Energy Nexus 8 (2022) 100149

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Energy Nexus
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/nexus

Innovation from waste with biomass-derived chitin and chitosan as green

and sustainable polymer: A review
Jayashree Chakravarty a,∗, Tianna A Edwards b
a
BioSurfaces, Inc., Ashland, MA, USA
b
Dewpoint Therapeutics, Boston, MA, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Keywords: The need for developing renewable materials to reduce the reliance on fossil fuels as a feedstock for a wide
Biopolymers variety of uses is becoming increasingly widely acknowledged in society. Chitin, the second most abundant ni-
Chitin trogenous natural polymer derived from renewable biomass resources, have attracted significant interest as a
Chitosan
promising natural source to produce functional materials due to their unique properties, abundant availability,
Seafood waste
and environmental appeal. Chitin is present in huge amounts in seafood waste, which is severely underutilized,
Waste management
Green technology resulting in resource wastage. An appealing alternative is to upcycle chitin-containing trash into value-added
Sustainable chemistry goods, to meet the sustainable development requirements. Since the large quantities of seafood waste remain
underexploited, their utilization can potentially bring both ecological and economic benefits. The present review
discusses the general properties of chitin and chitosan as natural polysaccharides, highlighting the innovative
and eco-friendly methods for recovery of chitin and its derivatives from waste sources. The recent trends of the
application of chitin and chitosan in various sectors are explored, highlighting the nexus between the generation
and management of seafood waste and its transformation into valuable commercial products as a solution.

1. Introduction Many by-products created by contemporary food industry frequently

include high-value compounds which are still untapped due to the
Since the mid-20th century, with growing population, public con- dearth of appropriate management. For example, seafood waste often
cerns over waste generation, environmental pollution have been increas- contains huge amount of polysaccharides like chitin and its deacety-
ing. Many environmental disasters have been linked to carbon emissions lated derivative chitosan which have gained great attention due to
from burning fossil fuels, global warming, natural resource depletion, their biomedical and physicochemical properties such as non-toxicity,
and garbage disposal. Waste creation is expanding in tandem with pop- biodegradability, and biocompatibility [1,6]. They carry hydroxyl (-OH)
ulation growth, and it is estimated that the seafood processing industries and amine (-NH2) functional groups [8,9] that lead to their superior bio-
generate around 6–8 million tons of shell waste. Shrimp waste contains and cytocompatibility as an ideal candidate for diverse applications. It
about 70% head and 30% shell [1]. The Argentine red shrimp produces is the second most abundant polymer on earth, second only to cellulose,
18,000 metric tons (MT) of shell waste yearly [1], and lobster process- commonly found in the exoskeleton of arthropods and mollusks [6,10],
ing generates more than 50,000 MT annually [2]. India produces up cell wall of fungi and yeast [11,12], and in some corals, sponges and
to 80,000 MT of shellfish waste [3], whereas the processing of shrimps algae [13–15]. The estimated production of chitin from living organ-
and crabs in the EU alone results in more than 100,000 MT of shell isms is estimated to be around 1010 –1012 tons per year [16]. Chitin and
waste each year [5]. Waste management is a huge problem faced by chitosan both have enormous commercial value because of their attrac-
the seafood industries which consider these huge volumes of effluents tive and flexible biological properties. Unfortunately, chitin-containing
and solid waste as a burden because they are potential environmental sources have mainly aggregated in the form of shellfish waste from the
hazards [4]. Most of this waste is dumped back into the ocean or are seafood industry as waste shells are often just dumped into landfills or
disposed as landfill or subjected to incineration. Landfill can contribute the sea [1,4]. This waste is an excellent potential source of chitin, cal-
to climate change about 10 times larger than other waste disposal op- cium carbonate, proteins, lipids, and pigments, and recovery from waste
tions [5], and ocean dumping results in reduced oxygen levels at the involves the initiation of the new product by reducing the environmental
ocean bottom [6]. Other environmental issues include biotic depletion, disposal. Technology platforms based on renewable sources are a signif-
acidification of water, extensive siltation of corals [7]. icant step toward sustainability; nonetheless, a more streamlined and
effective strategy to accessing natural biopolymers is required. A strat-
∗
egy that favors sustainable consumption, minimizing ambient impact,
Corresponding author.
directed towards human health and the environment is to produce prof-
E-mail address: [email protected] (J. Chakravarty).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nexus.2022.100149
Received 19 May 2022; Received in revised form 9 September 2022; Accepted 28 September 2022
Available online 29 September 2022
2772-4271/© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
J. Chakravarty and T.A. Edwards Energy Nexus 8 (2022) 100149

