex, and multifaceted, and affects people differently across various levels. Due to
its intricate nature, globalization has been defined in numerous ways by scholars and
experts. For instance, a comprehensive study by the Geneva Center for Security Policy in
2006 examined 114 definitions of globalization, illustrating its diverse interpretations.

Kenichi Ohmae (1992) described globalization as the onset of a "borderless world,"

while George Ritzer (2015) referred to it as a trans-planetary process involving increasing
liquidity and multidirectional flows of people, objects, places, and information, along with
the structures that either hinder or facilitate these flows. Anthony Giddens (1990) defined
globalization as the intensification of worldwide social relations, linking distant localities in
ways that local happenings are influenced by distant events, and vice versa. Roland
Robertson (1992) viewed globalization as the compression of the world and the
intensification of the consciousness of the world as a whole. Similarly, the OECD (2002)
saw globalization as the phenomenon by which markets and production in different
countries become increasingly interdependent due to the dynamics of trade, capital
flows, and technology.

Ulrich Beck (2000) suggested that globalization implies the weakening of state
sovereignty and structures, while Nikitin and Elliott (2003) described it as the establishment
of a global market free from socio-political control. Jan Aart Scholte (2000) characterized
globalization as “de-territorialization” or the growth of "supraterritorial" relations between
people. Meanwhile, Vilashini Cooppan (2001) considered globalization a process of
cross-cultural interaction, exchange, and transformation.

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 While many definitions focus on globalization as an economic process—often
highlighting the integration of national markets into a broader global market and the
increase in free trade—academics and scholars view it through a much wider lens.
Globalization is not just an economic phenomenon; it also encompasses political,
cultural, and social dimensions, and it should be understood through various theories and
perspectives. In the early 21st century, some scholars argued that globalization is a
process, while others saw it as a condition or even an ideology (Brazalote & Leonardo,
2019). Definitions of globalization also vary depending on the field of study. For political
scientists, globalization challenges nation-states, evidenced by the strengthening of
regional blocs like the EU, ASEAN, and the UN, and the emergence of global corporations
that can exert influence over national governments to advance their interests.

A leading expert on globalization, Manfred Steger, provides a comprehensive

description of globalization as the "expansion and intensification of social relations and
consciousness across world-time and world-space" (Abinales & Claudio, 2018). Steger
emphasizes that globalization also involves the subjective aspect of human
consciousness, where people perceive the world as "smaller," with distances collapsing
from thousands of miles to mere clicks on a computer. In summary, globalization is a
multifaceted process that goes beyond economics, affecting social relations, political
structures, and cultural exchanges on a global scale.

One of the recent indicators of global connections is the Global Connectedness

Index (GCI) – a measurement of flows and interconnections of a country to other global
players through exchanges in trade, capital, people, and information (Altman et. al.,
2018). Based on the DHL Global Connectedness Report, globalization is at a record high
– despite the pandemic and geopolitical conflict. (See video at
https://youtu.be/HDhk_MARYYE)

The report reveals that globalization reached a record high in 2022 and remained
close to that level in 2023 – despite a series of global shocks over the past decade,
including the Covid-19 pandemic, wars in Ukraine and Gaza, the U.S. – China trade
conflict, and the UK's withdrawal from the EU. The evidence strongly rebuts the notion
that the growth of global flows has gone into reverse. Trade growth played a crucial role
in boosting global connectedness. The share of global output traded internationally was
back to a record high level in 2022. After a slowdown in 2023, trade growth is forecast to
accelerate in 2024. The globalization of information flows has been especially strong over
the past two decades, even though the latest data show a stall in their growth, partly
due to less research collaboration between the U.S. and China. Corporate globalization
is rising, with companies expanding their international presence and earning more sales
abroad. The report affirms the considerable potential to continue growing global flows.
It pegs the world’s current level of globalization at only 25%, on a scale from 0% (meaning
no flows cross national borders) to 100% (borders and distance have ceased to matter

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at all). (See the full report at https://www.stern.nyu.edu/experience-stern/faculty-
research/dhl-global-connectedness-report-globalization-record-high-despite-
pandemic-and-geopolitical-conflict)

B. Globalization as a Process, Condition, and Ideology

Globalization can be understood as a condition, process, and ideology (Steger,

2005). As a condition, it is marked by dense economic, political, and cultural interactions,
and global flows that diminish the relevance of political borders and economic barriers
(Steger, 2008).

