Qualities of Leaders and Managers

ChFo 102 Character Formation 2 

Chapter 2: Administration

 Introduction to Administration and Police

Leadership, Decision-Making, Management, Administration
and Administration 

Principles of Administration
Theories of Administration
This course covers the understanding of personal  Functions of Administration
values, characteristics, and goals including the  Police Management
normative foundation of leading. It also includes  Division of Work
discussions on a wide array of leadership and  Authority and Responsibility
management approaches to help students refine their  Unity of Command
leadership and management styles. Students will also  Scalar Chain
understand the frames of judgement and skills required
to affect positive change in a broad range of settings Chapter 3: Decision-Making
and to help transform cultures, organizations, and
institutions. They will learn to do this through effective  Introduction to Decision-Making
leading and management analysis, and decision-  Characteristics of Decision-Making
making done in a self-aware manner that will enable  Principles of Decision-Making
them to think and act strategically.  Guidelines in Decision-Making
Course description as found in the course syllabus
 Factors that Influence Decision-Making
 Individual vs Group Decision-Making
 Police Decision-Making

Chapter 1: Leadership and Management

 Introduction to Leadership and Management References:

 Leadership vs Management
 Principles of Leadership
 Theories of Leadership
 Leadership Styles
 Management Styles
 Efficient Management

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  Contingency Theory vs. Situational Leadership
Theory. (2022, September 29). PennState.
Retrieved April 9, 2023,
from https://sites.psu.edu/leadership/2022/09/29/co
ntingency-theory-vs-situational-leadership-theory/ CHAPTER 1: Leadership and
 Difference Between Contingency and Situational
Leadership. (2019, June 13). Compare the Management
Difference Between Similar Terms. Retrieved April
9, 2023, Lesson1: Introduction to Leadership
from https://www.differencebetween.com/difference
-between-contingency-and-situational-leadership/ and Management
 Literal, B. B., Salamanca, B. H., Santos, M. I., &
Tabajonda, R. R. (2022). Character Formation 2:
Leadership, Decision-Making, Management, and
Leaders and Managers
Administration (1st ed.). ChapterHouse Publishing
Incorporated. Leaders and managers are some of the most
 Student Reports necessary entities in any group setting. This is because
groups, be they small class project groups or
multinational corporations, cannot function well without
the presence of these people.

While leadership and management are

sometimes used interchangeably, the defining
characteristics and core functions of both differentiate
them markedly.

Leadership - is the ability to motivate and influence

one’s followers or members to develop themselves and
work towards a common goal.

Management - is the ability to control and direct the

everyday working processes of an organization towards
its objectives.

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Evolution of the Concept of 1940’s
Leadership During this period, the focus shifted to the group
itself. Leadership is said to be whatever the behavior of
History, as you already know, is filled with stories an individual is while they are in control of a group.
of men and women who went to battle for honor and
glory. Today, these types of leaders will be most suited
for one specific field and not entire nations as they 1950’s
used to. As you can imagine, as society’s needs and
structures changed, so did the concept of leadership. At this period, the definitions of leadership
focused on the following: what leaders can do in a
It is important to learn these ideas of leadership group, shared goals based on a leader’s behavior, and
to help with a complete understanding of the concept efficiency.
of leadership. The following are definitions from the
past century.
1960’s
1900’s Once more, the focus of the concept of leadership
during this time was on the idea of shared goals.
During this time, definitions of leadership focused Basically, leadership was seen as any behavior that
on control and domination. Basically, leadership was motivates people to act towards the attainment of a
considered as the ability to impose one’s will on others. common objective.
The members or the followers are not considered in any
way.

1930’s
At this time, the idea of leadership started looking
into personal traits. Instead of imposing, leaders
influence their followers. These traits and capabilities
are acknowledged to not only come from the identified
leader, but also potential leaders in the entire group.

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1970’s
Organizational behavior is the new focus of the
Lesson 2: Leadership vs
definition of leadership during this time. Responsibility
was considered as the core idea of leadership, but both
Management
leaders and followers were expected to be mutually
As mentioned in the previous lesson, the terms
motivated to act towards the attainment of
“leadership” and “management” are sometimes used
organizational objectives. This responsibility includes
interchangeably. However, they are markedly different
stewardship of the organization’s resources and aiming
when they come to their principles and functions.
to gain better outcomes.
Leadership is based on one’s ability to
1980’s influence others while management is based on
the ability to control. Additionally, leadership is said
Somehow, during this period, ideas about to be essential to an organization
leadership reverted back to some of the ideas from the while management is required. Nevertheless,
beginning of the century. The following themes were leadership is necessary for successfully managing an
dominant during that time: organization. Hence, all organizations must both have
strong leadership and strong leadership to properly
function.
 members or followers are expected to act as the
leader wishes
 leaders possessed traits that made them leaders, The following are the key differences between the two,
but becoming one is also based on excellence along with their core similarities:
 leaders and members transform each other by
raising one another up

1990’s to 21st Century

Different approaches to leadership were
developed during this period. They will be discussed in
the lesson on leadership styles.

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  Creates vision vs Executes vision Leaders
design the future of their organizations. They are
like architects who develop what their
organization will be. Managers are the ones who
construct this design.

 Proactive vs Reactive Before a problem comes,

leaders can already see them and can already
make a plan for when the time comes that the
plan becomes necessary. Managers act only when
issues arise. This is the same with opportunities.
Leaders see opportunities and act on them
immediately. Managers grab opportunities as they
come.

 Trusts and develops vs Controls and

directs Literally, leaders trusts their members to
do right by the organization while developing their
skills and abilities. Managers make their members
do according to their plans.

 Creates change vs Manages change Leaders

Figure 1. Leadership vs Management are transformational heads of organizations. That
means they seek out chances to evolve and
Main Differences advance their organizations. Managers, on the
other hand, are in change of dealing with these
changes.
 People-focused vs Object-focused Leaders go
direct to their people. This is why they can
 Authority comes from the people vs
influence their members and followers. Managers,
Authority comes from position Since
on the other hand, concentrate on what they
leadership is based on the ability to influence,
consider the important things within the
their people follow them because they want to.
organization such as numbers and public image.
On the other hand, people follow managers
because they have to. Not following your

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 manager can result in negative repercussions to Good leaders show their people exemplary
your livelihood, so you follow accordingly. behavior that is expected of everyone. As it is said,
they walk the walk, not just talk the talk. Commendable
behavior from each member of the organization results
Core Similarities in better outcomes for the entire organization.

 Improves the group Both leaders and

management work in such a way that their 2. Know your people
members work towards the common goal. As a
result, the group progresses accordingly. In relation to one of the differentiating factors
of leadership, that of being people-focused, leaders
 Unlocks full potential Towards the attainment must create positive and genuine relationships with
of the organization’s goals, members inevitably their subordinates. This helps the leader better to
grow and advance. This is because it is the job of communicate their vision, then, in turn, earn better
the heads of the organization to ensure that the execution from the members.
members improve and gain new skills so that they
can contribute well to the organization.
3. Listen well
Lesson 3: Principles of Leadership In relation to knowing your people, listening well
does not only include a simple understanding of your
Principles are the ethics or fundamentals of an people, but empathizing with them as well. That means,
object. In the realm of leadership, these fundamentals more than intellectually and logically knowing them,
are meant to help everyone become more effective and you must also be able to put yourself in their shoes.
successful in the role. This makes your people feel valued and appreciated.

The following are the most 4. Create change

common tenets: As with the previous principle, this has already
been mentioned in the previous lesson. Leaders are
1. Be a role model transformational people. They do this to move forward
their organizations. Nevertheless, it should be noted
that this does not only involve changes made for

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financial gain, but also changes that could better the That is, encourage the teamwork of various types
organization in general. of people. Diverse peoples have diverse ideas. You
never know where the next big thing can come from.

