Applied linguistics

• Definition:

Applied linguistics is using what we know about a language, how it is learned, and how it is used,
in order to achieve some purpose or sold some problem in the real world. (Autonomous,
multidisciplinary, and problem solving).

• Linguistics and applied linguistics:

Linguistics is the scientific study of language; it’s interested in finding ways of analyzing language
and building theories that describe language. A.L is concerned with the role of language in people’s
lives and problems associated with language use in people’s lives.

The understanding of how learners learn will determine the approach, method, procedures,
classroom techniques, and perhaps the philosophy of education.

• 1st language acquisition (FLA):

It’s an area of psycholinguistics which focuses on how children acquire their mother tongue. Using
syntax is the point which distinguishes human children from apes.

o Stages of language acquisition:

▪ Crying and cooing:( from birth to six months):

The only sounds a newborn baby makes, apart from possible sneezes, coughs…are
crying/cooing sounds. By 3 months, the child started producing velar consonants and high
vowels. By 6 M, the baby adds babbling consonants composed of repeated syllables (baba,
mamama, dada). The main purpose of studying this prelinguistic development is trying to
establish links between prelinguistic period and linguistics development.

▪ One-word stage: (12 to16 monts):

The baby begins comprehending words and producing one-word utterances. Their meaning
appear to be primarily functional, but has no structural properties. The gap between
production and comprehension is great.

▪ Holophrastic stage: (at around 16-18 months):

Single word utterances seem to begin to reflect semantic categories such as subject, action,
object…the child is doing more than just words. He may use the word ball for ex to refer to
other round objects. The non linguistic context often helps.

▪ Two-word stage: (from 18 to 20- 24M):

Child’s speech lacks grammatical inflections and function words. It consists of stings like “cat
drink milk”. He tends to repeat the sentences in telegraphic form and acquire vocabulary
rapidly. The order of acquisition of grammatical morphemes in English is: 1-ing 2- plural –s
3- possessive 4-irregular past forms before the regular past tense forms.

▪ Multi-word stage:( from 2 to 5 years of age):

The 2-word stage is submitted under the multi-word stage as both chare many characteristics
and depart sharply from the 1-word stage.

Theories of language acquisition:

 1- Behaviorism: ( Skinner):

Children imitate adults. They are born as a clean slate, and learn from the environment. Their
correct utterances are reinforced when they get what they want or when they are praised. This
theory was developed while carrying an experiment on animals which could perform various tasks
by encouraging habit forming called also “positive reinforcement”. Learning is based on
conditioning, which refers to a process of developing connections between a stimulus and a
response, and habit formation which means that habits are formed when they are reinforced-
rewarded or punished depend on the context-.

▪ Behaviorism limitations:

Firstly, Overemphasizes the external factor of providing a model of imitation and ignoring the
internal factor. As an example, the infinite number of sentences produced by a child could not be
all learnt by imitation. Secondly, the errors made by a child such as bringed show that they over-
generalizing a rule rather than copying what adults say. Thirdly, a child is unable to repeat
utterances that he never used before, especially if they are complicated or contained double
negations for example, no one don’t care about me.

2- Innateness or mentalism: (Shomsky)(LAD):

A child’s brain contains special language-learning mechanisms at birth (LAD). Shomsky argued
that children must have a biologically determined inborn faculty for language acquisition. This
innate capacity for acquiring language enables them to discover for themselves the rules
underlying the language. Furthermore, the child’s brain is able to interpret what is being said by
the adult thanks to his natural predisposition to learn the language.

The natural faculty has being known as LAD language acquisition device, or black box, then
universal grammar UG( all human languages share common principles; nouns and verbs). LAD
already contains the concept of verb tense (intelligent mistakes).

LAD contains the principles which are universal to all human languages. Children’s access to
samples of a natural language serves as a trigger to activate the device. This hypothesis was then
modified. It was proposed that it may be more a mechanism for working out the rules of language.

▪ Evidence to support mentalism:

1- The vocal tact of human being allows them to produce a large repertoire of vocal sounds and a
precise articulation (unlike apes).
2- The creole variety of language which is the creativity of the children of slaves whom lived
together and communicated using pidgin.
3- The sign language used by the deaf which passes through similar stages of hearing and
speaking children.
▪ Limitations of Shomsky’s theory:
1- Shomsky’s work was theoretical, he didn’t study real children. He didn’t take into consideration
the interaction between children and their caregivers.
2- Jim, who is the son of deaf parents, was exposed to television and radio in order to acquire
language. His progress was limited until a speech therapist was enlisted to work with him.
3- Cognitivism:(Piaget and Vygotsky):

Language is one of a number of symbol systems developed in childhood. It represents just one
aspect of a child’s overall intellectual development. This hypothesis argued that the cognitive
understanding depends on the interaction between the child and the things he can touch, observe,
or manipulate. Hence, language represents the knowledge that children acquires through physical
interaction with the environment. C.TH draws attention to the increase of the child’s vocabulary
during the age of 18 months.