As a process, it unfolds over time, shaping the world through ongoing

developments. This concept of globalization is not static; it is an evolving process that
unfolds through distinct historical phases, each characterized by different patterns of
interaction and integration.

Jan Nederveen Pieterse, a prominent scholar in the field of globalization studies,

provides a nuanced perspective on understanding globalization as a process. He argues
that globalization should be seen as a long-term, uneven, and multidimensional process
rather than a single, uniform phenomenon. Pieterse emphasizes the importance of
"periodizing" globalization, which involves identifying distinct phases or waves of
globalization throughout history. Each phase represents a different mode of global
interaction, driven by various social, economic, political, and technological factors.

Key Ideas from J. Nederveen Pieterse on Periodizing Globalization

1. Early Globalization (Pre-Modern Era)

Pieterse identifies the beginnings of globalization in the ancient and medieval

periods, where long-distance trade routes, such as the Silk Road, facilitated the
exchange of goods, ideas, and cultures between distant regions. This early form of
globalization was characterized by sporadic and limited interactions across vast spaces,
often driven by empires, religious missions, and explorers.

2. Proto-Globalization (16th to 18th Century)

This period marks the intensification of global interactions, particularly through

European exploration, colonization, and the rise of mercantilism. The spread of European
powers across the Americas, Africa, and Asia led to increased global trade, the
exchange of commodities, and the forced migration of people, including the
transatlantic slave trade. Proto-globalization laid the foundation for the global economic
and political systems that would emerge in the modern era.

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3. Modern Globalization (19th to Early 20th Century)

The Industrial Revolution brought about a new phase of globalization,

characterized by rapid technological advancements, the rise of industrial capitalism,
and the expansion of global markets. This period saw the consolidation of nation-states,
the spread of imperialism, and the establishment of global financial systems. The modern
phase of globalization was marked by the intensification of global trade, mass migration,
and the emergence of global cities as centers of commerce and culture.

4. Contemporary Globalization (Late 20th Century to Present)

The current phase of globalization, often referred to as "contemporary" or "late"

globalization, began in the latter half of the 20th century, driven by advances in
communication technology, the liberalization of trade, and the rise of multinational
corporations. This phase is characterized by unprecedented levels of global integration,
with instant communication, global supply chains, and the spread of consumer culture.
Pieterse notes that contemporary globalization is also marked by significant challenges,
including economic inequality, cultural homogenization, and environmental
degradation.

Pieterse's framework of periodizing globalization helps us understand that

globalization is not a linear process but one that has evolved through different historical
contexts. Each phase of globalization builds on the previous one, incorporating new
technologies, economic practices, and cultural exchanges. By viewing globalization as
a process, we can better appreciate the complexities and contradictions inherent in
global integration, including how globalization has simultaneously connected and
divided different parts of the world.

Moreover, Pieterse's emphasis on the uneven nature of globalization highlights

that different regions and communities experience globalization in varied ways. Some
may benefit from increased access to global markets and technologies, while others may
face exploitation, cultural erosion, or economic marginalization. This perspective
encourages a critical examination of globalization, taking into account both its positive
and negative impacts on societies around the world.

In summary, understanding globalization as a process through the lens of Pieterse's

periodization allows us to see it as a dynamic, multifaceted phenomenon that has
developed over centuries, influenced by a complex interplay of historical, economic,
political, and cultural forces.