5. Accept your flaws and be In addition to having access to different types of

accountable ideas, a diverse workforce will have varied perceptions
and understanding of the world. This can then help lead
the organization into new avenues for growth that a
Every leader, regardless of their position in the homogenous group might have never reached.
organization, is still human. That means that they
inevitably have flaws and will occasionally make
mistakes. As a leader, they must acknowledge these 8. Strive together as a team
flaws and take responsibility for their actions, especially
when mistakes are made. This makes leaders more Not only does it mean cooperating and
relatable and gains them even more followers. collaborating with members to achieve organizational
goals, but it also includes training together so that all
Good leaders will then take these flaws and members can grow with the rest of the team.
mistakes and learn from them. This enables the entire
company to have a better view of which parts they
need to look into and improve upon. 9. Hold authentic values
Values are personal beliefs that guide our actions
6. Seek self-improvement and attitudes. They can vary from person to person, as
well as between different cultures. These are formed
As they say, there is always room for during a person’s growth and development through
improvement. A leader must put on the mindset their personal environment. Consequently, these values
of never stop learning. There are always ways through guide people in making goals and through decisions.
which one can improve. As a leader, you do this by They also dictate one’s ethics.
improving both your skills and knowledge in your field
as well as your leadership skills. They could include honesty, integrity, and truth,
among others.
7. Promote diversity
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 As a leader, these values will determine who will period when they didn’t have someone to guide them.
relate to you and who will follow you. People will similar Otherwise, the team could be left scattered and
values will be drawn to you, and these people become confused.
the ones whom you can inspire and motivate.
Having future leaders in the team does not make
the current leader replaceable. It makes them stronger
10. Take advantage of technology leaders because they have a team consisting of
and innovation members who are ready to take responsibility of their
work and themselves.
Leaders should be aware of advances in
technology and should be knowledgeable in using them
once they arrive. These technologies are designed to
Lesson 4: Theories of Leadership
help people, so leaders should use them to their full
potential. Over the years, various ideas about leadership
have been formulated by different theories. The
following are some of them.
For instance, communication, an important
leadership skill, is now much easier using various
Internet-connected gadgets. People do not have to be
in the same room to have a meeting anymore. They do
Theories About Leaders
not even have to be in the same building to work on the
These theories propose ideas on how leaders become
same team anymore!
leaders.

A leader who does not care to learn new

technologies would be left behind and could potentially 1. Great Man Theory
encounter problems leading their teams in the future.
This theory was proposed in
11. Develop future leaders the 19 century by Thomas Carlyle. He proposed
th

that leaders are born as great men, and the traits that
made them leaders are innate and cannot be learned
Organizations benefit when the leader has a plan by ordinary people. A core idea of the theory is that
in place for when it is time to move forward. Having leaders are rare individuals in society who possess
someone to take over immediately during that time natural abilities and talents that enable them to shape
ensures that the team will not have to go through a human history.
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 A major criticism of the theory is the specific use The imitation is not necessarily direct. This can be
of the term “great man.” This was used because, during done through trainings and workshops where people
that time, leadership was thought primarily in terms of can learn leadership best practices which they can then
military command and that it was a masculine task. apply at their own organizations.

2. Trait Theory Theories on Leadership

The theory suggests that leaders are people who These theories suggest ideas on how leaders execute
are born with specific qualities or characteristics that on leadership.
make them leaders.

While this sounds similar to the previous theory, it 1. Situational Leadership Theory
is actually an extension of the work of Carlyle
by Francis Galton. If the name sounds familiar, that is There are various styles of leadership that various
because he is a common figure in criminology due to leaders can utilize. According to this theory, there is no
his involvement in the fields of psychology, specifically one single perfect model of leadership. Instead, leaders
differential psychology, and personal identification, should govern their teams according to what works
specifically fingerprints. best for the situation at hand.

In the Great Man Theory, the focus is on the entire

person. In this trait theory, the focus is on the traits
2. Contingency Leadership Theory
that leaders posses.
This theory sits in opposition with the previous theory.
It suggests that leaders cannot change their leadership
3. Behavioral Theory style nor adjust to situations accordingly. As such, a
leader’s effectiveness is contingent upon how their
This theory stands in opposition to the previous style matches the situation. For each type of situation,
two. While the previous state that leaders are born and an entirely different person is required to handle that
not made, the behavioral theory states that people can situation.
be made into leaders by having them observe and
imitate the behaviors and attitudes of actual leaders.
Lesson 5: Leadership Styles
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Leadership styles - are the different approaches or
techniques that leaders use to guide their organizations a. Authoritative Leadership
or teams.
In this type of autocratic leadership, leaders
The following are some of them: dictate what they want and punish those who do not
obey.

1. Authoritarian Leadership b. Persuasive Leadership

(Autocratic Leadership)
This style of leadership is not explicitly autocratic.
Leaders command, followers obey. Leaders, instead of directly imposing their will, cause
their members to believe that their singular decisions
This connects to the earlier ideas of leadership wherein and actions will work best for the team.
leaders are dominant people who impose their will upon
the members of their organization. These types of
leaders makes decisions with hardly any or absolutely c. Paternalistic Leadership
no input from their members.
As the name implies, in this form of leadership,
While this might sound rather harsh, it is an effective leaders take on the role of the patriarchs or matriarchs
form of leadership when quick decisions are required or who operates their teams as a large extended family.
when the leader’s knowledge is indisputably the best in
the group. Of course, as you might imagine, this type of
leadership can also be disadvantageous as the actions d. Bureaucratic Leadership
of the leader might be disagreeable to the group. That
could result in hostilities not only between the leader Also called organizational leadership, this type
and their members, but among the members of leadership is extremely formalized and decidedly
themselves as well. inflexible. This is because this style of leadership is
based on a system of rules, procedures, and hierarches
along with a definite chain of command.

2. Democratic Leadership

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 This style of leadership is said to be the most
effective as it is a type of leadership that engages the e. Coaching Leadership
members, thereby empowering and motivating them. It
sits between imposing the leader’s will upon the team Coach leaders think of their members as part of a
and letting the team act according to their will. team, as in a sports team. They are able to recognize
their team member’s strengths and weaknesses, and
develop all members so that they can better contribute
a. Consultative Leadership to the team.

In this style, leaders ask for the opinions and Instead of directing the members, coach leaders
thoughts of their team. assist their members in goal-setting and provide
regular feedback through challenging projects. They
create positive and motivating environments while
b. Participative Leadership setting clear expectations for growth.

In this style, leaders and members are all active While this type of leadership is extremely
members of the decision-making process. beneficial to both the members of the organization and
the organization itself, not many leaders utilize this
style because it is incredibly time-consuming as it
c. Collaborative Leadership requires almost complete personal attention to every
member of the organization.
Under this style, leaders create an open forum
where ideas can be discussed before making a decision
based on the rule of the majority. f. Servant Leadership
As the name implies, this style of leadership is
d. Transformational Leadership focused upon the idea of serving one’s followers or
members. That means the top priority of servant
This leadership style is focused on revolutionizing leaders are the welfare and growth of the team
organizations by inspiring its members to keep pushing members. These types of leaders can work well in any
their limits and reaching goalposts which they never type of organization but are frequently found in
thought attainable. nonprofits where they build morale and engagement
upon members.

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 who use these types of leadership do not direct their
g. Transactional Leadership members explicitly, but allow them to hold the reins
when it comes to execution.
These types of leaders govern their teams
according to a set of rewards and punishments. That is, It is essentially the least productive of all styles.
members are given prizes and benefits on good This is because this type of leadership breeds groups
performance, but they can also be given sanctions for that lack a solid direction and members who lack
poor performance. It is also called managerial accountability. As a result, less progress is made and
leadership. fewer work gets done.

