PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING/

DIGITAL COMMUNICATION
LAB MANUAL
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY (UNIVERSITY)

(An Institute of National Importance)
YUPIA, DISTRICT PAPUM PARE, ARUNACHAL PRADESH, INDIA
1
 INDEX

S/No TOPIC PAGE

NO
1. SYLLABUS
2. EXPERIMENTS
Design an AM transmitter& receiver (or Use AM Trainer kit) to study
1 Amplitude Modulation with given input wave and carrier wave, and
hence the power efficiency of AM.
Design a FM transmitter& receiver (or Use FM Trainer kit) to study
2 Frequency Modulation with given input wave and carrier wave, and
hence the power efficiency of FM.
Design PWM transmitter and receiver (or use PWM trainer kit) to study
3 pulse width modulation and demodulation.
Design PAM transmitter and receiver (or use PAM trainer kit) to study
4 pulse amplitude modulation and demodulation.
Design PPM transmitter and receiver (or use PPM trainer kit) to study
5 pulse position modulation and demodulation.
6 PULSE CODE MODULATION
7 DELTA MODULATION AND DEMODULATION
8 TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING AND DEMULTIPLEXING
9 STUDY OF DATA FORMATS
10 STUDY OF AMPLITUDE SHIFT KEYING
11 STUDY OF FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING
12 STUDY OF PHASE SHIFT KEYING
13 STUDY OF DIFFERENTIAL PHASE SHIFT KEYING
14 STUDY OF QUADRATUREPHASE SHIFT KEYING
15 STUDY OF DIFFERENTIAL QUADRATURE PHASE SHIFT KEYING

2
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS (ECE-401)
S.NO. NAME OF THE EXPERIMENT
1.

2. Use the AM transmitter designed in experiment number 1 to generate

SSB and DSB transmitter with necessary other circuits. Study the
output and power efficiency of the circuit

3.
4. Use the FM transmitter designed in experiment number 3 to generate
PM with necessary other circuits. Study the output and power
efficiency of the circuit of PM transmitter

5. Design an SSB-SC receiver and use it with the circuit of experiment

number 2 (SSB-SC transmitter) to design a complete SSB-SC radio

6. Design PLL demodulator of PM and test the same with PM transmitter

designed in experiment number 4

7. Design any practical noise filtering circuit, and study its input and
output in term of signal to noise ratio

8. Design mixer circuit for any given FR amplifier, and study its
performance

9. Design a 4 to 1 FDM and study its operation

10 Design a 1 to 4 de-multiplexer and use it with the circuit of experiment

number 9 and justify the communication bymultiplexing.
3
 LIST OF EXPERIMENTS (ECE-503)
S.NO. NAME OF THE EXPERIMENT
1. Design a sampling circuit ( or use trainer kit) to verify and test Nyquist
theorem
2. Design a linear PCM coder-decoder (or use a trainer kit) to perform &
test PCM coding & decoding of a given test signal. Verify that signal to
quantum noise ratio decrease by 6 db with increase of each coding
bit.
3. Implement and verify µ -law and A-law companding in hardware or in
software
4. Design an ADPCM coder-decoder (or use a trainer kit) to perform &
test ADPCM coding & decoding
5. Generate p-n sequence with shift register
6. Design a DM (or use a trainer kit) to implement delta modulation.
7. To study test slope overloading condition using appropriate signal.
Find the start up noise if present
8. Design ASK system (or use a trainer kit) to perform & test the ASK
with given signal.
9. To implement PSK Design FSK system (or use a trainer kit) to perform
& test the FSK with given signal
10. Design a TDM system (or use a trainer kit) to perform & test the TDM
with a few given signals
11. Design any line coder(or use a trainer kit) to perform & test its
operation for given source codes
12. Write program to implement Huffman and Shannon-Fano coding

4
 EXPERIMENT NO.1

AMPLITUDE MODULATION& DEMODULATION

OBJECT:-

1. To study the process of Amplitude Modulation & Demodulation

2. To observe the carrier waveforms on CRO

3. To modulate carrier with audio signal and to observe waveforms on CRO

4. To measure percentage modulation of the amplitude modulated waveforms

5. To demodulated amplitude modulated waveforms and observe on CRO

APPARATUS REQUIRED:-

1. Trainer kit
2. Decade Audio Frequency Generator
3. C.R.O. 20 MHz

THEORY:-

There are two major reasons for transmitting information at high frequencies.

1. Transmission by radiation is practicable at high frequencies.

2. It is possible to transmit a number of massages simultaneously without
interference if the frequency is different for each massage. These waves which are
commonly called radio waves, travel with the velocity of light and consist of
magnetic and electric fields that are at right angles to each other and also at right
angle to the direction of travel.

If the radio wave is to convey a massage, it is necessary to vary the characteristics of the
wave in some manner. This variation of the wave in order to transmit information is called
5
modulation. This inverse process in which the information is extracted from the radiated
wave is known as demodulation or detection. A high frequency wave which carries the
information is called the carrier wave. The characteristics of the carrier wave are changed
as a function of the instantaneous value of another wave called the modulating wave.

MODULATION METHODS:-

FIG. Various Modulation Methods

In one method of modulation, the amplitude of the carrier is varied in accordance

with the instantaneous value of the modulating signal. This is called Amplitude
modulation (AM). In another basic method called frequency modulation (FM), the
instantaneous frequency of the carrier wave is varied by modulating signal. Similarly in
Phase modulation (PM) the phase angle of the carrier wave is varied by the signal. These
techniques are the special cases of the continuous wave (CW) modulation. In some
applications, it is more desirable that the signal be used to change some factor in pulse
train and such type of modulation is called Pulse modulation. Here, we will only discuss
Amplitude modulation process wave forms are given in Fig.
6
Vm

(a) time

(b) time

(c) time

FIG.1 (a) Message signal(b)Carrier signal (c)AM signal

AMPLITUDE MODULATION:-

As indicated, amplitude modulation is produced by varying the magnitude of the carrier in

accordance with the amplitude and frequency of the modulating source. Let the signal
potential be designated as

7
 em= Emcos (mt) ……………(1)

and let the unmodulatedcarrier be written as

eC = ECcos(Ct) …………….(2)

the carrier frequencyC is much larger than the signal frequency m. The resulting
modulated wave has the form

eAM= EC + KaEmcos (mt) cos (mt) ………………(3)

The amplitude factor EC+ KaEmcos (mt) expresses the sinusoidal variation of the amplitude
of the wave. When the proportionality factor K adetermines the maximum variation in
amplitude for a given modulating signal Em.

Writing Eq.(3) as

eAM = EC (1+ macosmt) cos (ct) ……………..(4)

The factor ma is known as modulating index

ma =KaEm / EC

ma is the percentage of modulation.

AMPLITUDE DEMODULATION OR DETECTION:-

8
 For amplitude demodulation or detection the non-linear devices are used Fig.(2) (a)
shows the circuit diagram of a linear detector. In this, a diode is used and its piece-wise
linear characteristics (of two linear segments) are utilized.

Initially the capacitor C is uncharged. When modulated wave eAMis applied, its negative
half cycle are cut-off by the Diode ”D”.