Meanwhile, the ideologies associated with globalization, as articulated by

Manfred Steger (2005), reflect a set of beliefs that shape how globalization is perceived
and justified in the global discourse. These ideologies present globalization as an
overarching force that not only drives economic and political change but also influences
societal norms and global governance. Here’s a more detailed exploration of each of
the six core claims:

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1. Globalization as the Liberalization and Global Integration of Markets

This ideology posits that globalization is fundamentally about opening up

national economies to global markets, promoting free trade, and reducing government
intervention in economic activities. It suggests that markets, when liberated from
government control, are the most efficient means of allocating resources and generating
wealth. This view supports the idea that global economic integration will lead to
increased efficiency, innovation, and economic growth. The ideology promotes a
market-driven global economy where the forces of supply and demand operate with
minimal regulatory interference, leading to the expansion of global capitalism.

2. Globalization as Inevitable and Irreversible

According to this claim, globalization is portrayed as a natural and unstoppable

process driven by technological advancements, economic imperatives, and cultural
exchanges. It suggests that resisting globalization is futile because it is an intrinsic part of
human progress and development. This belief often downplays the role of political
decisions and emphasizes that globalization is a force beyond the control of any single
nation or group. By presenting globalization as inevitable, this ideology encourages
acceptance of its consequences, framing it as a necessary adaptation to the modern
world.

3. Globalization as a Non-Partisan, Transcendental Force:

This ideology asserts that globalization is not driven by the interests of any specific
class, nation, or group but rather follows a set of universal and immutable principles that
transcend individual interests. It portrays globalization as a neutral, objective process that
operates according to the logic of global integration and economic efficiency. By
framing globalization in this way, the ideology attempts to depoliticize the discourse,
suggesting that globalization is not subject to manipulation by powerful elites but is
instead a larger, inevitable force that benefits everyone equally.

4. Globalization as Beneficial for All in the Long Run

This claim is rooted in the belief that, despite short-term disruptions and
inequalities, globalization ultimately leads to widespread benefits, such as economic
growth, poverty reduction, and improved living standards. Proponents argue that the
efficiencies and innovations brought about by global markets will, over time, create
opportunities for all, lifting people out of poverty and improving overall well-being. This
ideology often emphasizes the long-term perspective, suggesting that the initial
challenges and disparities caused by globalization will be outweighed by its eventual
positive outcomes.

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5. Globalization as a Promoter of Democracy

This ideology contends that globalization fosters the spread of democratic

values and institutions across the world. It suggests that as nations become more
integrated into the global economy, they are more likely to adopt democratic
governance and respect for human rights. The rationale is that global trade,
communication, and cultural exchange will expose societies to democratic ideals and
practices, leading to political reforms and greater political freedom. This claim is often
used to justify international efforts to promote democracy as part of the broader
globalization agenda.

6. Globalization as Necessitating a Global War on Terror

In the context of the post-9/11 world, this ideology links globalization with the
need for a global response to terrorism. It argues that as globalization increases the
interconnectedness of nations, it also creates new vulnerabilities to global security
threats, particularly terrorism. The ideology supports the idea that a coordinated,
international effort is required to combat terrorism, which is seen as a threat to the stability
and security of the globalized world. This claim often justifies the expansion of global
security measures and military interventions as necessary to protect the global order from
destabilizing forces.

Together, these ideologies form a powerful narrative that supports the expansion
of globalization by framing it as a natural, beneficial, and necessary force in the modern
world. They serve to legitimize the processes of economic liberalization, political
integration, and global governance while downplaying or dismissing the potential
negative consequences and critiques of globalization.