While this type of leadership can work well for Nevertheless, it does work well for groups where
organizations with specific key performance indicators each member is highly competent and does not require
(KPI’s), such as financial numbers and social media supervision to do work.
engagement, it works poorly when creativity and
innovation is required.
a. Delegative Leadership
h. Pacesetting Leadership In this style of leadership, the main job of the
leader is to assign tasks. While they are still responsible
This style is most effective when speedy results for the outcomes of the team, their job essentially ends
are required. That is because pacesetters like their at the designation of duties.
teams moving fast and high-performing. It is almost
a laissez-faire style of leadership as, while it is hands-on
in setting the pace of work, it is hands-off when it b. Visionary Leadership
comes to the work itself. That is, pacesetters will
provide their teams with deadlines, goals, and These leaders look almost exclusively at the big
checkpoints, but will not supply the means through picture. They inspire their members to aspire towards
which these KPI’s could be met. lofty goals, but they do not look at the smaller details of
the organization. They provide goals, but not direction.
3. Laissez-Faire Leadership
As mentioned briefly in the previous style, laissez-
faire is a hands-off leadership style. That is, leaders

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Note: Do not be confused if many of the above
appeared in your group research as Management  Study Your Organization
Styles. Leadership and management share similar
characteristics, so these styles apply to both. Learn your organization from the inside out. This will
help you fully understand its mission and purpose,
which will then help you better understand your place
in it.
Lesson 7: Efficient Management
Efficiency - is the ability to produce results with little  Serve Your Customers
to no waste, especially in terms of time, money, and
effort. Literally, provide your customers and clientele with
the service that your were tasked present.
Management - is the control and direction of the
organizational routines.
 Set Meaningful and Attainable Goals
Hence, efficient management could be
described as the ability to reach the organization’s That is, ensure that the goals you set for your team
objectives while using the available resources are actually within reach, but just beyond the limits.
with as little waste as possible. This helps ensure that your team is working on tasks
that they can do, but also enables them to grows their
skills.
Becoming an Efficient Manager
 Implement Modern Management
These are some guidelines that a manager must follow
if they want to be efficient. Techniques
Today, new methods of organizational management
 Understand Your Role have been developed for the modern setting. As an
efficient manager, you need to make sure that you are
Be seriously involved with your organization. abreast of these developments and are able to apply
Participate as much as you can so that you can learn them in your daily work.
how to best help your organization reach its goals and
objectives.

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 are distinct and explicit. That is, while communication
Lesson 8: Qualities of Leaders and lines must be kept open, you must also ensure that
Managers these lines are not blurry,

Great leaders are not defined by the positions that 3. Modeling Positive Behavior
they hold in their respective organization, but by the
characteristics that they possess as people. It is the In simpler words, set a good example for your
same thing with managers. Without these attributes, it team to follow. Or, be a role model. If you are a person
could be said that these people will not be in those in position who can act as well as they talk, then the
positions that they hold. people around you will also be motivated to follow you.

I. Qualities of a Good Leader 4. Resilience and Selflessness

1. Ability to Listen A great leader must be able to withstand
obstacles and stumbling blocks. Problems that arise at
your organization should not be something that will
Listening leads to better communication. This
make the organization fall. Instead, a leader must be
does not only mean being there to listen when
able to drive the organization beyond these issues and
someone is talking, but also ensuring that everyone
rise better from it.
knows that you are open to listen and that you are a
safe space to which they can speak.
At the same time, leaders must never set
themselves above their teams. If something goes
Better communication leads to better teamwork
wrong, the leader must take full responsibility for it. If
and better solutions to problems that the team might
something goes right, the leader must give credit to the
encounter. You will not always have the answers, but
team members who deserve them.
having open communication channels with your team
means more minds working on the same issues.
5. Effective Decision-Making
2. Clear Communication
Generally speaking, leaders are people who
envision new things and create new solutions that have
In addition to listening, you must ensure that the
never been tested nor done before. However, such
communications between you and your team members

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actions come with risk. As such, leaders are people who  Decisiveness Great leaders are capable of making
know which risks they should take and make sound decisions and of having confidence in their choices.
decisions in order to better the organization.  Accountability Leaders should learn to accept
responsibility for mistakes that happen within their
organization, whether it was their direct fault, and
More Notable Qualities to never pass on the blame to anyone else.
 Emotional Stability Strong leaders are able to
The subsequent characteristics are further qualities control their emotions and do not overreact. This
that other sources consider essential for leaders. includes not bringing issues at home to their
professional settings.
 Self-Awareness Leaders know themselves well,  Knowledge and Skill Good leaders are, of course,
both professionally and personally. knowledgeable about and skillful in their own fields.
 Adaptability and Flexibility Good leaders are  Intelligence and Action-Oriented
able to think outside the box and adapt to whatever Judgement Naturally, leaders are smart and act
situation they find themselves in. towards the development of their teams.
 Assertiveness A good leader is able to direct  Competitiveness Good leaders are driven by
people without being aggressive. achievements, but not only for themselves, also
 Gratitude Leaders know to be thankful. People are their team and their team members.
more responsive and more willing to work for  Charisma Great leaders are able to foster good
leaders who appreciate their work. relationships with all sorts of people. Additionally,
 Capacity to Motivate People Good leaders are they are able to influence other people to following
able to inspire and encourage their team members them.
to work hard and do their best.  Perseverance Leaders stick to their work, despite
 Courage and Resolution Good leaders are brave difficulties that they may face.
and committed enough towards leading their team  Confidence Leaders believe in themselves and
to the attainment of their organization’s goals. they are able to exude their self-assurance without
 Creativity and Innovation As already mentioned, coming off as arrogant.
leaders must know how to think outside the box.  Honesty and Integrity People follow their leaders
This does not only refer to handling critical because these followers believe that they can trust
situations, but also for new products, services, or and depend on their leaders.
anything else in between that could help grow the  Empathy Leaders are able to connect with their
organization. Additionally, leaders should be able to team members not only professionally, but also at a
not only develop their own creativity, but also that personal level. They show that they genuinely care
of their team.

15
 about their members both in helping them succeed
at work and also in themselves as people.
2. Communicate Regularly
 Delegation and Empowerment As members trust
their leaders, leaders should also trust their A good manager will always keep in touch with
members. Leaders can show this by giving tasks to their team members. That is, keeping in touch with
their team members and, at the same time, matters at work and providing feedback where
allowing them to grow in their roles and capabilities. necessary. Most do this via written communication, but
 Humility As has already been mentioned, leaders it can also be done personally and verbally. That way,
should not be aggressive, nor arrogant. In other the feedback cycle runs faster.
words, leaders should not be overly proud nor
haughty. 3. Adaptability and Flexibility
 Respect Leaders show deference not only to their
superiors, but equally to their subordinates. This
You would have read this in the previous group
helps ease tension and conflict, and improves the
already, but good managers should also be open to
overall effectiveness of the organization.
new ways of looking at things and be able to adapt
 Transparency In line with being honest, leaders
when necessary.
should be frank and not deceitful. If there are issues
in the organization that might affect the team
members, a leader should readily communicate this 4. Continuous Learning
with the team instead of being secretive about it.
 Vision and Purpose Leaders should have clear Good managers acknowledge that, despite their
goals and clear reasons for why they do the things position, they can still make mistakes and still have a
they do. lot to learn.

II. Qualities of Good Managers 5. Be a Role Model

1. Expect Excellence Just as leaders set a good example for their team
members to follow, good managers do so as well.
Good managers set high, yet attainable
performance standards from their team members.

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 objectives. Resources include everything from the
6. Decisiveness organization’s financial means to its labor pool.
Good managers are able to make sound and
This process includes the supervision and
timely decisions and are able to stick with them.
management of the functions of the different functions
or systems within an organization. Additionally,
7. Patience administrators also govern the duties, responsibilities,
and roles within the organization.
A good manager knows that the development of
outstanding skills and capabilities take time to develop. In the context of an entire country’s government,
They must allow themselves, as well as their team administration would generally refer to the
members, this time and not be hasty. management of public resources, such as taxpayer’s
money, and services, such as public education and
national security.