The positive half cycles charge C to a voltage almost equal to the peak voltage of the half
cycle. During the following negative half cycle, the diode is cut-off, and discharges
through the rate of discharge being governed by the time constant RC. However, the
values of C and R are made such that only the small amount of charge leaks away in this
duration, and the output voltage falls to a point, which is only slightly lower. In the
following half cycle, the diode conducts when input becomes more positive than the
voltage, remaining on C. Thus C is again charged to the peak potential of the new positive
half cycle. This process continues and the output voltage makes a reasonably faithful
replica of the modulation envelope. The distortion of the envelope is quite negligible as
can be seen.

The value of time constant RC is very significant for proper detection. For example, if C(or
R) is too small, the output voltage may drop to zero between the two adjacent positive
half cycles and hence it will not follow the amplitude envelope. On the other hand, if C(or
R) is too large, the voltage across C may not decay rapidly enough between two adjacent
positive half cycles so as to follow the envelope correctly.

OBJECT 1:- TO OBSERVE THE CARRIER WAVE FORM ON C.R.O.

PROCEDURE:

1. Switch ON the mains supply.

2. Connect CRO probe at socket marked “CARRIER SIGNAL”. Adjust the time base of
the CRO and note that the waveform is shown in Fig.
3. Observe the frequency of this waveform it will be around 100 KHz.

OBJECT 2:- TO MODULATE THE CARRIER WITH AUDIO SIGNAL AND TO OBSERVE WAVE
FORMS ON C.R.O.

9
PROCEDURE:

1. Switch ON the power supply.

2. Connect the carrier signal to carrier in sockets using patch cords. Feed 1 KHz sine
wave signal from the Audio Frequency Generator to the Audio in sockets.
3. Observe the waveform at the sockets marked modulated out Fig.

OBJECT 3:- TO MEASURE THE PERCENTAGE MODULATION OF THE AMPLITUDE

MODULATED WAVEFORM.

PROCEDURE:

1. Switch ON the power supply.

2. Connect the carrier signal from the sockets marked carrier signal to sockets marked
carrier in. Feed 1 KHz sine wave signal from the audio frequency generator to the
sockets marked AUDIO IN.
3. Slowly increase the level of audio signal and keep observing the amplitude
modulated waveform on C.R.O.
4. For a particular level of Audio signal measure A and B as shown in fig.
Calculate percentage modulation
m = A-B/A+B x 100

OBJECT 4:- TO DEMODULATE AMPLITUDE MODULATED WAVEFORM AND OBSERVE ON

C.R.O.

1. Switch ON the power supply.

2. Connect carrier wave to the sockets marked CARRIER IN and 1 KHz audio signal
from Audio Frequency Generator to the sockets marked AUDIO IN.
3. Connect the sockets marked modulated output to the sockets marked Modulated
signal IN of the demodulating circuit.
4. Observe the waveform at sockets marked DEMODULATED OUTPUT. The waveform
should be a 1KHz Audio Signal as fed from the Audio Frequency Generator.
10
TABULATION:
Waveform Amplitude (V) Time Period (msec) Frequency
Message

Carrier

Modulated

Demodulated

<<<>>>

EXPERIMENT NO.2

FREQUENCY MODULATION & DEMODULATION

OBJECT:

1. To generate frequency modulated signal and determine the modulation index and
Bandwidth for various values of amplitude and frequency of modulating signal.

2. To demodulate a Frequency Modulated signal using FM detector.

Apparatus required:
1. Amplitude Modulation and Demodulation Trainer
2. Function Generator
3. CRO
4. Connecting Wires
Theory:
The process, in which the frequency of the carrier is varied in accordance with the
Instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal is called “Frequency
Modulation”.TheFM signal is expressed as

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
11
PROCEDURE:
1. Switch on the FM experimental board.
2. Connect Oscilloscope to the FM O/P and observe that carrier frequency at that point
without any A.F. input.
3. Connect around 7KHz sine wave (A.F. signal) to the input of the frequency modulator
(At AF input).
4. Now observe the frequency modulation output on the 1st channel of on CRO and
adjust the amplitude of the AF signal to get clear frequency modulated wave form.
5. Vary the modulating frequency (A.F Signal) and amplitude and observe the effects on
the modulated waveform.
6. Connect the FM o/p to the FM i/p of De-modulator.
7. Vary the potentiometer provided in the demodulator section.
8. Observe the output at demodulation o/p on second channel of CRO.
9. Draw the demodulated wave form

12
<<<>>>

13
 EXPERIMENT NO.3

PULSE WIDTH MODULATION AND DEMODULATION

OBJECT: To modulate pulse width carrier with sinusoidal signal to obtain a pulse width
modulation signal.

APPARATUS:

1. CRO
2. Connecting wires

THEORY:

Two main fields where pulse communication is widely used are TELEGRAPHY and
TELEMENTRY. Pulse width modulation(PWM) is also called duration modulation (PDM).

The PWM has affixed amplitude and starting time of each pulse but width of each pulse is
proportional to the amplitude of modulating signal at the instant. Thus the pulses
corresponding to the positive peaks of a modulating signal shall be wider as compared to
negative going points.

One method to obtain PWM by using a monostable multivibrator circuit. The starting
times of the pulses is controlled by the trigger pulses i.e. pulse carrier waveform and
modulating signal control the width of the pulses.
14
The IC 555 works as a monostable generator. Form a voltage reference potential divider
2/3 Vcc appears at the junction of two resistors R1,R2. This voltage is fed to one input of
the upper voltage of comparator OP-AMP. The output of the two comparator controls the
RS flip flop which in turn controls the states of the complementary output stage and the
slave transistors. The state of flip flop can also be influence by signals applied to the pin5
i.e. RESET terminal. When the circuit is in quicent state the pin 2 i.e. trigger terminal is set
high via resistor r4. Under the condition transistor t1 is driven to saturation and forms a
short circuit across external timing capacitor Ct, and the pin 3 o/p terminal of the IC is
driven to low state.

The monostable action is initiated as soon as –Ve going trigger pulse is applied at pin2. As
this pulse falls below 1/3 Vcc reference value of the build in potential driver. The o/p of
the lower voltage comparator op-amp, changes state and causes the RS flip flop to switch
over. As the flip flop switches over it cuts off T1 and drives the pin 3 o/p of the IC555 to
the high state.

As T1 cuts off it removes the short from across Ct, so Ct starts to charge up towards the
supply voltage Vcc. As the voltage across Ct, so Ct starts to charge up towards the supply
voltage Vcc. As the voltage across Ct reaches 2/3 Vcc the upper voltage comparator
changes the state and turning on T1, rapidly discharge the Ct and o/p at pin3 to low state.
The delay time of the circuit is t=1.1 RtCt where t is in sec which the o/p at pin 3 is high.

If we apply continuously varying voltage at pin5 then the width of the o/p pulses vary in
accordance with this control voltage, hence a pulse width modulation o/p results and the
circuit function as pulse width modulator.

15
DEMODULATION OF PULSE WIDTH MODULATION SIGNAL:-

The process of integration is employed in order to demodulate a pulse width signal to

recover the modulating signal. In this circuit current is summed over a period of time and
the resultant voltage generated is the integral of that current as a function of time. The
look resistor across 0.1 µF capacitor is added to provide dc stability.