C. Theoretical Paradigms of Globalization

Theoretical paradigms of globalization provide various lenses through which

scholars analyze and understand the complexities of global interconnectedness. Each
paradigm offers a distinct perspective on how globalization operates, its driving forces,
and its implications for society. Below is a discussion of some key theoretical paradigms
of globalization:

1. World-Systems Paradigm

The World-Systems Paradigm, developed by Immanuel Wallerstein in the 1970s,

views globalization as a process that has been unfolding for centuries within a capitalist
world economy. This paradigm divides the world into three categories: the core, the semi-
periphery, and the periphery. Core nations are economically advanced and politically
powerful, dominating the global economy, while peripheral nations are less

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developed and often exploited for their resources and labor. The semi-periphery includes
nations that are in between, having characteristics of both core and peripheral nations.
The World-Systems Paradigm emphasizes the unequal distribution of wealth and power
on a global scale, arguing that the capitalist world system perpetuates inequality and
dependency among nations (Wallerstein, 2004).

2. Global Capitalism Paradigm

The Global Capitalism Paradigm focuses on the role of capitalism as a driving

force behind globalization. Scholars such as William I. Robinson argue that globalization
represents a new stage of global capitalism characterized by the transnationalization of
production, the rise of transnational corporations, and the creation of a global capitalist
class. This paradigm emphasizes the increasing dominance of global capital over
national economies and the diminishing role of the nation-state in regulating economic
activities. The Global Capitalism Paradigm also explores the implications of this shift for
labor, social inequality, and global governance, highlighting the tensions between
global capital and local interests (Robinson, 2004).

3. Network Society of Thought

The Network Society of Thought, associated with Manuel Castells, conceptualizes

globalization as a transformation of social and economic structures driven by information
and communication technologies (ICTs). Castells argues that the rise of digital networks
has led to the emergence of a "network society," where power, wealth, and information
flow through global networks that transcend traditional boundaries. This paradigm
emphasizes the decentralization and flexibility of networks, which enable rapid
communication, innovation, and economic activities across the globe. However, it also
highlights the uneven distribution of access to these networks, leading to new forms of
inequality and exclusion (Castells, 1996).

4. Time-Space Distanciation

The concept of Time-Space Distanciation, introduced by Anthony Giddens, refers

to the process by which globalization alters the relationship between time and space.
Giddens argues that globalization compresses time and space, enabling interactions
and exchanges to occur across vast distances almost instantaneously. This paradigm
emphasizes how modern communication technologies and transportation systems have
transformed social relations, making it possible for people, goods, and information to
move quickly and efficiently across the world. Time-Space Distanciation also explores the
implications of this transformation for social organization, identity, and power dynamics
(Giddens, 1990).

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5. Transnationalism

Transnationalism is a paradigm that focuses on the multiple connections and flows

that link people and institutions across national borders. Scholars of transnationalism
examine how globalization has led to the emergence of transnational social spaces
where migrants, diasporas, and multinational corporations operate across multiple
countries. This paradigm highlights how individuals and groups maintain social,
economic, and political ties across borders, challenging traditional notions of citizenship,
identity, and sovereignty. Transnationalism also explores the role of global networks in
shaping cultural exchanges, economic practices, and social movements (Vertovec,
2009).

6. Global Culture Paradigm

The Global Culture Paradigm explores the cultural dimensions of globalization,

focusing on how global flows of media, ideas, and cultural products shape local cultures
and identities. This paradigm examines the tension between cultural homogenization,
where global culture erodes local traditions, and cultural hybridization, where global and
local cultures blend to create new, hybrid forms. Scholars such as Arjun Appadurai argue
that globalization creates "scapes"—ethnoscapes, mediascapes, technoscapes,
financescapes, and ideoscapes—that represent the different dimensions of global
cultural flows. The Global Culture Paradigm emphasizes the complexity of cultural
interactions in a globalized world, where local cultures are both influenced by and
resistant to global forces (Appadurai, 1996).
“The Five Scapes of Globalization”
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Courses/HACC_Central_Pennsylvania's_Community_College/ANTH_205%3A_Cultures_of_th
e_World_-_Perspectives_on_Culture_(Scheib)/13%3A_Globalization/13.02%3A_The_Acceleration_of_Globalization

D. Theories on Globalization: How does globalization take place?

Theories on globalization see globalization as a process that increases

homogeneity or heterogeneity. Homogeneity refers to the increasing sameness in the
world as cultural inputs, economic factors, and political orientations of societies expand
to create common practices, same economies, and similar forms of government.
Homogeneity in globalization is associated with the following concepts.

