BIOLOGICAL

SCIENCES
&
HIV and AIDS

A GENERIC INTEGRATION COURSE

MODULE FOR UNIVERSITIES
IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

Revised Edition
 Revised Edition

BIOLOGICAL
SCIENCES
&
HIV and AIDS
A GENERIC INTEGRATION COURSE MODULE FOR
UNIVERSITIES IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA
 Preamble
The AIDS pandemic is one of the most disastrous health
and development issue in our world today. Between 5 and
6 deaths occur every minute, one of them being a child
below 15 years. There are 500 new HIV infections every hour.
HIV and AIDS have left a sea of orphans without parents.
Since HIV was first diagnosed in 1981, the pandemic has
spread at a rate never thought possible.

The AIDS pandemic continues to ravage populations across the world,

and most particularly in sub-Saharan Africa. Despite efforts to curb the
spread of the pandemic, there are reports of increased prevalence rates
and deaths due to HIV in the last 2 decades. It is estimated that the real
impact of the scourge will only be felt in 2050.

Universities have not been spared by the scourge. The disease has the
potential to impair institutional functioning. The long lead time between
initial HIV infection and development of AIDS has major implications
for universities. This being the case, the mandate of service to society
demands the engagement of every university with HIV and AIDS.

Every university should recognize that HIV and AIDS are vital university
issues that demand a coordinated university response. A society with
AIDS needs special assistance that only a university can give. Universities
have a special responsibility for the development of human resources
and are crucial agents of change and providers of leadership directions
in society. Thus, they should be at the forefront in developing a deeper
understanding of HIV and AIDS.

In an effort to prepare students to address HIV and AIDS at personal

and professional levels, universities must be involved in a proactive and
sustainable manner in mitigation of the pandemic through integration of
HIV and AIDS in the teaching curriculum of every university faculty. This will
ensure development of AIDS-educated and AIDS-competent graduates
who will be adequately qualified to carry AIDS concerns into their
subsequent life, to address AIDS issues in their professions as managers,
policy makers, leaders, politicians, community workers and to bring AIDS
into the open within their societies.

 Biological Sciences & HIV and AIDS

In recognition of the above, the United Nations Educational, Scientific
and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and the African Women in Science
and Engineering (AWSE) organized training workshops in Ghana, Rwanda,
Botswana and Kenya for lecturers in tertiary institutions on Mainstreaming
and integration of HIV and AIDS in the teaching of Engineering, Physical
and Biological Sciences. This generic module has been developed from
the existing country specific modules in selected areas of Biological
Sciences. The content of the current teaching units remains the same but
there is HIV and AIDS education and HIV related examples. The duration
of the teaching unit is as stipulated in the requirements of each individual
institution. The focus of the unit remains the same. It is anticipated that
in the course of the unit contact hours the student will not only learn the
basic tenets of Biology as prescribed but will also be impacted upon with
some HIV and AIDS knowledge that could influence, the perception,
behaviour change, demystify issues and contribute to the fight against
HIV and AIDS in the universities and communities at large.

This integrated teaching module is an output of the in-country training

workshops for lecturers on “Higher Education Science and Curricular
Reforms: African Universities responding to HIV and AIDS, held in Kumasi,
(Ghana) Kigali, (Rwanda) Gaborone, (Botswana) and Nairobi, (Kenya).
The module contains input from participants from public and private
institutions of Higher education and is based on their curricula in the
teaching of biological sciences.

Biological Sciences & HIV and AIDS 

 ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This generic integration module has benefited from
the inputs of participants at the UNESCO/AWSE in-
country Training Workshops for Universities in Ghana
(6-8 December, 2006), Rwanda (28 - 30 March 2007),
Botswana (17 - 19 April 2007) and Kenya (08 - 10 May
2007), on Mainstreaming of HIV and AIDS into Engineering,
Biological and Physical Sciences. Further technical and
editorial input came from Professors Mabel Imbuga and
Caroline Lang’at Thoruwa of AWSE, and Alice A. Ochanda of UNESCO
Nairobi Office.

The training workshops were facilitated by Professor Zipporah W. Ng’ang’a

of Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture & Technology, Department
of Medical Laboratory Sciences. Professor Ng’ang’a also compiled
information from all the training sessions to come up with this generic
intergration module.

Profound gratitude and further acknowledgement is expressed to UNAIDS

who made the production of these modules a reality through their Unified
Budget Work plan (UBW) funds.