16
PROCEDURE:

[For modulation]

(i) Connect the CRO probe to the socket marked TP2, adjust the level, the
waveform should be a sinusoidal as in the fig.1a. Now remove the CRO
probefrom TP2 and connect it to TP1. The waveform here should resemble that
of figure 1b i.e. pulse train (carrier).
(ii) Switch on main supply and observe the waveform on the CRO at TP3, This is a
pulse width modulating resemble that of fig.1(c)

[For demodulation]

(i) In continuation with experiment using connecting lead connects the output of
PW modulator to the input of PW modulator circuit on the panel.
(ii) Observed on the CRO the waveform at the demodulation o/p socket. This
should resemble of fig.4.
<<<>>>

17
 EXPERIMENT NO.4
PULSE AMPLITUDE MODULATION AND DEMODULATION

OBJECT:

1. To demonstrate sampling of sine wave audio signal thereby converting it into pulse
amplitude modulated signal (PAM),
2. To demonstrate the de-modulation of PAM signals thereby recovering the sine
wave audio signal.
3. To demonstrate the effect of sampling rate on the distortion in recover sine wave
audio signal.

APPARATUS:

1) CRO
2) Connecting wires

THEORY:

The process by which information of power frequency is made a distinguishable part of a

higher frequency is known as modulation. The low frequency information is called the
modulating signal, whereas the high frequency is called carrier wave. The reverse process
by which information is separated out from a modulated wave is known as detection or
demodulation.

Pulse amplitude modulation (PAM): the PAM waveform can be of two types

18
i) Dual polarity PAM: If we sample the modulating signal by dual polarity sampling
pulses then the resulting PAM is also dual polarity type.

ii) Single polarity PAM: If we sample the modulating signal whose Dc level has been
raised to a positive value say positive, from 0v and sample it with signal polarity
pulses, then the resulting PAM waveform is also a single polarity type.

19
The frequency spectrum of the PAM signal shows the modulating frequency FM and
the various sideband Fc +Fm maintain their individuality, i.e. fm does not spread into
the lower sideband region around 2fc if:

Fm< fc –fm

or fc>2fm

20
DEMODULATION OF PAM:

A modulating signal can be extracted from the PAM simply by a diode and a low pass
filter with its cut-off frequency at fm. The recovered signal due to high frequency
sampling pulses used has less error than that of low frequency sampling pulses.

21
Fig. 5: Effect of sampling-rate on the error in recovered signal after modulation of PAM
(a) less error, (b) more error

PROCEDURE:

i) To demonstrate the sampling of a sinusoidal wave audio signal thereby

converting it into PAM signal.
Using connecting leads connect the output of the sampling pulse generator to
input1 of PAM modulation and output of modulating generator to input-2 of the
PAM modulator. Turn the toggle switch marked ‘H’-‘L’ to’H’ position and the
potentiometer marked ’FREQ’, to completely anticlockwise position.
Observe the PAM signal at the socket marked TP3 on CRO after switching ON
the mains power to the training board. Adjust the level of the modulating signals
so that the peaks of the sampling pulse (as seen on the CRO) clearly make the
outline of an undistorted complete sine wave signal, as in fig-3c
22
NOTE:

1. (1) Incase the PAM waveform is not coming observed one by one on the CRO the
corresponding waveform at the TP1 and TP2. The waveform at TP1 should resemble of
fig-3b and the waveform of TP2 should resemble of fig-3a

(2) Properly set the CRO controls in the order to display a stationary waveform.

2.To demonstrate the demodulation of PAM signals thereby recovering the sine wave
audio signal.

In continuation with the above experiment now connect the output of the PAM
modulator to the input of the PAM demodulator with a connecting lead.

Observed the output of the PAM demodulator at the sockets marked ‘DEMOD.OUTPUT’
on the CRO. The recovered waveform shall resemble with the modulating signal.

NOTE: Adjust the level of the modulating signal, as also the frequency of the sampling
pulses in order to obtain a best possible recovered signal.

3. To demonstrate the effect of sampling-rate on the distortion in recovered sine wave

audio signal.

In continuation with above experiment,now slowly vary the frequency of the sampling
pulses while carefully observing the demodulated signal on the first with toggle switch,in
‘H’ position in ‘L’ position and continuously varying frequency of the plot.

It will be observed that as the frequency of the sampling pulses is lower the recover
waveform becomes more and more distorted. This error is called sampling error.

NOTE: The frequency of the sampling pulse should be more than twice the frequency of
the modulating signal.

<<<>>>

23
 EXPERIMENT NO.5

PULSE POSITION MODULATION

OBJECT:

1. To modulate a pulse train (carrier) with a sinusoidal signal and to obtain a Pulse
Position modulated signal.
2. To demodulate a pulse position modulated signal to recover the modulating signal.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1. Trainer kit
2. C.R.O
3. Connecting probe

Theory:-

Pulse modulation may be used to transmit analog information such as continuous speech
or data. It is a system in which continuous waveforms are sampled at regular intervals.
Information regarding the signal is transmitted only at the sampling times, together with
any synchronizing pulses that may be required.

At the receiving end the original waveforms may be reconstituted from the information
regarding the samples if these are taken frequently enough.

Pulse modulation is of four distinct types as shown in FIG. there are (1) Pulse Amplitude
(2) Pulse Code (3) Pulse width & (4) Pulse position.

PULSE POSITION MODULATION:-

The amplitude and width of the pulse is kept constant in this system, while the position of
each pulse is varied by each instantaneous sampled value of the modulating wave. Pulse
position modulation(PPM) has the advantage of requiring constanttransmitter power
output, but the disadvantage of depending on transmitter receiver synchronization.

24
GENERATION OF PULSE POSITION MODULATED SIGNAL:-

First of all Pulse Width Modulated(PWM) signal is obtained by sampling the modulating
signal with a pulse train(Carrier signal).

The PWM thus obtained is then differentiated. The resulting signal has positive and
negative going pulses corresponding to leading and trailing edges of the PWM signal.

From the above differentiated waveform the positive going pulses are removed. The
resulting waveform is Pulse position modulation(PPM) signal.

The various steps in obtaining PPM signal are illustrated in FIG.

(a)Modulating signal

(b)Pulse train (carrier)

(c)Pulse width modulated signal

(d) Differentiated pulse width modulated signal

(e) Pulse position modulated signal obtained after clipping the waveform at(d)

25
DEMODULATION OF PULSE POSITION MODULATED SIGNAL:-

The PPM signal is converted back to PWM signal. The PWM signal is then integrated to
recover the modulating signal. Various steps for demodulating the PPM signal are
illustrated in FIG.

(A)PPM (pulse position modulated) signal,

(B)PPM signal converted to PWM signal,

(C)Recovered modulating signal.

The recovered modulating signal has some error as compared to the original modulating
signal.