Chapter 2: Administration
Police Administration
Lesson 1: Introduction to In the simplest terms, police administration is
the application of all the fundamentals of
Administration and Police administration towards law enforcement agencies. This
means that police administration is not limited to
Administration offices specifically named police. In the Philippines, this
covers agencies such as the Bureau of Fire Protection
Administer comes from the Latin and the Philippine Drug Enforcement Agency.
word administrāre, which means to assist, operate,
perform, manage the affairs of. This is basically what Police administration is concerned with the setup
administration is all about. of the objectives, plans, and operations of a police
organization. The functions of police administration
Defined formally, administration is the universal include the control and operation of the duties of police
process of efficiently organizing and managing an agencies such as keeping the peace, improving public
organization’s resources so as to achieve its goals and safety, and preventing crimes. Other activities include

17
deployment of officers, training and development, and
community relations.

Ultimately, the goal is to ensure the safety and

security of the communities they serve as well as
upholding the law.

Police organizations tend to be firmly hierarchical

and strictly formalized. This means that the members of
the police forces clearly know who their supervisors are
as well as their subordinates, and each member
rigorously adheres to this structure.

Lesson 2: Principles of
Administration

Henri Fayol
By Unknown author – early 20th century photograph (first version found
online at centre-histoire.sciences-po.fr, Public
Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1503102

Henri Fayol was a 20th century economist who

developed what is now called Fayolism. Under this
theory, Fayol lays out the 14 principles of
administration:

18
 1. Division of Labor This is the idea of splitting a 12. Tenure This refers to job security. Employees
task into smaller subtasks. This speeds up the work work better in an environment where they can feel
process and allows members of the team to assured of continuous employment as well as
specialize, thereby making them more productive in career growth.
the future. 13. Initiative Allowing employees to use their
2. Authority and Responsibility Authorities are the creativity and inventiveness at work makes the
powers that supervisors have in an organization. company stronger.
Responsibilities are the limits to their powers. 14. Esprit de Corps Administrators must create a
3. Discipline Employees must obey their leaders as positive environment so that personnel constantly
well as the organization’s policies. have high morale and the team spirit is always
4. Unity of Command One mission, one boss. Every cheerful. It helps to try and build the unity of the
employee must have only one direct report so that team as well as harmony between team members.
no communication lines are crossed.
5. Unity of Direction Everyone in the organization
must work towards the same goals and objectives. Lesson 3: Theories of Administration
6. Subordination of Individual Interests to the
General Interest Administrative personnel must Generally, there are two different approaches to
ensure that the interests of the company are always administration: traditional and contemporary.
ahead of the interests of the individual members.
7. Remuneration All workers must be paid fairly and In the traditional approach, we have the following
proportionately. theories:
8. Centralization Decision-making in the company
must be sent towards higher authorities only.  Classical Approach or Bureaucratic Theory This
9. Scalar Chain All members of the organization theory is a mechanical approach to administration
should be part of the hierarchy. The lines from the that ignores human nature. According to this
top management to the entry-level workers must be theory, the most important components of
clearly drawn and followed. However, the structure organizations are strict hierarchies, chains of
cannot be too broad nor have too many levels. command and control, formal rules, and well-
10. Order Social order among employees must be defined procedures.
established. The same thing applies to the material  Behavioral Management Approach or Human
resources of the organization. This avoids waste Relations Theory In this school of thought,
and erroneous handling. importance is placed on the welfare of the
11. Equity Employees must be treated fairly and employees. According to this theory, administrators
kindly. ought to pursue democratic and flexible solutions

19
 ways of directing their organizations. Companies the Principles of Administration. It focuses on the
that use this approach tend to have an informal different functions of management.
workplace setups where leaders take on the role of
motivators and influencers steering their teams
towards the attainment of organizational goals. Theories of Police Administration
The following are the contemporary theories:  Home Rule Theory In this theory, police officers
are said to be servants of the community.
 Contingency Theory In this theory, managers  Continental Theory This theory is opposite of the
administer their organizations based on all key previous one. Under this theory, police officers
factors existent in the current situation. It is said operate as servants of higher authorities.
that there is no single “best” way to run an  Problem-Oriented Policing This theory proposes
organization, so they must always be handled that policing should focus on identifying and
according each situation. addressing underlying problems that contribute to
 System Theory According to this theory, law and order problems in the area. Furthermore, it
organizations work as an inter-related system of says that effective policing must be done
parts. Just like a computer system, if one part is not proactively and with a problem-solving approach
working, the entire system will break down and not that is designed according to the needs of each
work. community.
 Chaos Theory In general, the chaos theory states  Community Policing Under this theory, police
that all events in reality are random and cannot be agencies are encouraged to foster positive
controlled. Relating it to institutions, it means that relationships with the communities they serve as
they evolve like biological systems: the more well as other law enforcement agencies serving the
complex it becomes, the more energy is required to area. Emphasis is placed upon building trust,
maintain it. friendship, communication, and addressing the root
 Scientific Management Theory This is a theory causes of crime and disorder.
Developed by Frederick Taylor that emphasized the
use of scientific methods to improve productivity in Community Policing
the workplace. This includes using time and motion
studies, job analysis, and standardized work This theory is being applied in the country by our
procedures to help improve efficiency. Philippine National Police (PNP) as part of an effort to
 Administrative Management Theory This is change the image of police officers. The goal is to
Henri Fayol’s theory where he outlined transform police officers from people to fear to people
who are friends. That is, instead of using “Hala, adi na
20
an pulis!” to scare children, the PNP wants the more effective policing.
community to be able to say, “Adi na an aton sangkay –
nga pulis!“  Engaging in problem-solving
Policing is supposed to be a proactive process.
Further to this concept, being able to build deeper Hence, police officers are encouraged to take
connections within the community means being able to initiative and identify problems, develop innovative
get more information and being better able to solve responses, and evaluate accordingly.
community problems.
These are the general steps to take when problem-
solving:
Core Elements of Community Policing  Scanning Determining the nature and scope of
the problem
 Developing community partnerships  Analysis Carefully understand the problem
Police agencies build partnerships with the following  Response Develop solutions
components of communities:  Assessment Evaluate the success of the response
 Other Government Agencies: probation and and adjust accordingly
parole, health and human services, schools, etc.  Using the crime triangle Look for vulnerabilities
 Community Members and Groups Building in the crime triangle and disrupt the lines among
partnerships with people who live and work in the victims, offenders, and locations
the community helps develop trust and –
transparency, which leads to more efficient and  Implementing community policing
effective policing. organizational features
 Non-Profits and Service Providers This includes These features help support community policing:
non-government organizations and similar  Agency Management Incorporating community
institutions that serve the community. policy ideals into all areas of the agency
 Private Businesses This includes all forms of  Organizational Structure This refers to creating a
businesses from micro-entrepreneurs to large structure that empowers line-level officers to
multinational corporations, along with chambers interact and build relationships with their
of commerce and visitor bureaus. community members on a daily basis.
 Media This includes local newspapers, television  Personnel Community policing practices should
outlets, radio stations, and creators in the new be incorporated into all areas of
media such as bloggers and vloggers. This helps staffing: recruitment, hiring, selection, training,
police agencies improve their transparency and evaluations.
gain a better public image, which then leads to

21
 Information and Systems Technology Providing

access to accurate community information and 1. Planning
improving two-way communication between the
community and the police officers This refers to deciding in advance the future
actions of the organization. It is an entire intellectual
process that involves creating goals and arranging
coordinated and consistent sets of activities that will
Lesson 4: Functions of work towards the attainment of organizational
objectives.
Administration
2. Organizing
This is the action of creating a coherent unity in
the organization. It involves arranging and coordinating
resources to achieve desired objectives. Furthermore, it
includes delegation of authority, determining the roles
and responsibilities of individuals or groups, and
establishing clear lines of communication.

3. Staffing
This refers to recruiting, selecting, and training
the right people at the right time for the right position.
Furthermore, it is the responsibility of administration to
motivate and develop the people who are already in
position as well as ensuring that the organization
retains these people.