itable products based on biopolymers from renewable resources [17– through hydrogen bonds, appears as ordered crystalline microfibrils
19]. which form structural components in the exoskeleton of arthropods,
The present review discusses the general properties of chitin and cell walls of fungi and yeast. Currently, the main commercial sources
chitosan as natural polysaccharides, highlighting the latest innovation of chitin are crab, shrimp, and lobster shells [4,23,24]. The length of
on eco-friendly methods for recovery of chitin and its derivatives from chitin molecule varies widely in nature – crab chitin may have around
waste sources through biotechnological processes. The recent trends of N-acetyl-ᴅ-glucosamine residues, whereas yeast chitin contains only up
the application of chitin and chitosan are explored to build a solid foun- to 100 residues [25].
dation for further exploiting the polymer for diverse use, highlighting Depending on the arrangement of side chain of backbone, chitin oc-
its transformation into valuable commercial products as a solution. curs as three allomorphs – 𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾 forms [10,26,27,29]. Fig. 1 shows
the arrangement of the different configurations of chitin. In 𝛼-chitin, the
1.1. Chitin – historical perspective side chains are arranged in parallel and adhere strongly by hydrogen
bonding, whereas the structure of 𝛽-chitin is antiparallel chain arrange-
In 1799, English scientist A. Hachett discovered a "material espe- ment with a lower content of intersheet hydrogen bonds, and 𝛾-chitin is
cially resistant to usual chemicals". In 1811, Henri Branconnot, a French a mixture of both 𝛼- and 𝛽-chitin [27,29–31]. 𝛼-chitin is often found in
professor of Natural History and director of the Botanical Garden in nature in the exoskeleton of arthropods like lobster, crab, and shrimp,
Nancy, France, identified chitin in the cell walls of fungus [20]. While as well as fungal cell walls and frequently applied for tissue engineering
researching various mushroom strains, Bracconnot treated a strain of [27,32,33]. 𝛽-chitin is mostly found in marine diatoms, squid pen and
mushroom, Agaricus volvaccus, with warm alkali and isolated a version has been also applied for biomaterial applications such as wound heal-
of chitin still contaminated with protein [21]. Following the discovery, ing [34,35]. 𝛾-chitin is gathered from cocoon of Orgyia dubia [36]. While
and causing great controversy, an 1823 article authored by Odier, a 𝛽-chitin can be converted to 𝛼-chitin, the polymer is most stable in its 𝛼
French naturalist, pointed out “it is most remarkable to find in the in- form. The properties of shells like hardness, flexibility, and permeabil-
sect structure the same substance that forms the structure of the plants”. ity are determined by the ratio of 𝛼- and 𝛽-chitin. 𝛼-chitin has very low
Odier called the substance “chitine”, derived from the Greek term mean- hydrophilicity and water permeability whereas 𝛽-chitin swells readily
ing “tunic” or “envelope”. Although Odier failed to detect nitrogen in and is more permeable [37]. Chitin is known to be sparingly soluble in
chitin, he established, for the first time, a relationship between insect common organic solvents mainly due to its highly extended hydrogen
cuticles and plant tissues. By 1843, Payen had sparked discussion on bonded semi-crystalline structure and has been a stumbling block in its
the differences between chitin and cellulose, that would permeate the appropriate utilization [11,21,38].
whole development of the information about chitin. In the same year, Chitosan, a polycationic polysaccharide, is the deacetylated derivate
Lassaigne isolated the chitinous exoskeleton on Bombyx mori silkworms. of chitin [39] with a typical degree of deacetylation of less than 0.35.
Lassaigne used warm potassium hydroxide and potassium hypochlorite, Fig. 4 shows that chitosan is composed of randomly distributed 𝛽-(1→4)-
to demonstrate the presence of chitin in insects. After burning the chitin linked D-glucosamine (deacetylated unit) and prevailing N-acetyl-D-
with potassium, he proved the presence of nitrogen in chitin due to the glucosamine (acetylated unit) [40]. This N–deacetylated derivative of
potassium cyanide it formed. As research continued, Ledderhose showed chitin is much less common in nature and is manufactured commercially
clear evidence of glucosamine and acetic acid in chitin composition and by hydrolyzing amino acetyl groups of chitin.
wrote the hydrolysis equation in 1878. To follow that up, Gilson con- The degree of deacetylation is usually described by the molar frac-
firmed the presence of glucosamine in 1894 [21]. tion of deacetylated units or percentage of deacetylation [41] and can be
While the development and characterization of chitin progressed, determined by different techniques, such as infrared spectroscopy and
various researchers began to experiment with the substance they were potentiometric titration. While conversion of chitin to chitosan can be
able to extract from insects and plants. In 1859, Rouget discovered chi- achieved by both chemical hydrolysis [42] or enzymatic deacetylation
tosan by taking chitin boiled in concentrated potassium hydroxide so- [43], the chemical method is more commonly used for commercial mass
lution and found that it became soluble in organic acids. The “modified production.
chitin” was studied again by Hoppe-Seyler in 1894 and he coined the The molecular weight of chitin depends on its origin source and is
name “chitosan” [21]. determined by HPLC or viscometry [44]. The molecular weight of chitin
The progression of knowledge on chitin and chitosan has developed ranges from 0.4 to 2.5 × 106 Da [42,45]. The molecular weight of chi-
very unevenly due to misleading data that has been published in the tosan ranges from 1 × 105 to 5 × 105 Da and depends on the degree of
past and the extraction of chitin from varying sources, followed by vari- polymerization [46].
ous degrees of purification from said sources (plants vs. insects). Also, in Despite substantial similarities in their molecular structures, the
the discovery and establishment of chitin, very few chemists and physi- physicochemical properties of chitin and chitosan as well as the reac-
cists were intimately involved in studying and characterizing chitin un- tions they experience, are frequently startlingly dissimilar. The most im-
til more recently. Albert Hofmann determined the structure of chitin in portant distinction between chitin and chitosan in terms of applications
1929 by hydrolyzing chitin using a crude formulation of the enzyme is likely to be their degree of deacetylation and solubility. Both poly-
chitinase, which is widely accepted today [22]. It was also discovered mers include reactive hydroxyl and amino groups (in varying molecular
that the treatment of chitin needed adaptation depending on the chitin ratios), but due to reduced crystallinity of chitosan, it is more accessi-
source, owing to differences in the ultrastructure of the initial material ble to reagents [47]. High molecular weight, poor solubility and high
[23]. These are some of the varying explanations as to why the infor- viscosity of chitin or chitosan solutions limit the applications of these
mation on chitin was so scattered and poorly integrated [21]. polymers.