Project Implementation Team

Alice A. Ochanda, PhD (Project Co-ordinator) - UNESCO

Prof. Mabel Imbuga - AWSE
Prof. Caroline Lang’at -Thoruwa - AWSE
Prof. Xiohua Xia (consultant) - University of Pretoria, South Africa
Dr. Anna Mandu Jeffrey (consultant) - University of Botswana
Prof. Zipporah Ng’ang’a (consultant) - Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture
and Technology (JKUAT), Kenya

 Biological Sciences & HIV and AIDS

Table of Contents
Preamble............................................................................................. 2
ACKNOWLEDGMENT........................................................................... 4
THE CELL AND ITS EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT .................................... 6
INVERTEBRATE ZOOLOGY.................................................................... 8
DIVERSITY OF LIVING ORGANISMS..................................................... 10
BIOSTATISTICS . ..................................................................................... 12
INTRODUCTION TO BIOTECHNOLOGY.............................................. 14
HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF BIOLOGY.......................................... 16
CELL METABOLISM .............................................................................. 18
PHARMACOGNOSY AND PHARMACOLOGY.................................. 19
COMPUTER APPLICATIONS IN BIOSCIENCES..................................... 20
POPULATION ECOLOGY..................................................................... 22
LABORATORY TECHNIQUES . .............................................................. 24
PLANT ECOLOGY................................................................................. 25
PLANT BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY......................................... 27
NUTRITIONAL BIOCHEMISTRY.............................................................. 29
ETHOLOGY........................................................................................... 31
URBAN ECOLOGY............................................................................... 32
NOTES................................................................................................... 34

Biological Sciences & HIV and AIDS 

 THE CELL AND ITS
EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT
Ultrastructure of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell
organelles, nucleus, cell membrane, plasma membrane,
mitochondria, golgi bodies, ribosomes, lysosomes and
peroxisomes. Cytoplasmic organelles, biochemistry
of some specialized cells; red blood cells, nerve cells,
muscle cells, renal tubular cells. Extracellular fluids, blood and lymph,
their composition and relationship to the cells.

Entry points for HIV integration

• prokaryotes – the example of HIV.

• Use the example of the detailed structure of HIV to represent

prokaryotes.

• The role of cellular organelles in the HIV life cycle (the plasma
membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus). The cell membrane as a
site of HIV attachment, receptors on surfaces of specialized cells
(CD4 receptors on blood cells), glycoproteins (gp 120 and gp 41)
on the surface of envelopes of prokaryotes and their importance in
attachment and penetration of cells (Example of HIV).

• The effect of integration of viral DNA with host cell DNA in the nucleus
of a cell (A case of CD4 cells).

• Discuss the effect of HIV infection on hemoglobin content, oxygen

transport (fainting, anemia), white blood cells (immunosuppression),
nerve cells (paralysis in advanced stages of HIV infection) and kidney
function (HIV pathogenesis).

• Discuss the role of blood in defense (Acquired immunity).

• Role of blood in transmission of pathogens (HIV transmission, sexual

contact, blood contact, MTCT). Blood cells as targets of attack by
pathogens (CD 4 cells). Consequences of destruction of CD4 cells by HIV
(immunosuppression and opportunistic infections), lymphadenopathy

 Biological Sciences & HIV and AIDS

 (Enlarged lymph nodes). Other blood borne pathogens (Toxoplasma
and Plasmodium) and their relationship with HIV.

• Distinguish B and T lymphocytes. CD markers on the surfaces of cells

for differentiation. The T cell as target for HIV. The counts in health
and indicators of immunosuppression. The role of HIV in destruction
of elements of blood and health implications with reference to HIV
among other blood borne pathogens.

Activity:
A haemogram to show composition of blood.

Take Away Assignment:

Write an Essay on composition and functions of blood elements.

Biological Sciences & HIV and AIDS 

 INVERTEBRATE ZOOLOGY
Introduction: origin and diversity of animals classification,
kingdoms of living organisms, the species, embryonic
features used in animal classification, the rise of zoology,
where animals are found, animals of the past and their
distribution through geological times.

The scope of zoology: The Invertebrata: a survey of

invertebrate groups emphasizing their habits, structural
features, functional anatomy, and evolutionary relationships using
Eastern African examples. Kingdom Protista, Sub-kingdom Protozoa,
Phyla Sarcomastigophora, Labyrinthomorpha, Apicomplexa, Microspora,
Ascetospora, Myxozoa and Ciliophora. Origin of Metazoa. Kingdom
Animalia: Subkingdom Phagocytellozoa Phylum Placozoa; Subkingdom
Parazoa Phylum Porifera; Subkingdom Metazoa: phylum Mesozoa. The
Radiata: Cnidaria and Ctenophora. The Bilateria: the Acoelomata:
Platyhelminthes, Nemertea and Gnathostomulida. The Pseudocoelomata:
Nematoda and minor pseudocoelomates. The Coelomata: Annelida,
Mollusca, Arthropoda, Echinodermata, the unsegmented coelomates,
and other minor coelomates. Differences between the Protostomata and
Deuterostomata phyla. Invertebrate phylogeny.