4. Directing

22
 This means leading people to ensure that they
perform their roles effectively. It includes
communicating expectations, orders, assignments, and
instructions, as well as providing feedback and Lesson 5: Police Management
resolving conflict.
This refers to the administrative process of
coordinating, controlling, and directing all aspects of a
5. Coordinating police organization in order to:

It refers to the act of synchronizing people and  prevent crime

activities so that they function smoothly towards the  apprehend criminals
attainment of organizational objectives. Different types  recover stolen property
of organizations require different amounts of  perform regulatory and aid services
coordination.
In other words, it is the everyday act of running the
police department. Furthermore, it involves the
6. Budgeting implementation of policies and procedures through
which each officer operates.
The budget is said to be the heart of
administrative management. This refers to the logical The following are the key aspects of police
arrangement of the companies financial resources so management:
that they are expended towards the attainment of
organizational objectives.  Leadership Strong leadership is required at all
levels of a police agency for effective police
7. Controlling management. Leaders must be able to motivate
and inspire personnel, set a clear direction for the
agency, and create a culture of accountability and
It involves the monitoring and evaluation of the professionalism.
performance of the members of the organization to  Planning This involves identifying goals and
help ensure that the objectives are being achieved. It objectives for the agency, as well as the
includes setting performance expectations, measuring development of operational plans to achieve those
actual performance, and taking corrective action where goals. Additionally, it includes setting priorities,
necessary. allocating resource, and coordinating efforts across
the agency.

23
  Budget and Finance Administrators handling this Main Components of the Managerial Process in Police
aspect develop budgets, allocate funds, and Organizations
monitor expenditures. They must ensure that the
agency is operating within its budget and in  Management Directing individuals to achieve
compliance with relevant laws and regulations. organizational goals in an efficient and effective
 Personnel Management This includes recruiting, manner
selecting, training, and managing personnel to  Planning Preparing for the future by setting goals
ensure that the agency is qualified with competent and objectives and developing courses of action for
individuals as well as developing policies for hiring, accomplishing them
promotion, discipline, and termination.  Organizing Arranging personnel and physical
 Performance Management This is the task of resources to carry out plans and accomplish goals
monitoring the performance of personnel and the and objectives
agency as a whole, using data and other metrics to  Leading Motivating others to perform various tasks
evaluate the effectiveness of policies and that will contribute to the accomplishment of goals
procedures. They must also provide feedback and and objectives
support to personnel to help them improve their  Controlling Determining how the quality and
performance. quantity of departmental systems and services can
 Community Relations In line with community be improved if goals and objectives are being
policing principles, this involves developing and accomplished; it is also concerned with efficiency
maintaining positive relationships with the and effectiveness
communities they serve. Additionally, this involves  Chain of Command Indicates that the higher the
engaging with community members, addressing position one holds, the greater the powers,
concerns and complaints, and promoting authority, and influence one possesses
transparency and accountability.
 Emergency Management This refers to the Levels in the Chain of Command
responsibility of preparing the agency to respond to  Top Managers Conducts the overall goal
emergencies and disasters, including developing formulation and making policy decisions
plans for evacuations, sheltering, and response to regarding the allocation of resources
natural disasters, terrorism, and other emergencies.  Middle Managers Formulates objectives and
plans for implementing decisions from above and
Effective police management requires a commitment to coordinating activities below
continuous improvement, a focus on data-driven  Lower Managers Implements decisions made at
decision-making, and a willingness to adapt to changing higher levels and coordinates and directs the
circumstances and priorities.

24
 work of employees at the lowest level of the
organization Police Division of Work
 Rank and File Carries out assigned tasks
In the police organization, work is divided among
Major Developmental Perspectives in Police Management various units and personnel:

 Classical Police Management bureaucratic; an  Patrol Responsible for the prevention of crime and
organization must operate rationally the maintenance of public order within a specified
 Behavioral Police Management more flexible geographic area. They respond to calls for services,
and democratic organization model conduct initial investigations, and engage in
 Contemporary Police Management responds to proactive policing activities to deter criminal
the nature of policing and it drive to keep pace with activity.
societal changes  Investigation Responsible for conducting in-depth
investigations into specific crimes or criminal
activities. They often work closely with other law
Lesson 6: Division of Work enforcement agencies and tend to further specialize
in areas such as narcotics, organized crime, or
As mentioned in a previous lesson, this refers to the fraud.
breaking down of tasks into smaller ones. Also known  Administration Responsible for the management
as division of labor, this is said to improve efficiency of the law enforcement agency.
while allowing team members to specialize.  Special Operations Responsible for responding to
Specialization then further increases efficiency. specific types of situations that require specialized
training and equipment. These includes SWAT
In the real world, division of work is achieved by teams, hostage negotiators, or bomb squads.
creating different work sectors:  Support Services Responsible for providing
logistical and administrative support to other units
 Primary Sector Works on the extraction of natural within the agency. This includes functions such as
resources, e.g. mining, agriculture, forestry, fishing records management, evidence processing, and
 Secondary Sector Works on the processing of raw forensic analysis.
materials, e.g. manufacturing, construction, energy  Community Relations Responsible for developing
production and maintaining positive relationships with the
 Tertiary Sector Provides services to people and community. They may engage in outreach activities
businesses, e.g. retail, education, healthcare, to promote trust and communication between the
transportation, finance police and the community.

25
 Traffic Responsible for enforcing traffic laws,

investigating traffic accidents, managing traffic flow Authority
within a specified jurisdiction. They may also
engage in public education campaigns to promote Sources of Authority
safe driving habits.
 Legitimate Power Arises from the status quo and
Division of work is implemented in law enforcement a cultural system of obligations of rights and duties
agencies to ensure that each unit has clearly defined and based on the acceptance of the people
roles and responsibilities, and that each officer is  Coercive Power Derived from a person’s ability to
sufficiently trained and equipped to carry out their instill fear among people and the expectation that
assigned tasks effectively. punishment will be handed down to those who do
not obey
 Reward Power Opposite to coercive power, reward
Lesson 7: Authority and power is based on the ability of some people to
hand out rewards and prizes
Responsibility  Expert Power Based on a person’s knowledge,
skills, and expertise in certain fields. Since superiors
Another one of the principles of possess these capabilities, subordinates desire and
administration, authority and responsibility go together fulfill their direction.
for everyone involved in administration.  Referent Power Derived from the recognition of a
person’s faith as a leader who is held in high
esteem, admiration, and often imitation by the
Authority - refers to the powers that a person holds in
subordinate
their organization. This includes the right to command
and require obedience.
Characteristics
Responsibility - refers to the limits on a person’s
powers in an organization. This includes the obligation  It is the basis of getting things done.
to follow through on tasks assigned to them and those People who have authority has the right to influence
they have delegated to others. the behavior of others in an organization with the
performance of certain activities to meet defined
One cannot have authority without responsibility. objectives.

26
  Legitimacy be delegated. One is accountable for ones tasks and
Authority is accepted because it holds some duties. Additionally, it flows from top to bottom in any
validity. organization and it can be qualitative or quantitative in
 Decision-Making nature.
People in authority have the right to decide on
organizational matters
 Subjectivity in Implementation Forms of Responsibility
Authority is significantly influenced by subjective
factors such as the personality of the manager and  Operating Responsibility Refers to an
the environment in which the authority is being individual’s responsibility to carry out assigned
exercised. tasks
 Ultimate Responsibility Refers to the obligation
In general, people in authority are granted the of the manager who ensures that the work is done
following: efficiently by the members of the team

 decision-making powers In general, people in authority hold the following

 control over resources responsibilities:
 ability to delegate tasks
 the power to enforce rules and regulations  accountability for the outcomes of decisions made
 the ability to hire, fire, or discipline employees  oversight of the performance of subordinates
 the ability to sign legal documents  compliance with laws and regulations
 the power to negotiate contracts  use of resources
 the ability to make policy changes  maintaining the health and safety of employees and
customers
Responsibility 

meeting financial targets and objectives
maintaining the reputation and public image of the
organization
As previously mentioned, responsibility, in the  protecting confidential and sensitive information
context of authority and responsibility, is the limitation
on someone’s organizational powers.
Authority and Responsibility in the
Defined by itself, responsibility refers to one’s
obligation to complete assigned tasks or perform Police Organization
assigned duties. Responsibility, unlike authority, cannot