1.3. Chitin resources in seafood and their relative abundances

1.2. Chitin and chitosan: chemical structure and properties

As discussed, chitin is one of the most abundant polysaccharides in

Chitin is a linear cationic heteropolymer consisting of 𝛽-(1–4) linked
the world and has many sources. However, not all sources are equal in
2-acetamide-2-deoxy-D-glucopyranose (N–acetyl–D–glucosamine,
their quantity or quality of chitin available (Fig. 2) [48,49]. Presently,
GlcNAc) and randomly distributed units of 2-amino-2-deoxy-D-
the main commercial sources of chitin are crustaceans [4,23,24]. Chitin
glucopyranose (D–glucosamine, GlcN) (Fig. 1). This biopolymer is
content in seafood waste, specially, ranges from 20 to 30%, but the shells
synthesized by an enormous number of living organisms and is one of
of certain crustacean species have much higher contents of chitin [50].
the most abundant natural polymers, after cellulose [23]. Native chitin,
For example, shells form Crangon crangon contain 46% of chitin, while

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J. Chakravarty and T.A. Edwards Energy Nexus 8 (2022) 100149

Fig. 1. Structure of (a) chitin and its allomorphs – (b) 𝛼-chitin, (c) 𝛽-chitin, and (d) 𝛾-chitin (Adapted from Pillai et al. [40]).

Fig. 2. Chitin percentage present in different organisms – (a) crustacean shells, (b) insects, (c) fungi, and (d) mollusks (Note: a based on weight of the organic cuticle;
b based on the DW of the body; c based on fresh weight of the body; d based on total weight of the cuticle; e based on DW of the cell wall) (Adapted from Kaur and
Dhillon [49]).

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J. Chakravarty and T.A. Edwards Energy Nexus 8 (2022) 100149