1. Cultural Imperialism

Cultural imperialism is a concept that means that a given culture influences other
cultures. This pertains to the imposition by one usually politically or economically
dominant community of various aspects of its own culture onto another non-dominant
community. It is cultural in the sense that the customs, traditions, religion, language, social
and moral norms, and other aspects of the imposing community are distinct from, though

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often closely related to, the economic and political systems that shape the other
community. It is a form of imperialism in that the imposing community forcefully extends
the authority of its way of life over the other population by either transforming or replacing
aspects of the non-dominant community’s culture. Cultural imperialism became one of
the primary instruments of colonization. While colonization was almost always initiated by
some kind of military intervention, its full effects were achieved through practices of
cultural imperialism.

Fueled by a belief in the superiority of their way of life, colonizers

used law, education, and/or military force to impose various aspects of their own culture
onto the target population. Motivated, in part, by a desire to purge local populations of
allegedly barbaric, uncivilized customs and mores, colonizers also knew that the best way
to mitigate resistance by the colonized was to eradicate as far as possible all traces of
their former way of life. During the 20th century, cultural imperialism was no longer so
closely linked with military intervention but rather with the exertion of economic and
political influence by some powerful countries over less powerful countries. (Tobin, 2007)

2. Media Imperialism.

This refers to the global flow of media imposed on developing countries by the
West. It is a theory based upon an over-concentration of mass media from larger nations
as a significant variable in negatively affecting smaller nations, in which the national
identity of smaller nations is lessened or lost due to media homogeneity inherent in mass
media from the larger countries.

3. Neoliberalism.

This sees competition as the defining characteristic of human relations. It redefines

citizens as consumers, whose democratic choices are best exercised by buying and
selling, a process that rewards merit and punishes inefficiency. This will be discussed
further in Lesson 2.

4. McDonaldization

McDonaldization is the process by which Western societies are dominated by the

principles of fast-food restaurants. This concept was developed by American sociologist
George Ritzer which refers to the particular kind of rationalization of production, work,
and consumption that rose to prominence in the late twentieth century. The basic idea
is that these elements have been adapted based on the characteristics of a fast-food
restaurant—efficiency, calculability, predictability, standardization, and control—and
that this adaptation has ripple effects throughout all aspects of society.

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 On the other hand, heterogeneity pertains to the creation of various cultural
practices, new economies, and political groups because of the interaction of elements
from different societies around the world. Associated with this is the concept of
glocalization. Glocalization sees globalization as a process wherein global forces interact
with local factors or a specific geographic area. The term is a combination of the words
"globalization" and "localization." The term was coined in the Harvard Business Review, in
1980, by sociologist Roland Robertson, who wrote that glocalization meant "the
simultaneity—the co-presence—of both universalizing and particularizing tendencies." In
regards to a particular product or service, this means the adaptation of globally
marketed products and services into local markets. A global product or service,
something everyone needs and can get used out of, may be tailored to conform to local
laws, customs, or consumer preferences. Products that are "glocalized" are, by definition,
going to be of much greater interest to the end-user, the person who ends up using the
product. This is because while it's something that everyone can use and has used for, as
a global product, its localization makes it more specific to an individual, their context,
and their needs. (Hayes, 2020)

E. Dynamics of Local and Global Culture: Perspectives on Global Cultural Flows

Globalization is characterized by the movements and spread of various cultures

globally. In the contemporary world, cultures flow through non-material digital forms (like
different forms of media especially social media). There are three perspectives on how
cultures flow globally:

1. Cultural Differentialism. This emphasizes the fact that cultures are essentially
different and are only superficially affected by global flows. The interaction of
cultures is deemed to contain the potential for catastrophic collision. (Note: This
usually results in state wars and racial discrimination as well as culture clashes)

2. Cultural Hybridization. This emphasizes the integration of local and global cultures.
Globalization is considered a creative process that gives rise to hybrid entities that
are not reducible to either the global or the local. (Note: This is similar to the
concept of “glocalization”. A new culture is made out of the local and foreign
cultures.