27
 In police organizations, officers are vested with  Training and Development Provide training and
powers and obligations based on the existing laws of development opportunities for personnel to ensure
the land. They include the following: that they are equipped with the skills and
knowledge necessary to carry out their duties
effectively and professionally
Authorities  Fiscal Responsibility Manage agency budgets and
ensure the efficient use of resources
 Maintaining Law and Order Police forces are  Accountability Hold personnel accountable for
granted to exercise this authority within their their actions and ensure that internal policies and
respective jurisdiction by enforcing laws, preventing procedures are followed
crime, and ensuring public safety
 Making Arrests This is exercised upon individuals Police administration is only effective when law
who violate the law enforcement agencies and their personnel clearly
 Use of Force When necessary while carrying out understand their authorities and responsibilities. This
duties, police officers may use both non-lethal and ensures accountability, transparency, and effective
lethal force in certain situations decision-making, while also ensuring that law
 Investigation Used on criminal activities to gather enforcement agencies operate within the bounds of the
evidence and make referrals for prosecution law and respect the rights of the public that they have
 Traffic Control Regulate traffic, investigate sworn to serve and protect.
accidents and enforce traffic laws

Responsibilities Lesson 8: Unity of Command

 Public Safety Ensure the safety and security of the As mentioned in a previous lesson, unity of
public by preventing and responding to criminal command is another of the principles of administration.
activity, natural disasters, and other emergencies It is implemented when all the members of an
 Law Enforcement Enforce all national laws and organization follow the direction of one supervisor.
local ordinances and ensure that violators are held
accountable Most organizations will have more than one
 Community Relations Maintain positive person managing numerous workers in various
relationships with the community, including departments. This does not mean that there is no unity
promoting trust, transparency, and communication of command. It will still be followed so long as each

28
member reports to a single supervisor who is in turn capabilities and be willing to delegate authority to
accountable for their performance and conduct. ensure effective command.

This helps minimize confusion, reduce errors, and

promote consistency and accountability in decision- Advantages of Unity of Command
making. It also helps ensure that all employees
understand their roles, responsibilities, and  Better relationships among superiors and
performance expectations. By providing clear lines of subordinates
communication and accountability, it can also help  Clear authority, responsibility, and accountability
promote a positive work environment, enhance  Reduces and/or avoid duplication of work
employee morale, and improve overall agency  Prompt or quick decisions
effectiveness.  Good, effective, and efficient discipline
 Better coordination and teamwork
Remember that no person can effectively serve  Boost morale and positive attitude of team
two masters at the same time. members
 Leads to higher productivity of goods and services

Chain of Command Unity of Command in the Police

This refers to the arrangement of all members of Organization
the organization from top to bottom based on rank or
position and authority. It establishes obedience to all In law enforcement agencies, unity of command is
personnel by way of identifying all supervisors achieved by having one chief who is the ultimate
necessary to enforce rules and regulations. authority responsible for the direction and control of the
organization. In the PNP, this is the Chief, PNP who
Span of Control typically holds the rank of police general, PGEN.

This principle is essential in police organizations

It refers to the maximum number of personnel or
as it helps promote organizational efficiency,
subordinates a superior can effectively and efficiently
accountability, and unity of effort.
handle. Any supervisor should not have more
subordinates than they can handle, oversee, or control.
Supervisors should avoid overestimating their

29
 Lesson 9: Scalar Chain
Another principle of administration, scalar chain,
also known as the scalar principle, refers to the links in
the authority and communication in an organization. It
involves a clear and defined hierarchy of positions and
levels of authority, with each position reporting to the
one directly above it, all the way up to the highest level
of authority in the agency.

It is predicated on all members of the organization

recognizing this unbroken line of authority from the
highest levels of management, down to the rank and
file. Each level of the chain reports to the level above it
and is responsible for overseeing and directing the work
of the level below it.

This helps ensure that information flows smoothly

within the agency. Each level of the chain is responsible
for transmitting information up and down the chain,
which ensures that everyone has access to the
information they need to perform their duties
effectively.
Organizational Structure of the Philippine National
Police According to Fayol, the chain must be followed strictly.

Source: https://pnp.gov.ph/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/orgstructure030322-1024×697.png
That said, this chain may be circumvented during
times of emergency and even for operational efficiency.
This can be done by allowing two people at the same
level to connect with each other instead of going
through the people above them first, as long as their

30
supervisors are aware of this communication. This accurately, everyone who receives it after them will
exception is called a gangplank. suffer.
 No diagonal communication Diagonal
If implemented, the manager at the highest level communication refers to the connection between
of the organization has the most decision-making two people of different ranks from different units of
power, and responsibility for decisions decreases as the organization. Scalar chain does not allow this
one goes down the chain. Highly-centralized type of communication due to the hierarchical setup
organizations use this to ensure that decision-making of the lines of communication.
power remains in the control of high-ranking officers.
Chapter 3: Decision-Making
Advantages of Scalar Chain Life is full of decisions.
 Efficient decision-making This can remove
dissent from decision-making processes as all From the moment we wake up to the time we get
managers know what decisions are within their to bed, we are faced with decisions. These decisions
scope. vary in gravity and impact. It can range from what to
 Clear lines of communication This allows have for breakfast to what field to pursue in college.
employees access to their immediate supervisor
who can run information up the chain of command if Making decisions is all about choosing a course of
necessary. action from the available alternatives in order to
 Well-defined relationships Creates a linear achieve a goal. Depending on the size of the decision
delegation of authority in which relationships you are making or the type of decision-maker you are,
between managers and their subordinates are you could be making your decisions in a snap or only
clearly defined. after going through a careful and deliberate step-by-
step process.
Disadvantages of Scalar Chain As a leader in any organization, your actions could
decide the future of the entire organization. Finding
 Lower levels of management may feel opportunities and avoiding problems are part of the
isolated Top-level management is only accessible decision-making process. One of the most crucial
through a linear chain of command. factors to consider when deciding as a leader is the
 Potential for miscommunication If one person in ethics of your decision.
the hierarchy does not communicate information

31
 When evaluating the ethics of your decision, these  Step 5: Verification and Application
are some of the fundamental questions to ask:
Creativity is said to be made up of fluency, flexibility,
 Is this fair? and opportunity. Furthermore, experts have said that
 Will I feel better or worse about myself after I make creativity is the result of a combination of the following:
this decision?
 Does this decision break any organizational policy? 1. people’s personal qualities (e.g. openness to new
 Does this decision violate any law? experiences, risk-taking);
 How would I feel if this decision was made public? 2. their attributes (e.g. expertise, imagination,
motivation); and,
3. the surroundings (e.g. encouragement from others,
Types of Decision time pressure, physical structures).