26
OBJECT 1. TO MODULATE A PULSE TRAIN(CARRIER) WITH A SINUSOIDAL SIGNAL AND
TO OBTAIN A PPM SIGNAL.

PROCEDURE:

1. To connect the training board to 230 V± 10% at 50 Hz AC and turn on the mains
switch.
2. Connect the CRO probe to the socket marked TP2, adjust the level, the waveform
should be a sinusoidal as shown in FIG(A). Now remove the CRO probe from TP2
and connect it to TP1. The waveform here should resemble that of FIG(b) i.e.,a
pulse train (carrier).
3. Now remove the CRO probe from TP1 and connect it to TP3. Also using patch cords
connect the output of PPM to the input of pulse train (pin2) and the output of
modulating signal section to the second input of pulse position modulator (pin5).
Observe PPM signal on the CRO (connected to TP3).
Adjust the level of the modulating signal with the pot marked LEVEL in order to
obtain a proper PPM Signal.

OBJECT 2. TO DEMODULATE A PULSE POSITION MODULATED SIGNAL TO RECOVER THE

MODULATING SIGNAL.

PROCEDURE:-

1. In continuation of experiment connect with a patch cord the output of

differentiator(PPM Signal) to the input of bistable. Also connect the output of pulse
train (carrier) to the second input of the bistable ckt.
2. Connect the CRO probe to the sockets marked demodulated output. The recovered
modulating signal should resemble that of FIG(c).
3. Adjust the level of modulating signal in order to obtain stable demodulated signal
as per FIG(c).

<<<>>>

27
 EXPERIMENT NO.6
PULSE CODE MODULATION

OBJECT:

To study pulse code modulation and demodulation

APPARATUS:

1. Experimental training board

2. CRO
3. Connecting wires

THEORY:

Pulse code modulation (PCM) is different from AM and FM because, those two are
continuous forms of modulation. PCM is used to convert analog signals into binary form.
In the absence of noise and distortion it is possible to completely recover a continuous
analog modulated signal. But in real time they suffer from transmission distortion and
noise to an appreciable extent. In PCM system groups of pulses or codes are transmitted
which represent binary numbers corresponding to modulating signal voltage levels.
Recovery of the transmitter information does not depend on the height width or energy
content of the individual pulses, but only on their presence or absence. Since it is
relatively easy to recover pulses under these conditions, even in the presence of large
amounts of noise and distortion, PCM systems tend to be very immune to interference
and noise. Regeneration of the pulse enroute is also relatively easy, resulting in system
that produces excellent result for long distance communication.

PCM ENCODING: - The encoding process generates a binary code number corresponding
to Modulating signal voltage level to be transmitted for each sampling interval. Any one
of the codes like binary, ASCII etc., may be used as long as it provides a sufficient number
of different symbols to represent all of the levels to be transmitted. Ordinary binary
number will contain a train of ‘1’ and ‘0’ pulses with a total of log2N pulses in each
number.( N is no. of levels in the full range). This system is very economical to realize,
because it corresponds exactly to the process of analog-to-digital (A/D) conversion.

The modulating signal is applied to the input of Analog-to-Digital (A/D) converter which
performs two function, quantization and encoding, producing a 8-bit binary coded
28
number. The signal is to be transmitted i.e., modulating signal is sampled at regular
intervals as shown in Fig.1

If the maximum amplitude +5V is represented by 8-bits the 1LSB corresponds to V x 1/28=
39mV and MSB represents the sign. So the values of the sampled signal at the output of
Analog-to-digital converter for Fig.1 are 00000000, 00111111, 01111111, 00111111,
00000000, 10111111, 11111111, 10111111, 00000000.

To transmit all the bits in one channel, actually it is often sent as binary number back to
front by parallel to serial converter, i.e., 00000000 11111100 11111110 to make
demodulating easier. A parallel to serial converter transmits the code bits in serial
fashion.

QUANTIZATION:-

The first step in the PCM system is to quantize the modulating signal. The modulating
signal can assume, an infinite number of different levels between the two limit values
which define the range of the signal. In PCM a coded number is transmitted for each level
sampled in the modulating signal. If the exact number corresponding to the exact voltage

29
were to be transmitted for every sample, an infinite number of levels to a relatively small
number which can be coded with difficulty.

In the quantization process, the total range of the modulating signal is divided up into a
number of small sub-ranges. The number will depend on the nature of the modulating
signal and will form as few as eight to as many as 128 levels. A number that is an integer
power of two is usually chosen because of the ease of generating binary codes. A new
signal is generated by producing, for each sample, a voltage level corresponding to the
midpoint level of the signal sampled when it was 3V, the quantizer would put a voltage of
2.96V and hold that level until the next sampling time. The result is stopped waveform
which follows the counter of the original modulating signal with each step synchronized
to the sampling period.

PCM DECODING:-

The decoding process re-shapes the incoming pulses and eliminates most of the
transmission noise. A serial to parallel circuit passes the bits in parallel groups to a digital
to analog converter (D/A) for decoding. Thus decoded signal passes through a sample and
hold amplifier which maintains the pulse level for the duration of the sampling period,
recreating the staircase waveform approximation of the modulating signal. A low-pass
filter may be used to reduce the quantization noise.

At the receiver end the received data will be in serial form. The serial data is converted
back to parallel form by serial to parallel converter and passes the bits to a Digital-to-
Analog converter for decoding which has in-build sample and hold amplifier which
maintains the pulse level for the duration of the sampling period, recreating the pulse
level for the duration of the sampling period, recreating the staircase waveform which is
approximation of modulating signal. (Fig.2) A low pass filter may be used to reduce the
quantization noise and to yield the original modulating signal.

30
OBJECT:- TO STUDY PULSE CODE MODULATION & DEMODULATION

PROCEDURE:-

1. Connect clock output to the Timing and Control Input.

2. Connect the 3 pin male connector to the nearest power socket switch ON the
training board by putting ON/OFF switch to ON position. Neon light will come on
indicating the board is ready for experiment.
3. Measure the sampling clock frequency it will be as shown in fig. 3

4. For visual convenience a DC variable is provided as modulating signal.

5. Connect patch cord to variable DC O/P to Analog Input.
6. Adjust the variable DC with the help of control provided to 2V DC.
7. Note down the binary word from LED’s i.e. LED ‘ON’ represents ‘1’ & ‘OFF’
represents ‘0’.
8. Connect channel 1 of the CRO to Analog Input, and Channel 2 to sampling
frequency. CRO will show the wave-shape as shown in fig.4

31
9. Now monitor serial data by connecting the channel 1 of CRO to the socket provided
for serial data. It’s waveforms will be as shown in fig.5.

10. Observe the same binary word at the Rx end LED’s.

11. Connect channel 1 of CRO to demodulator output. It’s waveform will be as shown
in fig. 6.

32
12.Now disconnect the patch cord from variable DC and connect to modulating signal
Generator Output.
13.Connect channel 1 of CRO to Modulating signal. You will observe waveform as
shown in fig. 7.

14.Now connect channel 2 of CRO to serial Data and you will be observing waveform
as shown in fig.8.

33
15. Now connect channel 2 of CRO to D/A output, you will be observing the waveform
as shown in fig.9.

16. Now connect channel 2 of CRO to demodulator output. It’s waveform will be as
shown in fig. 8. It will resemble with Input signal.

34
Power supply circuit diagram

<<<>>>

35
 EXPERIMENT NO.7

To study Delta Modulation and Demodulation

APPARATUS:

1. Trainer kit
2. CRO
3. Connecting wires

THEORY:

Delta modulation is a differential pulse code modulation technique, in which the

difference signal between two successive samples is encoded into a single bit code.