Entry points for HIV integration

• Origin and evolution of retro viruses with reference to HIV. The theories
of origin and history of HIV.

• Sub-types and viral strains in relation to geographical regions.

• Phylogeny and viral strains/types. Implications of HIV subtypes on

progression to AIDS, HIV prevalence across the world, therapy and
prospects for vaccination. The relationship between multiple sexual
partners and mixed infection with different sub-types.

• The HIV structure. Functions of each structural components. The

relationship between structure and function. The role of viral enzymes
in replication and as targets of drug action.

• Why viruses are not living things.

 Biological Sciences & HIV and AIDS

Activity:
Using the number of T cells in blood, and the rate of HIV replication,
predict the viral load and the CD4 count in an infected individual 5
years post infection.

Take Away Assignment:

Describe HIV replication in relation to disease progression and use of
Anti Retro Virals in management.

Biological Sciences & HIV and AIDS 

 DIVERSITY OF
LIVING ORGANISMS
Course Description
Origins of the universe, earth and life forms: Principles
and significance of protistan and Animal kingdoms. An
evolutionary and taxonomic review of the main phyla
of these two Kingdoms: Brief overview of membranes, cells, resistance
to diseases, homeostasis, thermoregulation, respiration, nervous system,
skeletal system, excretion and osmoregulation, circulatory system, micro
and macro-evolution

Entry points for HIV integration

• The theories of the origin of HIV should be used to describe origin of
life forms. The history of HIV: the past, present and the future.

• Classification of viruses: basis of genetic material, presence or

absence of coats, shape of the envelope, etc. The classical example
of HIV. Phylogenetic tree to describe evolution of HIV. The different
strains and sub strains of HIV. The implications of strain diversity
on transmission, disease progression, resistance to ARV therapy,
prospects for vaccination. The role of multiple infections (multiple
sexual partners, condom use).

• Viruses are exclusively intracellular. How do they penetrate

membranes? HIV transmission and life cycle.

• Relationship of cells and HIV. Who is the target for HIV? What are
the characteristics of the target cells? Presence of CD4 receptors.
Overview of the membrane, role in attachment and penetration of
target cell, as targets of drug action, role in resistance to ARVs.

• The consequences of HIV infection on resistance to disease (disease

progression in HIV infection, immunosuppression and opportunistic
diseases (AIDS): HIV pathogenesis.

10 Biological Sciences & HIV and AIDS

Activity:
Outline how HIV affects body processes. General tiredness, weight
loss, fever, HIV dementia, confusion, memory loss, breathlessness,
fainting, irregular menstrual flow in women, anemia etc (signs and
symptoms that typify AIDS (WHO classification).

Take Away Assignment:

Write an essay on the economic importance of viruses, bacteria and
fungi in the face of HIV and AIDS.

Biological Sciences & HIV and AIDS 11

 BIOSTATISTICS
Course Description
This course applies statistical methods to biological
information. It deals with sampling techniques, data
presentation, analysis, and interpretation. Introduction
to quantitative and qualitative treatment of biological
data. Biological variations and frequency distribution.
Basic descriptive statistics. Probability and distributions. Types of distribution
(example normal, binomial, Poisson) are also discussed. Analytical
procedures including T-tests, Chi-square, F-Ration, correlation and
regression will be used to analyze biological data. Standard error and
confidence limits. Chi-square and student t- test. Regression and correlation.
Experimental design and analysis of variance. Muiltiple comparisons of
means. LSD (Least Significant Difference) and SNK (Student Neuman-
keul). Experimental designs (e. g. CRD, RCD, Factorial design). Use of
computer statistical software. Basic experimental designs (e. g. CRD, RCD,
Factorial design). Types of distribution, probability and tests of significance,
differences between means, association of two variables, parametric and
non-parametric tests and variation under different conditions.

Entry points for HIV integration

• Use of medical statistics for quantitative analysis and practical use of
HIV related data. Data on uptake of VCT, MTCT, ARV therapy, condom
use, TB screening and treatment. STD treatment, mortality due to HIV
related complications among schools, universities, industry etc. This
creates the realia of HIV and AIDS. Data on relationships between HIV
infection and age, gender, rural and urban environments.

• Variations in infection, prevalence rates across sex, age gender,

geographical areas, race, etc. A comparison between prevalence
in developing and developed countries. Reasons for the higher rates
among Africans and among women compared to men. Intervention
measures to reduce the high rates. Tests of significance between
rates of infection among circumcised and uncircumcised males. The
role of circumcision in mitigating the spread of HIV.