Nephro and Homarus lobster shells contain 60–75% of chitin and the 2.2. Biological extraction
Cancer and Carcinus crab shells contain 72% and 64% respectively [50].
Certain crustacean orders like Decapoda, Amphipoda, Copepoda, Anos- The biological methods of chitin extraction that employ various
traca, and Cladocera have 2–12% of chitin content in their total body microorganisms are simple, more productive, and environmentally
mass [51]. Antarctic krill reportedly contains 34 to 49% of crude chitin friendly when compared to chemical extraction methods and the chitin
[52]. Pens from various species of squid contain 25–49% of chitin by structure is preserved compared with the chemical method [55,57,62].
weight [53,54]. Fermentation processes using proteolytic microorganisms have been
studied for decades for extraction of chitin from various sources such
as shrimp shells [61,63], lobster shells [4], prawn waste [64,65],
2. Chitin extraction crab shells [66,67]. Various fermentation procedures were evaluated,
which included a single-step and two-step fermentation, mono- and co-
Chitin found in nature occurs in a complex matrix of proteins, pig- fermentation, and other different processes. The utilization of co-culture
ments, and calcium carbonate [55], and extraction requires demineral- appears to be beneficial over a monoculture due to the potential for syn-
ization, deproteination and pigment removal steps [50]. Thus, extrac- ergistic utilization of the metabolic pathways of all involved strains in
tion of chitin requires the removal of two other major constituents of a co-culture condition [4,49,68] (Fig. 3).
the shells – proteins, and inorganic calcium carbonate (CaCO3 ). Con-
ventional methods of chitin extraction involve a process of two basic 3. Chitosan from chitin
steps: (1) protein is removed by means of deproteinization and (2) min-
erals are removed by means of demineralization [4,23]. A newer step Chitin can be converted to chitosan by both chemical and biological
added in industry is the decolorization of chitin to remove pigments for or enzymatic processes [42,69]. During deacetylation, acetyl groups are
a colorless pure chitin [23]. A variety of methods have been adopted to detached and there is change in molecular weight due to depolymer-
produce chitin; the process steps depend on the chitin extraction source. ization reaction [41]. In the chemical conversion of chitin to chitosan,
Among those the major methods are chemical and biological processes either alkalis or acids can be used. However, alkalis are preferred as gly-
[38,56]. cosidic bonds are quite vulnerable to acids [70]. Chemical deacetylation
is typically done by thermal treatment, where the chitin is treated with
hot concentrated, like NaOH or potassium hydroxide (KOH) [53,71].
2.1. Chemical extraction The enzymatic deacetylation of chitin is achieved in the presence
of an enzyme chitin deacetylase, as shown in Fig. 4. This enzyme hy-
Various chemical protocols have been developed and established for drolyzes the acetamido group present in the NAG, thereby generating
extraction of chitin over the past few decades. The complex organization glucosamine units and acetic acid [72]. The enzyme has been isolated
of chitin with other constituents requires harsh treatments to eliminate from bacteria, fungi, and even insects. However, it has been found that
them from chitinous materials to prepare pure chitin on a commercial chitin deacetylase is not effective on natural chitin, which needs pre-
scale [49]. Chemical demineralization entails the use of acids to remove treatment to enhance the accessibility of acetyl groups of natural crys-
mineral constituents of inorganic matters mainly of calcium carbonate talline chitin to chitin deacetylase [72,73].
and calcium phosphate. HCl, HNO3 , H2 SO4 , CH3 COOH, and HCOOH
are the preferred reagents for removing mineral constituents from crus- 3.1. Furan derivatives (without nitrogen) from chitin