Rational Decisions Those that went through a


formal decision-making process with the goal of Other Types of Decisions
improving and optimizing results
 “Good Enough” Decisions Those that are made Aside from the four general types of decisions
after selecting from a limited set of options and mentioned above, we also have the following types of
chosen without a thorough search for alternatives decisions to consider:
 Intuitive Decisions Those that are made without
thinking about them  Strategic Decisions vs Routine Decisions As
 Creative Decisions Those that are made with the the name implies, strategic decisions are the
goal of creating new and inventive ideas important decisions in an organization. They are
usually taken by middle and upper-level manager
Creative Decisions and require analysis and careful study. They affect
the entire organization, including routine
decisions which involve the daily functioning of the
Creative decisions are said to be made through the organization. High-level managers would generally
following step-by-step process: delegate these types of decisions to their
subordinates.
 Step 1: Problem Recognition  Programmed Decisions vs Non-Programmed
 Step 2: Immersion Decisions Programmed decisions are those that
 Step 3: Incubation are repetitive and does not bear deliberation. As the
 Step 4: Illumination name implies, these decisions are made by

32
 following a specific protocol. These are usually done is to find the best solution to an issue and achieving a
by lower management. Non-programmed decisions goal.
come from situations which do not have a standard
procedure setup for them. These are some of the The first step when attempting to solve a problem is to
more important decisions of the organization and clearly identify it. You may have to ask yourself
are usually made by upper management. questions like:
 Policy Decisions vs Operating Decisions Policy
decisions are tactical decisions that involve the  What happened?
policy and planning of an organization. They are  Why did it happen?
usually made by top management and have a long-  How do we know there is a problem?
term impact on the organization. Operating  What do we need to do to remedy the problem?
decisions, on the other hand, are those that act on
policy decisions. They are usually handled by
middle and lower management. Supplemental | Before You Decide: 3
Organizational Decisions vs Personal

Decisions Organizational decisions are those made Steps to Better Decision-Making (yt)
by a decision-maker in the firm in their capacity as
a leader. These decisions can be delegated to Lesson 2: Characteristics of Decision-
subordinates. Personal decisions are those taken by
these same people but are not in any way related to Making
the organization’s operations. These cannot be
delegated to subordinates. These are the important characteristics of decision-
 Individual Decisions vs Group making:
Decisions Individual decisions are those taken by
leaders in an official capacity. Group decisions are 1. Goal-Oriented Decision-making is a process that is
those taken by multiple members of the same focused on achieving specific goals. They are
organization, e.g. a board of directors, in their frequently made with a specific purpose or objective
capacity as decision-makers in the organization. in mind. The goal is to progress “toward an ideal set
of circumstances.”
Problem-Solving 2. Alternatives A decision should be thought of as a
“point in a stream of activity.” Search and selection
Problem-solving is the analytical method of finding are two actions that define it. The manager seeks
answers to challenges. The primary goal of the process for possibilities, makes judgements, and weight
options in order to take action. Choices lead to
33
 choices, which lead to decisions. It is the process of 6. Continuous Activity The life of a manager is one
deciding on a course of action to solve an issue. of constant decision-making. They make decisions
When you don’t have a choice what to do, you can’t on a regular and consistent basis. It’s not a one-
make a decision. time thing.
3. Analytical-Intellectual Decision-making isn’t 7. Commitment of Time, Effort, and
solely a mental exercise. It encompasses both Money Making a decision entails devoting time,
conscious and unconscious parts, as well as effort, and money. Depending on the decision, the
intuitive and deductive logic. Part of it can be commitment could be brief or long-term. Following
learned, but the decision-maker’s characteristics a decision, the organization advances in a defined
determine part of it. Decision-making isn’t entirely direction in order to fulfill the objectives.
quantifiable, yet it’s also not solely dependent on 8. Human and Social Process Decision-making is a
logic or intuition. Emotions or instincts play a big human and social process that involves reasoning,
role in a lot of decisions. The decision means that intuition, and judgment. When selecting a variety of
the decision-maker has complete flexibility in options, the human and societal aspects of the
making the ultimate decision; it is uniquely human decision are frequently considered. Managers in a
and results from deliberation, appraisal, and labor surplus, a capital-hungry country like India, for
thought. example, can’t just shut down plants, slash
4. Dynamic Process Rather than being viewed as a divisions, and extend the golden handshake to
single static entity, decision-making is viewed as a everyone.
process. It is a process of efficiently utilizing inputs 9. Integral Part of Planning According to Koontz,
to solve specific issues and create useful outputs. decision-making is at the heart of planning. Both
Furthermore, it is a procedure for “finding are mental activities that necessitate deliberation
worthwhile things to do in a dynamic environment.” and judgment. Both are working for the same goal.
A manager, for example, may consistently hire Both are congruent on the situation. Both need you
employees based on merit and, on occasion, select to choose amongst various possibilities. Both are
applicants recommended by a powerful party. based on forecasts and assumptions about future
Managers use discretion and judgment to make risk and uncertainty.
appropriate decisions based on the circumstances.
5. Pervasive Function Decision-making pervades all
levels of management and touches every aspect of Characteristics of a Good Decision
a business. A manager does what he does solely
through decision-making. The end products of a As a decision-maker, it is your job to make decisions
manager’s job are decisions and actions. The that improve the situation for everyone involved. Good
essence of a manager’s work is decision-making. decisions will have the following characteristics:

34
 1. Positively impact others opinions carefully weighed before making a
2. Replicable conclusion.
3. Foster opportunity
4.
5.
Include others
Executable More Notable Principles
6. Systematic
7. Accountable  Purpose-Driven People need a reason to
8. Pragmatic participate in the process.
9. Involve self-awareness  Inclusive, Not Exclusive All interested parties in
the issue should be involved in the collaborative
process.
Principles of Decision-Making  Educational The process relies on mutual
education of all participants
In general, the following are the principles of decision-  Voluntary The interested parties must participate
making: voluntarily.
 Self-Designed All parties have an equal
1. Principle of Definition For the correct decision to opportunity to participate in the collaborative
be made, the leader must be aware of the exact process. It must be explainable and designed to
problem. Once the real problem has been correctly meet the circumstances and needs of the situation.
identified and defined, a solution can be sought.  Flexible The process should be able to
Too often, time and energy are wasted solving the accommodate changing issues, data needs, political
wrong problems. environment, and programmatic constraints such as
2. Principle of Evidence Decisions must be based on time and meeting arrangements.
some kind of evidence-backed judgment. Decisions  Egalitarian All parties have an equal access to
made hastily and without sufficient evidence usually relevant information and the opportunity to
reveal to be incorrect. Every choice a decision- participate effectively throughout the process.
maker makes needs to be carefully considered and  Respectful The diverse values, interests, and
supported by facts. knowledge of the involved parties must be
3. Principle of Identity Different people have accepted.
different perspectives on the same thing. The same  Accountable The participants are accountable both
fact could appear different to different people. to their constituencies and to the process that they
When making a decision, it is critical to have agreed to establish.
accommodate the viewpoints of all the people  Time-Limited Realistic deadlines are necessary
involved. Every person should be heard and their throughout the process.

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  Achievable The involved parties must make sure Decision-making entails recognizing and defining the
that the decision made is feasible. nature of a situation, identifying alternatives, selecting
 Openness Decision-makers should be accepting of the best option, and acting upon it. The process of
the opinions of the community they serve. arriving at a decision can become difficult. The
 Responsiveness The needs of all involved parties following step-by-step guide can help one make more
must be met. deliberate and thoughtful decisions:
 Representative The decision should be made in
accordance to the interests of the entire 1. Define the problem Recognize the problem or
community. opportunity and decide to address it. Clearly
 Stewardship All resources must be used carefully, identify the problem you are trying to solve or the
lawfully, and in the interest of the entire goal you are trying to achieve to avoid wasting time
community. on irrelevant matters.
 Integrity Decisions must be made while following 2. Gather information Collect relevant information
the highest of ethical standards. about the problem or goal. This can be done by
 Equality Everyone should be served and reached brainstorming with a team or doing research on the
by the decision made. matter at hand. Information must be gathered from
multiple sources to ensure a more comprehensive
Lesson 3: Principles of Making Good understanding of the situation.
3. Identify alternatives Create a list of possible
Decisions paths of action or possible options or solutions to
the problem. Consider both traditional and creative
approaches to solving the issue at hand.
These are the principles of good decision-making:
4. Weigh the evidence Evaluate the feasibility,
acceptability, and desirability of each option based
1. All actions should be proportionate to the outcome. on a established criteria. Consider the advantages,
2. All decisions should reflect a respect for human disadvantages, risks, and benefits of each option.
rights. Place the options in a priority ranking according to
3. We should be clear about our goals and what we your personal value system.
want to achieve. 5. Choose among alternatives Pick the best option
4. We should consider equality and diversity. according to the rankings you have created.
6. Take action Create an action plan to implement
Guidelines of Decision-Making the decision made, then delegate tasks as
necessary.