• Efficacy of data on condom / ARV usage.

12 Biological Sciences & HIV and AIDS

• Bio-geographical survey.

• Use of experimental design in HIV related research such as vaccine

testing, factors influencing VCT uptake among the youth, condom
use, factors influencing behavior, factors hindering behavior change,
factors hindering PMTCT, ARV use etc.

• Use appropriate experimental designs such as simple random

sampling, systematic, purposive, snow balling, descriptive cross
sectional studies in collection of scientific data.

• Methods of data collection. Use of different tools in collection of HIV

related data i.e. Questionnaires, desk reviews, FGD’s, key informant
interviews etc.

• Epidemiological surveillance. Survey to determine HIV prevalence

and the factors influencing prevalence.

• Error reduction techniques in relation to HIV/ AIDS data.

• Statistical / prediction models for projecting future trends, response to

ARV therapy using single therapy as well as combined therapy. The
effect of dosage on outcome i.e. CD4 count and viral load.

• Use of computer statistical software in analysis of HIV related data

and in simulating models to describe HIV prevalence and the role of
Anti Retro Virals in management of HIV.

Teaching methodology
° Seminars
° Assignment

Activity:
Using UNAIDS (2005) HIV data in Africa determine using suitable
statistical tools the relationships between gender, age, region and
HIV prevalence.

Take Away Assignment:

Describe an experimental design that would be appropriate in
collection of data on HIV testing within your institution.

Biological Sciences & HIV and AIDS 13

 INTRODUCTION TO
BIOTECHNOLOGY
Course Description
Plant cell, tissue and organ culture and their application
methods of creating recombinant DNA molecules, isolation
and cloning of genes. Genetic engineering of plants, viral
vectors, haploids, protoplasts, hybrids and fusion. Genetic engineering,
Biosensors, formation and recovery of biologicals. Applications to agriculture,
medicine, industry and health care. Production of monoclonal antibodies.
Mechanisms of virus transformation. Virus association with human tumors,
virus prevention and control by vaccination. Applications to agriculture,
medicine, industry, health care and food processing with Development of
DNA vaccines. Ethical considerations in regard to DNA manipulation

Entry points for HIV integration

• Use of plant tissue culture for the propagation of important medicinal
plants, (cell culture for secondary metabolites) e.g. banana tissue
culture for food security, income, and nutrition.

• Use animal biotechnology in production of monoclonal antibodies

for diagnosis and as therapeutic agents in management (diagnostic
tests/ production of vaccines for management of HIV). Production of
chimera HIV such as SHIV for study of HIV in animal models, generation
of transgenic animal models for HIV research.

• Genetic engineering: mutations, sequencing, vaccines, diagnostics

(The role of genetic antigen testing for confirmatory and peadiatric
HIV testing, Importance of PCR, ELISA, western blot), recombinant
vaccines and current DNA vaccines under trial.

• Preparation of plasmids- Use of recombinant vectors in vaccine

production.

• Viral vectors- Engineering of viruses into carriers such as yeast cells,

larger viruses and bacteria. Hybridoma technology and prospects

14 Biological Sciences & HIV and AIDS

 of its application in vaccine production. Use of biotechnology
for alternative fuel sources. Isolation and cloning of genes- HIV
genome.

• Biosensors (formation and recovery) for tracing drug action, for

detection of diseased organs and tissues. Biotechnology and food
processing- role of processed foods in PLWA.

• The HIV virus transformation, replication and variability. Common

cancers in HIV disease – Kaposis sarcoma, cervical cancer. HIV
prevention and protection. The ABC of HIV prevention and protection.
The prospects of development of a DNA vaccine against HIV. The
current vaccine trials. The constraints in development of HIV vaccine.
HIV as an example of a retrovirus.

• Ethical implications in use of DNA vaccines and testing in humans.

Handling and disposal of HIV DNA in laboratories.

Activity:
A 40 minute video show of HIV budding off CD4 infected cell.

Take Away Assignment:

Discuss the recent developments in development of a vaccine
against HIV.

Biological Sciences & HIV and AIDS 15

 HISTORY AND
PHILOSOPHY OF BIOLOGY
History: the growth of biological thought from the ancient
Greeks to the present day. From Alcmaeon and the
Hippocratic school to Aristotle. Aristotle’s biology and his
scientific method. Theophrastus to Crateuas and Galen.
The eclipse of ancient science in the West. Transmission
of Greek science by the Christian Syrians to the Arabs. Islamic biology
and medicine from the 9th to the 12th centuries. Re-transmission to the
West and the rise of Western science in the 12th and 13th centuries. The
Western Universities. Leonardo and Vesalius to Borelli and Harvey. The
classical microscopists. The early taxonomists to Linnaeus.