tacean shell waste [23,56].
Demineralization is achieved in 2, 3 h and may vary with the type 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) is a high-value added compound
of shell source and size, extraction temperature, concentration of acid, [74], which is widely used in the preparation of key pharmaceutical
and solute/solvent ratio. Usually, demineralization is performed under intermediates, solvents, liquid fuels [75,76]. HMF has been ranked as a
high temperature and prolonged process time, which adversely affect top valued bio-based chemical by the US Department of Energy (DOE)
the properties of the chitin polymer [49,51,55,57]. [77]. Chitin has shown to be used as a renewable biomass for the produc-
Chemical deproteinization carried out by using an alkali treatment tion of 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural. Use of common Bronsted acids (like
– protein is removed by treating demineralized shells with NaOH, acetic acid, HCl, H2 SO4 ) for catalyzing degradation of chitin biomass
Na2 CO3 , Na3 PO4 , Na2 S, KOH and K2 CO3 [4,57,58]. The deproteiniza- resulted in only trace amounts of HMF [78]. When Lewis acid (which
tion step can be challenging mainly due to disruption of covalent bonds have higher catalytic efficiency than Bronsted acids) were used for cat-
between chitin and proteins [59]. alyzing chitin and chitosan, slightly higher yields of HMF were obtained
The most important parameter in chitin synthesis is the quality of [79]. The use of metal salts showed a good catalytic effect for conver-
the final product, which is measured by the molecular weight, polydis- sion of chitin biomass into HMF with higher yields [79,80]. However,
persity, and the degree of acetylation. Harsh acid treatments during the Bronsted or Lewis acids have the disadvantage of being corrosive at
demineralization stage can result in hydrolysis of the extracted chitin, high concentrations, and complex post-treatment processes [81]. Omari
inconsistent physical properties, leading to detrimental effects on the et al. devised an ingenious technique for catalytic conversion of chitosan
molecular mass and the degree of acetylation that negatively affects the into 5-HMF in water, avoiding the necessity of concentrated strong acid
intrinsic properties of the purified chitin [4], and contributes to envi- and obtaining 5-HMF directly [78]. Many researchers have also investi-
ronmental pollution. High NaOH concentrations and high temperatures gated the use of “green solvents” as catalysts in the biomass conversion
used during deproteinization steps can cause unwanted deacetylation of chitin. In this regard, the use of ionic liquid (IL) catalytic systems has
and depolymerization of chitin, limiting its use in various applications. been widely explored to degrade chitin to produce HMF in recent years
The chitin extraction by chemical processes is extremely hazardous, [82–84]. The use of ILs also shows an efficient, high yielding, sustain-
energy intensive and causes environmental pollution [49,55,60]. The able and environmentally friendly method of converting chitin to high
chemical treatments also create a disposal problem since naturaliza- value-added product like HMF.
tion and decontamination of the discharged wastewater may be nec-
essary due to strict government legislations [49]. Furthermore, during 3.2. Furan derivatives (with nitrogen) from chitin
the chemical extraction of chitin, the valuable protein components are
damaged and can no longer be used as animal feed [49,61]. Due to ma- The prospect of developing renewable nitrogen-containing com-
jor impact on chitin quality and the environment at large, biological pounds with unique characteristics is another interesting element of em-
techniques for chitin extraction have become of a particular interest. ploying chitin as a starting material. 3-acetamido-5-acetylfuran (3A5AF)