Object permanence: related to cognitive theory, during the 1st year of life, children seem unaware
f the things they cannot see. This changes when they reach 18 months, they realize that objects
have an existence independently of their perception.

▪ Limitations of cognitive theory:

 1- When the child reaches the age of 18 months, it becomes difficult to trace clear links between
language and intellect.
2- Some children have succeeded to learn how to speak fluently despite abnormal mental
development.
3- The learner is an active participant using mental strategies to sort out the system of the
language being learnt. Hence, new information must be linked to old information and concepts
must be logically organized.
4- Input/Interactionist theories: (Bruner):

Language exists for the purpose of communication and can only be learnt in the context of
interaction with people with whom one is communicating.

CDS child directed speech refers to the language behavior of adults when talking to children. It
is specially adapted to support the acquisition process.

LASS Language Acquisition Support System is a collection of strategies that parents employ to
facilitate their children’s acquisition of language.

Scaffolding is a strategy that adults use to facilitate both spoken language and literacy by
providing blocks of language and perform tasks beyond their capacities ( acquire new linguistic
structures).

Vygotsky’s theory states that knowledge is co-constructed and that individuals learn from one
another. It’s called a social constructivist theory.

▪ Limitations of interactionist theory:

1- Children in all cultures pass through the same stages in acquiring language.
2- Children learn language at a similar rate even in some cultures adults do not use CDS (it’s
useful but not essential).
3- Caregivers rarely offer their children direct feedback on the appropriateness of their grammar.

5- Acculturation model and social identity theory:

• Acculturation model: (Shumann): language learning depends on the degree of social and
psychological distance that learners perceive between themselves and the speakers of the
target language. The process is easier when the learner’s own community shares social
facilities and has regular contacts with the target language community. (2 nd language
learning, acculturation may affect how well one group learn the language of another).

The rate and level of success in acquiring 2nd language in naturalistic settings is a function of
the degree to which learners acculturate to the target language community (beliefs, values,
culture).

• Social identity model: based on the mutual influences that link language and identity.
Language is one means by which identity is constructed, and identity affects the ways in
which we use language.

Krashen’s theories of “second” language acquisition:

He adopts the innatist perspective. Language does not require extensive use of conscious
grammatical rules and doesn’t require tedious drill. It requires meaningful interaction in the TL-
natural com. Not concerned with the form of utterances but rather with the message they convey.
Supplying comprehensible input in low anxiety situations are the best methods. He attacks forcing
early production of L2.
 Learners will produce language when they are ready.

Krashen’s theory consists of 5 main hypotheses:

1- The acquisition-learning hypotheses: two different ways to develop competence en a

language; language acquisition and language learning. Two independent systems of 2 nd
language performance; the learnt and the acquired.
a. Language acquisition: subconscious process, like the way a child acquires his 1st
language. Acquiring English in the US is exactly the same way as Americans acquire their
1st language. It requires meaningful interaction in a natural communication.

Language acquirers are not aware of the grammatical rules, but rather develop a “feel” for
correctness.

Picking up a language means that we collect information from different places and then we
make hypotheses in our minds in order to produce the language. (Inductive learning).

b. Language learning: conscious knowledge of a 2nd language, studying the rules, applying
them, and being able to talk about them. (Deductive learning). The learned system is a
product of formal instruction.
2- The natural order hypothesis: the acquisition of grammatical structures follows a natural
order which is predictable. Some grammatical structures tend to be acquired early, others late,
regardless of the 1st language of the speaker. This means natural acquiring rather than artificial
(mistakes are expected). Krashen rejects the idea of grammatical sequencing when the goal is
language acquisition. He recommends a syllabus based on topics, functions, and situations.
3- The monitor hypotheses: the acquisition system is the utterance initiator, while the learning
system performs the role of the monitor or editor. Our mind plays the role of a regulator that
edits, corrects, and controls everything we want to utter before producing it. For this we need;
sufficient time, focus on the form, knowledge of the rule.

Over users (introverts): who use the monitor all the time (lack of self esteem).

Optimal users: use the monitor appropriately.

Under users: who have not learned or prefer not to use it.

4- The input hypotheses: is an attempt to explain how a learner improves and progresses along
the natural order while receiving 2nd language input that is a step beyond his current stage of
linguistic competence. Since all the learners can nit be at the same level, he suggest that natural
com input is the key to designing a syllabus adequate to the needs of all the learners.
5- The affective filter hypotheses (related to personality): a number of affective variables play
a facilitative, but not causal role in 2nd language acquisition. High motivation, self confidence,
good self image, and low level of anxiety are the keys to successful 2 nd acquisition.