The overthrow of spontaneous generation theory: Redi, Spallanzani and

Pasteur; modern ideas on the origin of life. Organic evolution: Buffon,
Lamarck to Darwin and Wallace; modern controversies. Mendel and
modern genetics and research. The new synthesis. Watson and Crick
and molecular biology. Philosophy: the presuppositions of science.
The nature of scientific law and the meaning of scientific explanation.
The hypothetico-deductive method. Scientific proof: verificationism
and falsificationism. Reductionism in science. The unity and diversity of
scientific methods. Role of concepts and their refinement in biological
explanation.

Entry points for HIV integration

• Theories and origin of HIV

• Nature and biology of HIV (The biology of HIV: structure, characteristics,

replication, adaptations).

• HIV virus- HIV 1 and HIV 2. The different subtypes of HIV. Distribution
worldwide. Implications of HIV variability in treatment and prospects
of a vaccine.

• Discovery of the HIV virus. A line history of HIV from 1981 to present
and the future.

16 Biological Sciences & HIV and AIDS

• Various religious perspectives towards HIV – The relationship between
religion and AIDS. The role of religion in mitigating the spread and
reduction of stigma and discrimination reduction through education,
care and support, lobbying and advocacy. African traditional
religion and AIDS. The role of polygamy, Female genital Mutilation
in the spread of HIV. The conflict between HIV mitigation measures
religion.

• Ethical implications (homosexuality, wife inheritance and role of

cultural practices in preventing or promoting HIV transmission) Ethical
implications of mandatory testing, denial of care, drugs, employment
and all forms of discrimination. Ethical implications in use of humans
fro testing of drug efficacy and vaccine trials.

• Moral implications (shame, guilt, stigma) of HIV infection.

• Legal and human rights issues in HIV infection (mandatory testing,

breach of confidentiality, stigma, abuse, discrimination and denial of
care, retrenchment, dismissal, denial of insurance, denial of hospital
admission and drugs, abandonment, violence etc ). The rights of HIV
infected persons. The HIV and AIDS Act.

• Impact of HIV on national development. The impact of HIV on

demography, households, agriculture, education, industry, culture,
health. The relationship between HIV and poverty.

• Discordant couples. Genetic resistance to HIV.

• Gender disparity and HIV and AIDS. Gender differences between men
and women in education, economic empowerment, information and
implications in HIV transmission. Intervention measures in reduction of
HIV prevalence among women.

Activity:
Divide yourselves in groups of 10 and discuss the role of religion in HIV
transmission.

Take Away Assignment:

Write an essay on Women and AIDS (statistics, reasons for higher
vulnerability among women and intervention measures to reduce
the high risk.

Biological Sciences & HIV and AIDS 17

 CELL METABOLISM
Ultrastructure of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell
organelles: nucleus, cell wall, plasma membrane,
cytoplasmic inclusions and intracellular attachments.
Extracellular fluids, blood and lymph, their composition
and relationship to the cell. Biochemistry of specialized
cells- renal tubular cells, red blood cells, nerve cells and
muscle cells.

Entry points for HIV integration

• prokaryotes – the example of HIV.

• The role of cellular organelles in the HIV life cycle (the plasma
membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus).

• Biochemistry of some specialized cells- WBC.

• WBC’s are immune cells which contain CD4 receptors. The HIV virus
attaches to the CD4 receptors to gain entry to the human cell.

• The role of extra cellular fluid in HIV transmission. The composition

of extracellular fluids with reference to cells containing CD4. T
lymphocytes, langerhans cells, dendritic cells and macrophages.
Consequences of destruction of CD4 cells by HIV. Immunosuppression
leads to AIDS.

• Effects of HIV on muscle and nerve cells (wasting, paralysis).

• Exercise in positive living with HIV.

• Effects of antiretroviral drugs on renal tubular cells.

Activity:
Describe the structure and life cycle of HIV. Classify the virus
accordingly.

Take Away Assignment:

Discuss the role of HIV, Anti Retro Viral drugs on cellular processes.

18 Biological Sciences & HIV and AIDS

PHARMACOGNOSY
AND PHARMACOLOGY
Geographical distribution, habitat, collection, curing, drying, cultivation,
storage of medicinal plants. Natural products in medicine either as crude
drugs or in pure form. Active constituents from the. drugs. Distribution,
biosynthesis, extraction, isolation from crude drugs. Principles of drug
action, absorption, distribution, biotransformation, and elimination of
drugs. Laboratory methods of studying drug actions using animals and
isolated organs.