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J. Chakravarty and T.A. Edwards Energy Nexus 8 (2022) 100149

Fig. 3. Schematic description of the chitin

recovery process by chemical and biological
methods (Adapted from Chakravarty et al.
[6]).

Fig. 4. Conversion of chitin to chitosan by deacetylation.

is a valuable nitrogen-containing platform compound and can be uti- methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP) as a solvent [90]. Chen et al. also reported
lized for nitrogen-containing fine chemical synthesis [85] and is an im- the formation of 3A5AF from chitin, using ionic liquid [C4mim]Cl [91].
portant building block of several biologically active macromolecular Recently, an efficient way to convert NAG to 3A5AF was investigated,
compounds [86,87]. Drover et al. were the first to achieve high-yield the reaction was catalyzed by amino acid glycine chloride ionic liquid
conversion of chitin monomer N-acetyl-d-glucosamine (GlcNAc or NAG) without any additives [85]. Another recent study synthesized a series
into N-containing compound 3-acetamido-5-acetylfuran (3A5AF) [88]. of pyridinium-based ionic liquids and applied them to the conversion of
Omari et al. also reported an efficient process for converting NAG into NAG to 3A5AF [92]. Due to the special molecular structure of 3A5AF,
dimethylacetamide (DMAc) by using boric acid and NaCl as co-additives it is in fact challenging to synthesize by conventional methods [92].
into 3A5AF [89]. A direct conversion of chitin into 3A5AF was also Therefore, direct synthesis of 3A5AF from chitin and its derivatives may
achieved by using boric acid and alkaline chlorides as additives, and N- greatly simplify the synthesis of a number of bioactive compounds, in-

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J. Chakravarty and T.A. Edwards Energy Nexus 8 (2022) 100149

Fig. 5. Biorefinery in seafood industry highlighting the recent trends in innovative utilization strategies of seafood waste.