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 7. Evaluate the decision Review the decision and the decision. Instead, decide now and learn from
assess its outcomes. Determine whether it was your mistakes later.
successful in achieving the desired results. If
necessary, modify the approach and repeat the
process accordingly. Individual vs Group Decision-Making
Extra step: Learn from the decision. Reflect on the As mentioned in a previous lesson, individual
decision-making process and identify what can be decisions are those organizational decisions made by
learned from it. Use the information to become a better leaders in an official capacity. If an organizational
decision-maker in the future. decision was made collaboratively by more than one
member of the organization, then it is a group decision.

Helpful Decision-Making Techniques Group decision-making is a participatory process

where group members share their ideas, knowledge,
 The 2-Minute Rule Whenever you need to decide, expertise, and experience to solve complex problems.
set a timer and start the process. This forces you to
quickly weigh your options when making a decision.
Individual Decision-Making Group De
 Think Black and White Sometimes, we have more
options available that we would want. This excess
can lead to overwhelm and can even cause analysis Decisions are taken by a single individual. Decisions are taken
paralysis. Simplify the process by eliminating less-
than-optimal choices. Individual decisions are less costly. Group decisions are costly
 Put it in a Hat As the name implies, put your
options in lots, put them in a hat, and draw. The one They are based on limited information gathered by a single They are based on exten
chosen at random will be the decision. decision-maker. members
 Focus on the Present When trying to see how our
decisions will affect us in the future, we can get Individual decisions are generally taken in situations of Group decisions can be take
overwhelmed by the large picture. Instead, try and emergency. to make
live in the moment. Make a decision based on what
appears to be the best option at present.
They do not involve moral commitment on the part of Group decisions are ea
 Embrace the Idea of Failure The biggest fear members to accept and implement them. members feel c
that a decision-maker can have is the fear of our
choices resulting in poor outcomes. This can result
Individual decisions do not affect morale or job satisfaction Group decisions positi
in overthinking and second-guessing every part of

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 of employees. However, it does mean that group members might
satisfaction of employees.
have less commitment to the decision. As mentioned
above, group decisions are easier to implement
They introduce one-man control. They introduce self-control.
because they positively affect members of the
organization and make them more committed to the
Individual decisions do not promote interaction amongst They promote superior-subordinate
decision.interaction and
superiors and subordinates. healthy relationships amongst them.

When the decision is done by an individual, it is

Group decisions are taken when the
easier toproblem requires who is responsible for it. However,
determine
Decisions are usually based on clear policy guidelines.
creativity and expert
itknowledge of a group.
also means that the decision might be put off by that
individual.
Though decisions are based on individual thinking, they It usually results in high-quality decisions as they are based
are high-quality if the individual has expertise and on extensive brainstorming. They provide the benefit of
On the other hand, making group decisions can be
experience in making such decisions.
positive for the organization as it can serve as a team-
building activity. Of course, when there is an entire
group making a decision, there could be social
loafing and it is harder to place accountability.

Pros and Cons Lesson 7: Police Decision-Making

Individual decisions are made faster than group
decisions, but group decisions are created from a more Police officers are said to be the gatekeepers of
diverse set of ideas. As such, individual decisions are the criminal justice system. They must make a variety
best made by individuals who usually outperforms the of key judgements in the course of their duty and
group. Unfortunately, choosing the best individual can contacts with people in their jurisdiction. Officers
be challenging, depending on the situation of the employ normative factors like accountability and
organization. blameworthiness and pragmatic efficiency criteria like
the likelihood of conviction, the amount of time and
effort required, and so on, to make decisions.
The advantage is that having only one person
make an organizational decision avoids group
dynamics, such as groupthink. Officers have a lot of legal authority and make
many significant judgment that have an impact on the
liberty and safety of citizens. Therefore, it’s crucial to

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understand how they make these judgments and what The normative frame and the efficiency frame are two
the societal repercussions are. key decision frames. Officers who focus on who is
responsible for the harm in the normative frame; they
Traditionally, police activity has been reactive, focus on whether there is enough evidence to get a
with officers responding to citizen calls after crimes conviction in the efficiency frame.
have been committed and communal peace has been
broken. Police work also entails proactive surveillance
in order to detect criminal conduct while it occurs. Influences in Police Decision-Making
The decision-making process in police organizations is  Emotions Individuals are more prone to engage in
generally made up of these three stages: acts based on broad generalizations and have a
stronger belief in the legitimacy of these activities
when their emotions are high. As a result, emotions
1. Intelligence This involves scanning the
may play a significant influence in judgment and
environment for conditions that require a decision.
decision-making. While emotions are more directly
2. Design Entails creating, developing, and analyzing
linked to the experiential system, they are not
possible courses of action, i.e. implementing
regarded as the system’s decision-making base.
creative problem solving.
 Anger The knowledge that anger adds to the
3. Choice Refers to the actual selection of a particular
appraisal of choices may influence policy decisions.
course of action from among available alternatives.
On the other hand, when anger is controlled, it
works against the natural response that is inherent
Police officers use different operational styles to inform
in the expression and suppression of anger, which
their arrest judgments, which are based on their
frequently occurs in police work. Anger, being a
general attitudes toward justice and law enforcement
negative affective experience, has distinct
obligations. These are the general types of operational
consequences on cognitive processes like
styles:
judgment.
 Anger Control Controlling rage, which is a type of
 The Tough Law Enforcer arrests major offenders emotional coping, necessitates a reconsideration of
and rule breakers an otherwise distressing emotional event in order to
 The Mediator prioritizes community peace and alleviate discomfort. Anger control is a type of
frequently employs mediation and other informal emotion regulation that involves modifying an
techniques to address conflicts emotional response’s sensation and presentation.
 The Rule Follower makes arrest choices based on
organizational policy or legal regulations

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  Decision-Making Styles Individual variations can down the chain of command to lower-ranking
have an impact on decision-making in addition to officers and staff.
emotional variables.  Policy and Procedure Many decisions in a police
 Intuitive Decision-Making Intuitive decision- organization are guided by established policies and
making is the process of making decisions based on procedures. These policies may be set at the
feelings and hunches, and it is associate with a national, state, or local level and provide guidelines
spontaneous approach to decision-making. This for how officers should handle various situations.
decision-making strategy may evolve. Intuitive  Legal Requirements The Philippine National Police
reasoning, in other words, emerges from instinctive (PNP) is bound by laws and regulations that dictate
responses, broad experience, and concentrated how they should operate. These legal requirements
learning. can influence decisions related to arrests, use of
 Rational Decision-Making The act of making force, and other activities.
logical evaluations of options and engaging in  Resource Availability The PNP’s decisions are
exhaustive search techniques is referred to as also influenced by the resources available to them,
rational decision-making, and it is adversely including funding, manpower, and equipment.
connected with a spontaneous approach to  Public Opinion The PNP is accountable to the
decision-making. In other words, compared to public, and their decisions can be influenced by
intuitive decision-making, rational decision-making public opinion. The police must balance the needs
is more analytical and slower. and expectations of the community they serve
while maintaining their duty to upload the law and
Influences to the Decision-Making 
protect citizens.
Training and Experience Police Officers receive
Process in Police Organizations extensive training and experience, which can help
inform their decision-making in the field. This
includes training on the use of force, de-escalation
Decision-making in police organizations involves a techniques, and how to handle various types of
complex and dynamic process that is influenced by a crimes and emergencies.
range of factors:

 Chain of Command Most police organizations Critical Decision-Making Factors for

have a hierarchical structure, with clear lines of
authority and decision-making power. Decisions are Police Officers
typically made by the highest-ranking officers or
officials, and these decisions are communicated

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 Making operational decisions is a complicated
process. It requires leadership that cares about doing
the right thing for everyone. Here are the seven critical
decision-making factors for police officers:

1. It is never about you.

2. You have to think globally.
3. Make the right decision for the right reasons.
4. The needs of the community can dictate a decision.
5. Remember that every decision you make has a
person attached to it.
6. Do not judge the result – judge the path to the
result.
7. Remember the 24-hour rule.

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