Entry points for HIV integration

• Medicinal plants in HIV management, distribution, active components.
The role of herbalists.

• Anti Retro Viral drugs- types, mode of action, side effects, barriers
hindering use and methods of overcoming them. Antibiotics and
fungicides used in management of opportunistic infections associated
with HIV disease.

• Methods of studying ARV action using animal models and specific

effects of ARVs on the liver, kidneys and brain. The use of biosensors in
monitoring the side effects associated with ARVs.

Activity:
Establish a garden of common medicinal plants used by the local
community.

Take Away Assignment:

Describe the common herbs that are used in management of AIDS
within the local community. Obtain the specimens and prepare
them for preservation.

Biological Sciences & HIV and AIDS 19

 COMPUTER APPLICATIONS
IN BIOSCIENCES
Computer simulation techniques to design molecular
models: Application of computer simulation techniques in
pharmaceutical industry. Design of synthetic genes coding
for specific proteins. Computer software for selecting
primers, reagents and equipment for genetic engineering.
Computer programming languages and fundamental techniques of using
such languages in problem solving. Use of the computer in solving a series
of scientific problems. Electronic mail and internet.

Entry points for HIV integration

• Computer simulation in predicting the effects of different doses of either
mono or combined ARV therapies on viral load and CD4 counts.

• Computer simulation models predicting the pattern of transformation

of HIV with time and the phylogenetic relationships between the
different strains and the circulating clades within a population.

• Design of synthetic genes for the gag, pol and env genes of HIV.
The role of these genes in HIV diversity and prospects of vaccine
production.

• Selection of HIV primers for use in molecular characterization

particularly bDNA PCR in paediatric diagnosis. The role of PCR in
confirmatory HIV testing. Approaches to vaccine production.

• The use of computers in obtaining and sharing information on HIV

(Internet browsing, e mail).

• Computer programs in design and analysis of HIV related data with

practical examples. The use of SPSS, SAS, Epi Info in data analysis.

• Computer networking analogous to sex networks. Viruses that affect

and corrupt computers can be compared with HIV in the human
body. The severity of computer viruses can be compared with the
different strains of HIV.

20 Biological Sciences & HIV and AIDS

Activity:
Use the example of a virus program to simulate how sexual networks
spread HIV.

Take Away Assignment:

Design an appropriate E- learning site for information sharing among
members of your school.

Biological Sciences & HIV and AIDS 21

 POPULATION ECOLOGY
Growth and regulation of populations. Intra specific
and inter specific interactions. Evolution of ecological
strategies. Community ecology, delimitation of
communities locally geographically, energy flow and its
regulation. Determinants of community structures and
diversity

Entry points for HIV integration

• Diseases as regulators of populations e.g. Impact of HIV on human
populations, demography, life expectancy.

• Age and gender dimensions in HIV and implications on population

dynamics.

• Polygamy and its role in HIV transmission

• Geographical variations in HIV prevalence, locally and worldwide.

Africa as the epicenter of the HIV pandemic. Reasons for HIV
prevalence in Africa compared to the rest of the world. Energy loss in
humans due to HIV infection.

• Cultural practices e.g. polygamy, wife cleansing, wife inheritance,

female genital mutilation, moranism etc. The effects of cultural
practices on HIV transmission, comparison with other modes of
transmission. The impact of HIV on cultural values and customs.

• The conflict between HIV mitigation measures and culture.

Topics should be given a mathematical treatment

whenever appropriate.
• Modeling of population dynamics.
• Survival analysis.

22 Biological Sciences & HIV and AIDS

Activity:
Discuss the role of culture in HIV transmission

Take Away Assignment:

Use the UNAIDS HIV and AIDS data to show the trends in HIV infection
and deaths due to AIDS in Africa. Illustrate this using survival curves

Biological Sciences & HIV and AIDS 23

 LABORATORY TECHNIQUES
Course Description
An introduction to the scientific method, basic methods
and instrumentation in biology, emphasizing fundamental
laboratory procedures. Techniques to be studied include
light and electron microscopy, spectrophotometry, gel
electrophoresis (for the identification of viruses Southern
blot and ELISA), chromatography, sectioning and staining. Laboratory
specimen: collection, classification, nomenclature, storage, preservation
and processing (in relation to bioactive components especially medicinal
plants used in management of opportunisticinfections). Blood sample
collection methods, Records and inventory. Laboratory reagents,
preparation and storage. Safety (safety in relation to HIV) in the lab, rules
and regulations.

Teaching Methodologies
• Lectures, tutorials, class presentation, practicals, assignments,
resource person

Activity:
Carry out a Western Blot Assay to confirm discordant HIV results

Take Away Assignment:

• Establish the diagnostic techniques used in clinics, hospitals
and VCT centers for HIV diagnosis.