Delta modulation is also known as linear delta modulator. The signal m(t) is the analog
input signal with 1 bit delay. The signal r(t) tries to follow the input signal m(t) with one
bit period delay.

The process of encoding is as follows: The comparator compress the input signal m(t) and
r(t). If m(t)> r(t) a logic 1 is generated at the o/p of the comparator otherwise a logic ‘0’ is
generated. The value of logic 1 or logic 0 turned as delta(t) is held for the bit duration by
the sample and hold the current to generate So(t). The delta modulated o/p. This o/p
So(t) is fed to the bit binary up/down counter to control its count direction. Logic 1 at the
mode control input increases the count value by one. Logic 0 decrements the count value
by one. All the 8 o/p’s of the counter are given to DAC to reconstruct the original signal. It
essence the counter and decoder forms the delete modulator in the feedback loop of the
comparator. In the block diagram of delta modulator the receive modulated delta signal
So(t) is given to mode control input of the up/down counter. All the 8 o/p’s are connected
to an 8 bit DAC which gives a quantize analog signal (stepped waveform). A LPF is used to
smooth out the steps. A buffer amplifier provides the necessary drive capability to the
o/p signal. Thus the digital delta modulated data is demodulated and reconstructed into
an analog signal.

Thus the digital delta modulated data is demodulated and reconstruct into an analog
signal.

Another limitation in delta modulation is slope overloading. Basically the DAC can
produce a maximum signal variation of (256 x 5) volts in 256 clock pulses where in
quantize step size Tc is clock period the max.slope the DAC can produce a maximum
36
signal variation in SL/Tc volts/sec which is the limiting factor of input signal slope is higher
than this or in other words, if the input signal frequency is generated then the limiting
value slope overloading occurs. If the overloading is to be avoided then the following
condition should be satisfied

Sfs >= 2πfA

S= quantize step size

Fs= sample frequency (bit frequency)

F= signal frequency

A= signal Amplitude

Fs= 2πA/S= πf2A

When 2A= peak to peak amplitude= 256xS =DAC MAX.Amplitude

Fs= πf.256= 256πf

For a signal frequency of 200 Hz, the sampling frequency should be

Fs= 256xπ200= 160 KHz.

PROCEDURE:

1. Switch ‘ON’ the experimental board.

2. Connect clock signal to delta modulator circuit
3. Connect modulating signal to the modulating signal input of the delta modulator
and observed the same on channel 1 of a dual trace CRO.
4. Observed the delta modulated o/p on channel 2.
5. Connect this delta modulated o/p to demodulator
6. Also connect the clock signal to the demodulator.
7. Observed the demodulator o/p with and without RC filter on CRO.

<<>>

37
 EXPERIMENT NO.8

TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING AND DEMULTIPLEXING

APPARATUS:

1. Dual trace CRO

2. Patch cords or connecting wires.

THEORY:

Multiplexing is of two types:-

Time division multiplexing (TDM) and Frequency division multiplexing (FDM).

Time Division multiplexing:- TDM is a method of interleaving in the time domain, pulse
belonging to the different time single channel. To satisfy the sampling theorem, the
sampling frequency should be greater >= twice the modulating input frequency. The
selection of channel is as follows:

Clock generator:-

This is the basic clock required to operate the TDM system. In this clock generator system
10 KHz and above clock signal is used to study the operation of time division multiplexing
and de-multiplexing completely by visual observation. This is how, actually the TDM
system of 8 bit one.

The sampling frequency of is 1.25 KHz. Fundamentally 10KHz and above clock signal
generated by IC555 is connected in astable multivibrator mode.

Address Generator:- This is the system which controls the operation of multiplexing in
selection of input channels. Clock signal from the clock generator (10 KHz) is given to this
system as the clock input. We are multiplexing 8 channels, so 3 bit address is sufficient
(=8). Basically this is divided by N counter so the address bits A0, A1, A2 determines which
input have to select.

Data Generator:- This data generator system generates some digital signals of signals low,
Signal high and some o/p’s. These signals are used to multiplex through multiplexer unit
and also to de-multiplexer those at the receiving end for this generator of the clock signal
74163 IC-5 synchronous presetable binary counter is used.

38
(a)8:1 Multiplexer: For the multiplexing process, 8 bit digital multiplexer 74151 IC-1 is
used, D0 to D7 are the 8 I/P channels, data multiplexed is given to them, A0, A1, A2 are
the address data finder. Depending upon the address data at any instant, input channel
correspond to the address location is multiplexed. For example if the address bit is 101,
channel D5 is multiplexed at that instant.

(b) 1:8 De-multiplexer: For the de-multiplexing process, 74138 IC is used. D0 toD7 are the
corresponding IC 8 channels o/p’s, which are the synchronization to the multiplexed
channels at the multiplexing process. The address data generator for both multiplexer
and de-multiplexer is same so both multiplexer and de-multiplexer are in synchronization.

PROCEDURE:

1. SWITCH on THE EXPERIMENT KIT.

2. Observed the bit A2 of the address generator to one channel of a dual trace CRO
w.r.t. the same channel.
3. Observed the o/p of the 8-to-1 line multiplexer on the second channel of CRO.
4. Applied a high (=5V) signal to the 8 multiplexing inputs one by one and observed
multiplexer o/p and saw how the total time is divided by each channel w.r.t. the
address generator.
5. Now connect the 8-1 line multiplexer to the 1-8 de-multiplexer o/p’s are inverted
as per as the logic design of IC.
6. Given any data available from data generator to any multiplexer input and checked
the o/p corresponding o/p’s.
7. Now connect different data to the different I/p and observed the o/p’s at the
corresponding demultiplexed o/p’s which are inverted.

<<<>>>

39
 EXPERIMENT NO.9

Study of Data Formats

Equipments Needed:
1. ST2156 Techbook.
2. 2 mm Banana cable
3. CRO
Procedure:
1. Connect the power supply of ST2156 but do not turn on the power supplies until
connections are made for this experiment.
2. Make the connections as shown in the figure 1.1.
3. Switch 'ON' the power.
4. Connect oscilloscope CH1 to ‘Data In’ and CH2 to ‘Clock In’ and observe the
waveforms.
5. Connect oscilloscope CH1 to ‘Data In’ and CH2 to ‘NRZ (L)’ and observe the
waveforms.
6. Connect oscilloscope CH1 to ‘Data In’ and CH2 to ‘NRZ (M)’ and observe the
waveforms.
7. Connect oscilloscope CH1 to ‘Data In’ and CH2 to ‘RZ’ and observe the
waveforms.
8. Connect oscilloscope CH1 to ‘Data In’ and CH2 to ‘Biphase (manchester)’ and
observe the waveforms.

9. Connect oscilloscope CH1 to ‘Data In’ and CH2 to ‘Biphase (Mark)’ and
observe the waveforms.
10. Connect oscilloscope CH1 to ‘Data In’ and CH2 to ‘RB’ and observe the
waveforms.
11. Connect oscilloscope CH1 to ‘Data In’ and CH2 to ‘AMI’ and observe the
waveforms.