Low motivation and low self esteem raise the affective filter and constitute a mental block
(impediment to language acquisition).

Interlanguage (Selinker):

Interlanguage refers to a knowledge possessed by language learners which is equivalent

neither to L1 nor to L2. The errors made by the learners are not random; they reflect an
incomplete knowledge of L2.

Transitional competence refers to foreign language learners’ linguistic ability which does
not match that of a native speaker. It means the learner’s competence at a particular time.
Idiosyncratic dialect: each individual has his own dialect which is regular, systematic, and
meaningful.

Approximative system: distinct from MT and TL, but the learner is progressing towards the
TL in a developmental manner. (System implies use of rules) (Not random).

Children always succeed in completely acquiring their native language. However, only very
rarely adults succeed in completely acquiring a 2 nd language. Hence, the goal behind
interlanguage research is to explain that matter. (Ultimate failure of interlanguages to reach
the state of identity with the target language).

Fossilization: the end state of SLA (ceases to develop)(never achieve a level of facility),
specifically that is not native like. The reason why, is the language transfer (influence).

1- Positive transfer: occurs when L1 and L2 have the same form. Television in French and
in English refers to the same object.
2- Negative transfer: the use of the native-language pattern or rule that leads to an error
or inappropriate form in the target language. (word order for ex).

Contrastive and error analysis:

I. Contrastive analysis:

CA was used extensively in the field of SLA in the 1950s, 1960s, and early 1970s as a method of
explaining why some features of TL were more difficult to acquire than others.

Behaviorism: learning was a question of habit formation. Hence, the principle barrier to SLA is
the interference (negative transfer). The major source of error in the production/reception of L2 is
L1.

Lado claimed that the elements which are similar to the learner’s native language will be simple,
and the ones that are different will be difficult. He was the 1st to provide a comprehensive theoretical
treatment and to suggest a systematic set of technical procedures for the Contrastive study of
languages. That involved describing their similarities and differences, comparing them te reveal
what is general and what is language specific, and predicting learning difficulties.

Lado’s objective is helping language teaching by comparing L1 and L2 on the basis of: phonology,
grammar, writing system, and culture.

It’s common feature among languages to have subject, verb, and object. However, differences
exist among languages, such as X and q which are unique to Moroccan Arabic.

• Problems with CAH:

- The hypothesis (interference) could not be sustained by empirical evidence that was
accumulated in 1970s.
- It predicted some errors, but did not anticipate all.
- Many errors predicted were not observed in learner’s language.
- Some uniform errors were made by learners irrespective of their L1. It became clear that CA
could not predict all learning difficulties.
• CAS Summary:

CA was practiced as an application of structural linguistics to language teaching. It’s based on

the following assumption:

- The main difficulties are caused by “interference” from L1.

- The difficulties can be predicted by CA.
- Teaching material can make use of CA to reduce the effects of interference.
 CA was more successful in phonology, but was declined in the 1970s as interference was
replaced by other explanations and learning difficulties.

Error analysis hypotheses:

EA developed as a branch of applied linguistics in the 1960s and set out to demonstrate that
many learner errors were not due to the learner’s mother tongue, but reflected universal
learning strategies.

EA is concerned with the description and analysis of errors made by 2nd language learners, and
whether they are induced by the mother tongue or derived from some other sources.

EA may be carried out in order to:

1- Identify the strategies which learners use in language learning.

2- Try to identify the causes of learners’ errors.
3- Obtain information on common difficulties in language learning as an aid to teaching or in
the preparation of teaching materials.

• Interlingual errors: errors which result from language transfer, caused by the learner’s native
language. Elle regarde les (she sees them) (produced according to English word order).
• Intralingual errors: results from faulty or partial learning of the target language, rather than
from language transfer, such as the influence of one target language upon another. He is comes
produced by blending he is coming, and he comes. It’s classification:
o Overgeneralization: extension of target language rules to inappropriate context.
o Simplification: producing simpler linguistic rules than those of the TL. Always adding
ed to express the past ignoring irregular verbs.
o Developmental errors: those reflecting natural stages of development.
o Induced errors: resulting from transfer of training. Saying at rather than under to
express that a cat is under the table. Error of understanding an item because of the way
in which it was produced.
o Errors of avoidance: resulting from the failure to use certain target language structures
because they were thought to be too difficult.
o Errors of overproduction: structures being used too fresuently.

Attempts to apply such categories have been problematic due to the difficulty of determining
the cause of errors. So it was superseded by studies of interlanguage and 2 nd language acquisition
by late 1970s.