24 Biological Sciences & HIV and AIDS

PLANT ECOLOGY
Course Description
A study of the ecosystems will be done. The abiotic environment;
minimums, tolerances and the medium; isolation, precipitation, and
climate; soils, nutrients, and other factors will be looked into. Species
interactions. Energy flow in ecosystems: energy fixation by autotrophs;
energy flow beyond the producers will be examined. Biogeochemical
cycles and ecosystems: gaseous and sedimentary nutrient be examined,
so will be community ecology (habitat locations of plants with bioactive
molecules), its structure, function; stability and change. The nature of
human ecology, the human population. Impact of pollutants on human
health and other living systems. Risk assessment of chemicals in the
environment will be examined together with global approach to solution
of environmental problems. Techniques used in terrestrial and aquatic
environments to gather ecological data and quantitative data analysis
using computers will also be examined.

Entry points for HIV integration

• Parasitism – The relationship between HIV and the human host - Biotic
environment.

• The relationship between HIV and the biotic environment. HIV is

exclusively intracellular. Modes of HIV transmission through contact
with the biotic environment (fluids of infected persons). Methods
through which HIV is not transmitted. Relationship between HIV and
the abiotic environment. HIV is not transmitted through sharing of
clothing utensils, seats etc.

• The role of air, water pollutants on health in HIV infected persons.

Opportunistic infections in HIV disease (TB, typhoid, cholera, meningitis
etc).

• Analysis of impact of HIV on land use, crop yields (agriculture) and

implications for food security and income.

• Herbal remedies in HIV disease. The relationship between herbal and

modern medicine.

Biological Sciences & HIV and AIDS 25

 Teaching Methodologies
° Lectures, tutorials, class presentation, field trips,
assignments, resource person (herbalists).

Activity:
Field trip to list plants claimed to have medicinal and
nutritional value.

Take Away Assignment:

Determine the common land uses among the communities
neighbouring your institution. What is the impact of HIV on land
use?

26 Biological Sciences & HIV and AIDS

PLANT BIOCHEMISTRY
AND PHYSIOLOGY
Course Description
The course examines the basic principles of plant physiology including
cell structure and function together with hereditary and environmental
influences on plant behaviour. Respiration: biological oxidation;
respiratory metabolism; photophysiology; and photochemistry will be
looked into. Biochemistry that is role of ATP and NADPH, chloroplast as unit
of photosynthesis; factors influencing photosynthesis; photorespiration:
characteristics and biochemistry of CAM, C3 and C4 plants will be
examined. The course will also look into mineral nutrition –essential and
beneficial elements, solutions and sols as nutrient sources; elemental
analysis of plant tissues; nutritional disorders; chemical fertilizers in
crop production; foliar nutrition. Biosynthesis: primary and secondary
metabolites (secondary metabolite diversity: The physiological and
biochemical actions of plant growth substances and genetics of plant will
be studied. Physiology of seeds – development, germination, dormancy
will be examined. Quality together with factors affecting plant growth
and reproductive growth will be examined.

Entry points for HIV integration

• Usefulness of secondary metabolites in management of HIV-AIDS).

• reliance of HIV virus on host cell’s energy.

• latency of HIV before the onset of AIDS.

Teaching Methodologies
° Lectures, tutorials and practical sessions.

Biological Sciences & HIV and AIDS 27

 Activity:
Discuss the modern techniques to improve plants as
sources of food among HIV infected persons.

Take Away Assignment:

Report on secondary plant metabolites used to boost
immunodeficiency in HIV-AIDS (Use electronic and
bibliographic literature).

28 Biological Sciences & HIV and AIDS

NUTRITIONAL
BIOCHEMISTRY
Course Description
Basic requirements for human nutrition: proteins, carbohydrates, lipids,
minerals and Vitamins. Starvation. FAO indicator in surveying food quality
essential amino acids. Protein requirements during growth and recovery.
Protein Energy malnutrition. Recommended dietary allowances. The role
of vitamins and minerals in diets. Importance of vegetables, legumes,
cereals and fruits. Assessment of nutritional status. Vegeterian diets.

Entry points for HIV integration

• Understand human nutrition and FAO indicators in surveying food
quality.

• Define nutrition, balanced diet, under nutrition and malnutrition. The

role of the following: Proteins, Carbohydrates, Lipids, Minerals and
Vitamins in the diet.

• Deficiency and deficiency diseases.

• The importance to adopt healthy eating habits and the special

nutritional needs of PLWA (i.e. HIV affects food intake, HIV affects
weight, PLWA have increased requirements for minerals and vitamins)
should be emphasized in this topic (nutrition is therapeutic).