Observations:
1. The output at ‘Data In’ is repeating sequence of bits generated by Parallel to
serial Converter.
2. The ‘NRZ (L)’ data is same as ‘Data In’ but it is one bit shifted.
3. Verify all the formatting techniques according to example patterns given on the
ST2156 board.

40
Conclusions:
1. The NRZ(L) waveform simply goes low for one bit time to represent a data ‘0’
and high for one bit time to represent a data ‘1’.
2. In the NRZ (M) line codes the present level is related to the previous level that
is when logic ‘1’ is to be transmitted change in level occurs and for logic ‘0’ the
level remains unchanged.
3. In the RZ line codes, the maximum signal frequency of ‘RZ’ signal occurs when
a string of ‘1’ is transmitted. It is equivalent to sending two logic levels in each
clock period. Thus bandwidth requires is twice as that required for the NRZ
waveforms.
4. The Biphase Manchester codes always contain at least one transition per bit
time, irrespective of the data being transmitted. Hence the maximum frequency
of the biphase code is equal to the data clock rate when a stream of consecutive
data ‘1’ & ‘0’ is transmitted. Therefore the required bandwidth is same as that of
RZ code & double as that of NRZ (L) code.
5. In the ‘Biphase Mark’ if a data ‘0’ is to be transmitted, the sequence of the
transmitted levels will remain same as for the previous bit interval and if a ‘1’ is
to be transmitted , the sequence of the transmitted levels will reverse i.e. phase
reversal will occur.
6. The Biphase Mark code being very similar to the Biphase (Manchester) coding
requires same amount of bandwidth which is double as that of NRZ (L).
7. The maximum signal frequency in RB code is equal to the data clock frequency;
the bandwidth requirements is same as that for RZ, Biphase codes and double
that for NRZ codes.
8. The maximum transition rate for AMI can only occur during a stream of all ‘1s’
thus the bandwidth required is twice that required for the NRZ codes.

41
<<<>>>

42
 EXPERIMENT NO.10

Study of Amplitude Shift Keying.

Equipments Needed:
1. ST2156 and ST2157 Techbooks.
2. 2 mm Banana cable
3. CRO

Procedure:
1. Connect the power supplies of ST2156 and ST2157 but do not turn on the power
supplies until connections are made for this experiment.
2. Make the connections as shown in the figure 8.1.
3. Switch 'ON' the power.
4. On ST2156, connect oscilloscope CH1 to ‘Clock In’ and CH2 to ‘Data In’ and
observe the waveforms.
5. On ST2156, connect oscilloscope CH1 to ‘NRZ (L)’ and CH2 to ‘Output’ of
modulator Circuit (l) on ST2156 and observe the waveforms.
6. Vary the gain potentiometer of modulator circuit (l) on ST2156 to adjust the
amplitude of ASK Waveform.
7. On ST2156, connect oscilloscope CH1 to ‘NRZ (L)’ and CH2 to ‘Output’ of
comparator on ST2157 and observe the waveforms.

Observations:
1. The output at ‘Data In’ is repeating sequence of bits generated by Data Source.
2. The output at Modulator Circuit (l) is the ASK waveform which contains carrier
transmitted for Data ‘1’ and carrier suppressed Data ‘0’.
3. The output at comparator on ST2157 is the same as ‘Data In’ on ST2156.

43
Waveforms Of ASK Modulation

Conclusions:
44
1. Amplitude shift keying is fairly simple to implement in practice, but it is less
efficient, because the noise inherent in the transmission channel can deteriorate
the signal so much that the amplitude changes in the modulated carrier wave due
to noise addition, may lead to the incorrect decoding at the receiver.
2. The technique is not widely used is practice. Application wise, it is however
used in diverse areas and old as emergency radio transmissions and fiber-optic
communications.

<<<>>>

45
 EXPERIMENT NO.11

Study of Frequency Shift Keying.

Equipments Needed:
1. ST2156 and ST2157 Techbooks.
2. 2 mm Banana cable
3. CRO

Procedure:
1. Connect the power supplies of ST2156 and ST2157 but do not turn on the power
supplies until connections are made for this experiment.
2. Make the connections as shown in the figure 3.1.
3. Switch 'ON' the power.
4. On ST2156, connect oscilloscope CH1 to ‘Clock In’ and CH2 to ‘Data In’ and
observe the waveforms.
5. On ST2156, connect oscilloscope CH1 to ‘NRZ (L)’ and CH2 to ‘Output’ of
Summing Amplifier on ST2156 and observe the waveforms.
6. Adjust the potentiometers of both the Modulator Circuit (l) &(ll) onST2156 to
adjust the amplitude of FSK waveform at Summing Amplifier’s output on
ST2156.
7. On ST2156, connect oscilloscope CH1 to ‘NRZ (L)’ and CH2 to ‘Output’ of
comparator on ST2157 and observe the waveforms.

Observations:
1. The output at Summer Amplifier is the FSK waveform, Observe that for data
bit '0' the FSK signal is at lower frequency (960KHz) & for data bit '1’ the FSK
signal is at higher frequency (1.6 MHz)The output at comparator on ST2157 is
the same as ‘Data In’ on ST2156.

46
Conclusions:
1. The amplitude change in FSK waveform does not matter, therefore FSK
modulation technique is very reliable even in noisy & fading channels.

47
 EXPERIMENT NO.12

Study of Phase Shift Keying.

Equipments Needed:
1. ST2156 and ST2157 Techbooks.
2. 2 mm Banana cable
3. CRO

Circuit diagram:
Refer the figure 4.1 for the connection diagram for Experiment 4.

Procedure:
1. Connect the power supplies of ST2156 and ST2157 but do not turn on the power
supplies until connections are made for this experiment.
2. Make the connections as shown in the figure 4.1.
3. Switch 'ON' the power.
4. On ST2156, connect oscilloscope CH1 to ‘Clock In’ and CH2 to ‘Data In’ and
observe the waveforms.
5. On ST2156, connect oscilloscope CH1 to ‘NRZ (L)’ and CH2 to ‘Output’ of
Modulator Circuit (l) on ST2156 and observe the waveforms.
6. Adjust the ‘Gain’ potentiometer of the Modulator Circuit (l) on ST2156 to
adjust the amplitude of PSK waveform at output of Modulator Circuit (l) on
ST2156.
7. Now on ST2157 connect oscilloscope CH1 to ‘Input’ of PSK demodulator and
connect CH2 one by one to output of double squaring circuit, output of PLL,
output of Divide by four (÷ 2) observe the wave forms.

8. On ST2157 connect oscilloscope CH1 to output of Phase adjust and CH2 to

‘output’ of PSK demodulator and observe the waveforms. Set all toggle switch
to 0 and compare the waveform now vary the phase adjust potentiometer and
observe its effects on the demodulated signal waveform. (Note: If there is
problem in setting the waveform with potentiometer then toggle the switch
given in PSK demodulator block two to three times to get the required
waveform).
9. Now connect oscilloscope CH1 to ‘PSK’ output of PSK demodulator on
ST2157 and connect CH2 ‘Output’ of Low Pass Filter on ST2157 and observe
the waveforms.
10. Connect oscilloscope CH1 to ‘Output’ of Low Pass Filter on ST2157 then
connect CH2 to ‘Output’ of Comparator on ST2157 and observe the waveforms,
now vary the reference voltage potentiometer of first comparator to generate
desired data pattern.
48
11. On ST2156, connect oscilloscope CH1 to ‘NRZ (L)’ and CH2 to ‘Output’ of
comparator on ST2157 and observe the waveforms.
12. Connect oscilloscope CH1 to ‘Data In’ then connect CH2 output to Bit decoder
and observe the waveforms. If both data does not matches then try to match it by
varying the phase adjust potentiometer on QPSK Demodulator.
13. Now try to match the LED sequence by once pressing the reset switch on
ST2156.