3. Cultural Convergence. This stresses the homogeneity introduced by globalization.

Cultures are deemed to be radically altered by strong flows, while cultural
imperialism happens when one culture imposes itself on and tends to destroy at
least parts of another culture. (Note: This perceives that the world has a universal
global culture that will eventually dissolve the local culture.)

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F. The Roots of Globalization

Although globalization is often seen as a contemporary phenomenon, its roots

extend far back in history, predating even the European Age of Discovery. Large-scale
globalization is generally considered to have begun in the 1820s, with significant
acceleration during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. This period saw rapid
advancements in science and technology, which revolutionized transportation and
communication, effectively shrinking the world and breaking down international barriers.
Key milestones in the conceptual development of globalization include Charles Taze
Russell's 1897 reference to "corporate giants," which described the large national
enterprises of that era. In 1930, the term "globalize" appeared in the publication *Towards
New Education*, reflecting a holistic approach to human experience in education. The
late 1980s marked a significant moment with the coining of the term "globalization" by
economist Theodore Levitt, who emphasized the emerging global market. By 2000, the
International Monetary Fund (IMF) identified four fundamental aspects of globalization:
trade and transactions, capital and investments, movement and migration, and the
dissemination of knowledge, further solidifying the concept's broad scope and impact
(Levitt, 1983; IMF, 2000).
Suggested Links:

1. Globalization explained (explainity® explainr video).

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JJ0nFD19eT8&t=2s

2. Globalization I - The Upside: Crash Course World History #41. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5SnR-

e0S6Ic&t=75s

3. Globalization II - Good or Bad?: Crash Course World History #42.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s_iwrt7D5OA&t=70s

4. McDonaldization. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gCj_VhLgcmY&t=22s

5. What is “Glocal” | Jennifer Pate | TEDxChathamKent.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7odE8akH3xA&t=24s

References:

• Abinales, P.N. & Claudio, L.E., (2018). The Contemporary World. Quezon City: C&E Publishing, Inc.
• Aldama, P. R. (2018). The Contemporary World. Manila: Rex Bookstore.
• Appadurai, A. (1996). *Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization*. University of
Minnesota Press.
• Ariola, M.M. (2018). The Contemporary World. Manila: Unlimited Books Library Services & Publishing
Inc.
• Botor, N. B., Peralta, E. D., Ferrer, R. M., Amparo, J. S., & Laude, T.-M. L. (2020). A Course Module for
The Contemporary World. Manila: Rex Bookstore.
• Brazalote, T. C., & Leonardo, R. M. (2019). The Contemporary World: Outcomes-Based Module.
Quezon City: C&E Publishing, Inc.
• Castells, M. (1996). *The Rise of the Network Society*. Blackwell Publishers.
• Giddens, A. (1990). *The Consequences of Modernity*. Stanford University Press.
• Levitt, T. (1983). "The Globalization of Markets." *Harvard Business Review*.

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 • Robinson, W. I. (2004). *A Theory of Global Capitalism: Production, Class, and State in a
Transnational World*. Johns Hopkins University Press.
• Vertovec, S. (2009). *Transnationalism*. Routledge.
• Wallerstein, I. (2004). *World-Systems Analysis: An Introduction*. Duke University Press.
• International Monetary Fund (IMF). (2000). "Globalization: Threat or Opportunity?" IMF Issues Brief.

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