Activity:
Quality assessment of selected locally available foods.

• The importance of special amino acids in diet of PLWA i.e., glutathione,

lysine, alanine, arginine. Important sources of protein for children for
growth with emphasis on protein needs and sources for OVC and
PLWA for recovery from opportunistic infections. The consequences
of Protein Energy Malnutrition (PEM).

Biological Sciences & HIV and AIDS 29

 • Important vitamins in the diet and particularly in
HIV disease (Vitamin A, B complex, C, K etc.
Important minerals: Iron, selenium, calcium,
magnesium, Zinc etc. Dietary sources of
vitamins and minerals. Recommended
dietary allowances.

• The role of supplements and dangers of over

dosage.

• The role of vegetables, fruits, legumes, cereals

and fruits in the diet.

• What is in foods? Emphasis should be on traditional fruits and

vegetables as sources of vitamins and minerals. The importance
of whole grains as a source of nutrients. Handling of vegetables,
preparation and storage.

• Determine nutritional status by use of biochemical assessment versus

use of anthropometric measurements.

• Understand WHO Indicators of wasting, stunting particularly among

children.

• Consequences of malnutrition (a common feature in HIV) with

emphasis on PEM (Protein Energy Malnutrition) among children and
PLWA.

• Plan a balanced diet.

Activity:
Collect traditional fruits and vegetables commonly used by your lo-
cal community.
Formulate a one week menu for a Person Living With Aids.

Take Away Assignment:

Nutritional status assessment of orphaned and vulnerable children in
orphanages in the local community.
Calculate the Z- scores and classify the children on the basis of their
nutritional status.

30 Biological Sciences & HIV and AIDS

ETHOLOGY
Course Description
The evolution and development of animal behavior: The problems and
methods of describing behavior. Causation and behavioral function
including their genetic basis. Communication and socio-biology.

Entry points for HIV integration

• Factors that influence behavior with reference to risk behavior in
transmission of HIV should be discussed.

• Theories of Behavior Change. Health Belief Theory.Models used

to influence behavior change (HICDARM approach- A means of
painting the future).

• Communication. Behavior Change Communication (BCC) in HIV.

• Appropriate communication skills in breaking the silence in HIV with

factual, evidence based, correct and adequate information (Myths
and misconceptions of HIV.

• The role of Information Education and Communication (IEC) and

preparation of appropriate IEC materials in reducing HIV transmission
and in reduction of stigma and discrimination.

• Causes of communication break down.

Activity:
Discuss the role of the media in influencing human behavior.

Take Away Assignment:

Describe the models of Behavior Change Communication.

Biological Sciences & HIV and AIDS 31

 URBAN ECOLOGY
Course Description
Urban environment as human ecosystems. Ecological effects
of urbanization. Pollution in cities. Sewage and solid waste
disposal problems. Methods of treating sewage effluent.
Land ecology: management, microbial succession, landfill.

Entry points for HIV integration

• Urbanization. Rural-urban migration, unemployment, idleness and
the increased risk of HIV.

• Poverty, human rights abuses, gender imbalances (root causes of

HIV).Crime including drug abuse (IDU), rape etc. Prostitution (STD’s
co factors in HIV transmission).

• Pollution– Air and water pollutants. Causes of opportunistic infections

in HIV disease (URT infections, diarrhea).

• Congestion- The effects of congestion on spread of TB (a health

emergency following the HIV pandemic).

• Sewage and solid waste disposal. Poor hygiene and sanitation

practices- hygiene related diseases (typhoid, cholera, shigella,
amoebic dysentery, giardiasis etc). Importance of clean drinking water
for PLWA.

Activity:
Using data from the local health facility, list the common hygiene
related diseases affecting the local community

Take Away Assignment:

Visit an urban slum in your country. What are the effects of urbaniza-
tion? How does this influence HIV transmission?

32 Biological Sciences & HIV and AIDS

Course Evaluation
• The time for the teaching unit is as described in the curriculum for
each university.
• All courses are examined at the end of the semester in which they are
taken.
• Examination consists of Continuous Assessment Tests and University
examinations. The marks allocation and pass mark is as per the
regulations governing courses in the respective universities.

Biological Sciences & HIV and AIDS 33

 NOTES

A publication of the UNESCO Nairobi Office in partnership with the African Women in
Science and Engineering

Printed at UNON Publishing Service Section

Reprint, December 2008

34 Biological Sciences & HIV and AIDS

 BIOLOGICAL
SCIENCES
&
HIV/AIDS

A GENERIC INTEGRATION COURSE

MODULE FOR UNIVERSITIES
IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

Revised Edition