Observations:

1. The output at ‘Data In’ is repeating sequence of bits generated by Data Source.
2. The ‘Output’ of Modulator Circuit (l) is Phase Shift Keying modulated signal.
3. The output of Double squaring circuit is sinusoidal signal (carrier signal) but
frequency is four times higher than that of carrier used for modulation.
4. The output of Phase Lock Loop (PLL) is clock signal of same frequency as that
of the output of double squaring circuit and output of Divide by two (÷ 2) is
clock signal of frequency two times less than the output of PLL signal.
5. The output of PSK demodulator is a signal having group of positive half cycles
and group of negative half cycles of the carrier signal.
6. A low pass filter removes high frequency component from demodulated PSK
signal and it makes the signal smooth.
7. The variation in reference voltage potentiometer affect the Data, to recover Data
correctly potentiometer adjustment is necessary.
8. The Phase Adjust potentiometer on ST2157 matches the phase of regenerated
clock and carrier with input clock and carrier signal.

49
50
<<<>>>
51
 EXPERIMENT NO.13

Study of Differential Phase Shift Keying.

Equipments Needed:
1. ST2156 and ST2157 Techbooks.
2. 2 mm Banana cable
3. CRO
Procedure:
1. Connect the power supplies of ST2156 and ST2157 but do not turn on the power
supplies until connections are made for this experiment.
2. Make the connections as shown in the figure 5.1.
3. Switch 'ON' the power.
4. On ST2156, connect oscilloscope CH1 to ‘Clock In’ and CH2 to ‘Data In’ and
observe the waveforms.
5. On ST2156, connect oscilloscope CH1 to ‘NRZ (L)’ and CH2 to ‘Output’ of
Modulator Circuit (l) on ST2156 and observe the waveforms.
6. Adjust the ‘Gain’ potentiometer of the Modulator Circuit (l) onST2156 to adjust
the amplitude of PSK waveform at output of Modulator Circuit (l) on ST2156.
7. Now on ST2157 connect oscilloscope CH1 to ‘Input’ of PSK demodulator and
connect CH2 one by one to output of double squaring circuit, output of PLL,
output of Divide by four (÷ 2) observe the wave forms.

8. On ST2157 connect oscilloscope CH1 to output of Phase adjust and CH2 to

‘output’ of PSK demodulator and observe the waveforms. Now vary the phase
adjust potentiometer and observe its effects on the demodulated signal
waveform
9. Now connect oscilloscope CH1 to ‘PSK’ output of PSK demodulator on
ST2157 and connect CH2 ‘Output’ of Low Pass Filter on ST2157 and observe
the waveforms.
10. Connect oscilloscope CH1 to ‘Output’ of Low Pass Filter on ST2157 then
connect CH2 to ‘Output’ of Comparator on ST2157 and observe the waveforms,
now vary the reference voltage potentiometer of first comparator to generate
desired data pattern.
11. On ST2156, connect oscilloscope CH1 to ‘NRZ (L)’ and CH2 to ‘Output’ of
comparator on ST2157 and observe the waveforms.
12. Connect oscilloscope CH1 to ‘Data In’ then connect CH2 output to Bit decoder
and observe the waveforms. If both data does not matches then try to match it by
varying the phase adjust potentiometer on QPSK Demodulator.
13. Now try to match the LED sequence by once pressing the reset switch on
ST2156.
Observations:
52
1. The output at ‘Data In’ is repeating sequence of bits generated by Data Source.
2. The ‘Output’ of Modulator Circuit (l) is Phase Shift Keying modulated signal.
3. The output of Double squaring circuit is sinusoidal signal (carrier signal) but
frequency is four times higher than that of carrier used for modulation.
4. The output of Phase Lock Loop (PLL) is clock signal of same frequency as that
of the output of double squaring circuit and output of Divide by two (÷ 2) is
clock signal of frequency two times less than the output of PLL signal.
5. The output of PSK demodulator is a signal having group of positive half cycles
and group of negative half cycles of the carrier signal.
6. A low pass filter removes high frequency component from demodulated PSK
signal and it makes the signal smooth.
7. The variation in reference voltage potentiometer affect the Data, to recover Data
correctly potentiometer adjustment is necessary.
8. The Phase Adjust potentiometer on ST2157 matches the phase of regenerated
clock and carrier with input clock and carrier signal.

<<<>>>

53
 EXPERIMENT NO.14

Study of Quadrature Phase Shift Keying.

Equipments Needed:
1. ST2156 and ST2157 Techbooks.
2. 2 mm Banana cable
3. CRO

Procedure:
1. Connect the power supplies of ST2156 and ST2157 but do not turn on the power
supplies until connections are made for this experiment.
2. Make the connections as shown in the figure 6.1.
3. Switch 'ON' the power.
4. On ST2156, connect oscilloscope CH1 to ‘Clock In’ and CH2 to ‘Data In’ and
observe the waveforms.
5. On ST2156, connect oscilloscope CH1 to ‘Clock Output’ and CH2 one by one
to ‘Sine’ and ‘Cosine’ output of 960 KHz and observe the waveforms.
6. On ST2156, connect oscilloscope CH1 to ‘Data In’ and connect CH2 one by one
to ‘I Data’ and ‘Q Data’ outputs and observe the waveforms.
7. Now connect oscilloscope CH1 to ‘I Data’ output on ST2156 and connect CH2
one by one to ‘Signal In’, ‘Carrier In’ and ‘Output’ of modulator circuit (l) on
ST2156 and observe the waveforms.
8. Now connect oscilloscope CH1 to ‘Q Data’ output on ST2156 and connect CH2
one by one to ‘Signal In’, ‘Carrier In’ and ‘Output’ of modulator circuit (ll) on
ST2156 and observe the waveforms.

9. Now connect oscilloscope CH1 to ‘Data Out’ on ST2156 and CH2 to ‘Output’
of Summing Amplifier on ST2156 and observe the waveforms.
10. Set ‘Carrier frequency’ selection switch to ‘960 KHz’ on ST2157.
11. Now on ST2157 connect oscilloscope CH1 to ‘Input’ of QPSK demodulator
and connect CH2 one by one to output of double squaring circuit, output of
PLL, output of Divide by four (÷ 4) observe the wave forms.
12. On ST2157, connect oscilloscope CH1 to ‘I’ output of QPSK demodulator and
CH2 to ‘Q’ output of QPSK demodulator and observe the waveforms. Set all
toggle switch to 0, now vary the phase adjust potentiometer and observe its
effects on the demodulated signal waveforms.
13. Connect oscilloscope CH1 to ‘I’ output of QPSK demodulator on ST2157 then

54
connect CH2 one by one to output of low pass filter, output of Comparator on
ST2157 and observe the waveforms.
14. Connect oscilloscope CH1 to ‘Q’ output of QPSK demodulator on ST2157 then
connect CH2 one by one to output of low pass filter, output of Comparator on
ST2157 and observe the waveforms.
15. Compare the output of comparators on ST2157 with the output ‘I Data’ and ‘Q
Data’ on ST2156 respectively.
16. Connect oscilloscope CH1 to ‘Data In’ then connect CH2 output to Bit decoder
and observe the waveforms. If both data does not matches then try to match it by
varying the phase adjust potentiometer on QPSK Demodulator.
17. Now try to match the LED sequence by once pressing the reset switch on
ST2156.

Observations:
1. The output at ‘Data In’ is repeating sequence of bits generated by Data Source.
2. The ‘I Data’ and ‘Q Data’ output are even and odd bit sequence of input data
sequence and bit duration is double of input data sequence as shown in the
figure 11.2.
3. The ‘Output’ of Modulator Circuit (l) and Modulator Circuit (ll) are Phase Shift
Keying modulated signals, and summation of these two signals are Quadrature
Phase Shifted signal as shown in the figure 6.2.
4. The output of Double squaring circuit is sinusoidal signal (carrier signal) but
frequency is four times higher than that of carrier used.
5. The output of Phase Lock Loop (PLL) is clock signal of same frequency as that
of the output of double squaring circuit and output of Divide by four (÷ 4) is
clock signal of frequency four times less than the output of PLL signal.
6. The output of QPSK demodulator is a signal having group of positive half
cycles and group of negative half cycles of the carrier signal as shown in the
figure 6.3.

7. A low pass filter removes high frequency component from demodulated QPSK
signal and it makes the signal smooth as shown in the figure 6.3.
8. The variation in reference voltage potentiometer affect the Data, to recover Data
correctly potentiometer adjustment is necessary and recovered Data.

55
56
Conclusion:
1. The Quadrature Phase Shift Keying modulation is correct for different Data
Pattern and also correct for clock and carrier frequencies.

<<<>>>
57
EXPERIMENT NO.15

Study of Differential Quadrature Phase Shift Keying

Equipments Needed:
1.ST2156 and ST2157 Techbooks.
2.2mm Banana cable
3.CRO

Procedure:
1. Connect the power supplies of ST2156 and ST2157 but do not turn on the power
supplies until connections are made for this experiment.
2. Make the connections as shown in the figure 7.1.
3. Switch 'ON' the power.
4. On ST2156, connect oscilloscope CH1 to ‘Clock In’ and CH2 to ‘Data In’ and
observe the waveforms.
5. On ST2156 connect oscilloscope CH1 to ‘Clock Out’ and CH2 one by one to
‘Sine’ and ‘Cosine’ output of 960 KHz and observe the waveforms.
6. Connect oscilloscope CH1 to ‘Data In’ and connect CH2 one by one to ‘I Data’
and ‘Q Data’ outputs and observe the waveforms.
7. Now connect oscilloscope CH1 to ‘I Data’ output of serial to parallel converter
on ST2156 and connect CH2 to ‘Output’ of differential encoder (l) on ST2156
and observe the waveforms.
8. On ST2156, connect oscilloscope CH1 to ‘Q Data’ output of serial to parallel
converter and connect CH2 to ‘Output’ of differential encoders (ll) and observe
the waveforms.

9. Now connect oscilloscope CH1 to ‘Output’ of differential encoder (l) on

ST2156 and connect CH2 one by one to ‘Signal In’, ‘Carrier In’ and ‘Output’ of
modulator circuit (l) on ST2156 and observe the waveforms.
10. Now connect oscilloscope CH1 to ‘Output’ of differential encoder (ll) on
ST2156 and connect CH2 one by one to ‘Signal In’, ‘Carrier In’ and ‘Output’ of
modulator circuit (ll) on ST2156 and observe the waveforms.
11. Set equal amplitude levels of the output signals of Modulator Circuit (1) and
Modulator Circuit (ll) by varying the ‘Gain’ potentiometers of Modulator
Circuits.
12. Now connect oscilloscope CH.1 to ‘Data In’ on ST2156 and CH2 to ‘Output’ of
Summing Amplifier and observe the waveforms.
13. Now on ST2157 connect oscilloscope CH1 to ‘Input’ of QPSK demodulator
and connect CH2 one by one to output of double squaring circuit, output of
PLL, output of Divide by four (÷ 4) observe the wave forms.
58
14. On ST2157, connect oscilloscope CH1 to ‘I’ output of QPSK demodulator and
CH2 to ‘Q’ output of QPSK demodulator and observe the waveforms. Now vary
the phase adjust potentiometer and observe its effects on the demodulated signal
waveforms.
15. Connect oscilloscope CH1 to ‘I’ output of QPSK demodulator on ST2157 then
connect CH2 one by one to output of low pass filter, output of Comparator on
ST2157 and observe the waveforms.
16. Connect oscilloscope CH1 to ‘Q’ output of QPSK demodulator on ST2157 then
connect CH2 one by one to output of low pass filter, output of Comparator on
ST2157 and observe the waveforms.
17. Compare the output of comparators on ST2157 with the outputs of differential
encoders on ST2156 respectively.
18. Also compare the output of differential decoders on ST2157 with the output ‘I
Data’ and ‘Q Data’ on ST2156 respectively.
19. Connect oscilloscope CH1 to ‘Output’ of P/S Converter on ST2157 and CH2 to
‘Data In’ on ST2156.
20. Connect oscilloscope CH1 to ‘Data In’ then connect CH2 output to Bit decoder
and observe the waveforms. If both data does not matches then try to match it by
varying the phase adjust potentiometer on QPSK Demodulator.
21. Now try to match the LED sequence by once pressing the reset switch on
ST2156.

Observations:
1. The output at ‘Data In’ is repeating sequence of bits generated by Data Source.
2. The ‘I Data’ and ‘Q Data’ output are even and odd bit sequence of input data
sequence and bit duration is double of input data sequence as shown in the
figure 7.2.
3. The ‘Output’ of Modulator Circuit (l) and Modulator Circuit (ll) are Phase Shift
Keying modulated signals as shown in the figure 7.2, and summation of these
two signals are Quadrature Phase Shifted signal as shown in the figure 7.2.
4. The output of Phase Lock Loop (PLL) is clock signal of same frequency as that
of the output of double squaring circuit and output of Divide by four (÷ 4) is
clock signal of frequency four times less than the output of PLL signal.
5. The output of QPSK demodulator is a signal having group of positive half
cycles and group of negative half cycles of the carrier signal as shown in the
figure 7.2.
6. A low pass filter removes high frequency component from demodulated QPSK
signal and it makes the signal smooth as shown in the figure 7.2.
7. The Phase Adjust potentiometer matches the phase of regenerated clock and
carrier with input clock and carrier signal respectively.
8. The recovered data does not find inverted after demodulation.
59
60
Conclusion:
1. The Differential Quadrature Phase Shift Keying modulation is correct for
different Data pattern.
2. The differential encoding and decoding process has an advantage that data will
not find inverted after demodulation.

61
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