cluding the antibiotic proximicin A, the alkaloids hyrtioseragamine A [103,104]. Biofuels have been introduced as clean energy source,
and B, and pyrrolosine, all of which contain 3A5AF as a building block thereby, reducing atmospheric carbon emissions [103,105]. Bioethanol
[93,94]. produced mainly from the conversion of cellulose biomass is considered
a less hazardous and biodegradable alternative [103,106]. Bioethanol
3.3. Conversion of chitin into functional carbon materials production is currently reliant on yeast fermentation of plant material
with high sugar content, namely Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains. How-
Carbon-based materials have a wide variety of applications in energy ever, increased acreage for biofuel crops, for example, would impact
storage [95] and bioimaging [96]. Duan et al. [97] prepared nanofi- food costs [105,107]. Therefore, the search for novel biopolymers as
brous microspheres by using chitin solution dissolved in NaOH/urea new alternative to plant-derived substrates is global priority. In this re-
aqueous solvent at low temperature and fabricated a novel nitrogen- gard, chitin can be found to be readily available for bioconversion and
doped carbon microspheres by pyrolyzing the chitin microspheres. In- production of bioethanol.
terestingly, the carbon microspheres were consisted of robust cross- Native Mucor strains have been shown to produce ethanol from col-
linked nanofibers and displayed a unique framework structure from loidal chitin and chitin powder. These strains were also able to use
chitin. A 3D-honeycomb-like N-doped carbon-graphene nanonetwork NAG residues as carbon sources for growth and ethanol production. Mu-
films were successfully by Wang et al. [98] by dissolution of chitin cor circinelloides was also reported to produce bioethanol directly from
and graphene oxide in a NaOH/urea solvent system. In another study, chitin substrate [108]. Another study demonstrated that Scheffersomyces
seafood-waste derived chitin was used to produce hierarchically porous (Pichia) stipitis strains can use GlcNAc as the sole carbon source and pro-
nitrogen-doped carbon microsphere (NCS) electrode with a surface- duce ethanol [109]. Chitosan has been used as substrate for bioethanol
driven potassium storage mechanism [99]. Biomass-derived N-doped production by the fungi Pochonia chlamydosporia, which can produce re-
carbon/graphite composites were also designed and fabricated at a low- ducing sugars from chitosan as sole nutrient and ferment them to ethanol
cost route by dissolution of biomass chitin in NaoH/urea. This C-chitin- [110]. Interestingly, an insect-isolated fungal strain Mucor circinelloides
graphite composites were shown to have excellent catalytic performance was found to bio-convert the chitin extracted from the exoskeleton of
as bifunctional catalyst for oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) and oxy- the American cockroach, Periplaneta americana, directly in one-step sub-
gen evolution reaction (OER) [100]. Nitrogen-doped amorphous carbon merged fermentation system to produce bioethanol [111].
nanofibers fabricated via facile direct pyrolysis of chitin waste were re-
ported to be used as the anode material in sodium-ion batteries for the 3.5. Astaxanthin
first time [101]. Another study reported the fabrication of nitrogen rich
activated nanosized carbon with hierarchical micro/mesoporous and Astaxanthin (3,3′-dihydroxy-𝛽, 𝛽′-carotene-4,4′-dione) is a
ultrahigh specific surface area by a one-step carbonization-activation carotenoid pigment which is orange-red in color. It is known to
method. In this, chitin nanoparticles were prepared in NaOH/Urea sol- strongly scavenge oxygen-free radicals which makes it an antioxidant
vent, subsequent carbonization was achieved using NaOH for activation and has many applications in the food and drug industry [112]. The
and urea for nitrogen doping. This resulted in activated carbon with pigment is present in shellfish, shrimp, crab, lobster, krill, and salmon,
extraordinary specific surface area high nitrogen content [102]. These bound to free protein or chitin, and range from 40 to 200 𝜇g per gram
studies have opened new avenues for large-scale fabrication of highly of dry weight. It imparts the orange-red color of cooked crustaceans
effective, low-cost N-doped carbon-based energy storage materials, thus due to its partial or complete separation from the protein moiety [113].
broadening the applications of chitin. Astaxanthin can be extracted from crustacean shells using micro-
bial fermentation which gives better yields than the conventional sol-
3.4. Preparation of other complex compounds from chitin vent extraction process. The bacterial fermentation process removes the
proteins and minerals present in the shells, which increases the pig-
Depletion of sources for fossil fuels and the environmental issues ment extraction efficiency without any change in quality. Extraction of
caused by carbon emissions from burning these fuels urges the search carotenoids from shrimp shells using the lactic acid bacterium Pedio-
for clean, renewable, innovative low-cost alternative energy resources coccus acidolactici under optimal conditions resulted in 78% recovery of

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J. Chakravarty and T.A. Edwards Energy Nexus 8 (2022) 100149

the pigment [114]. Trypsin treatment of the pink shrimp Parapenaeus (LCA) that involves the whole process must be considered [168]. LCA
longirostris waste resulted in recovery of 87 𝜇g astaxanthin per g of the was adopted for fisheries and seafood products in the 2000s and ac-
sample [115]. The pigment has many important applications in the cos- counts for the environmental impacts associated with the emissions, and
metic, nutraceuticals, and food industry [116,117]. resources consumed in production [168,169]. LCA methods has been
applied to a wide range of seafood studies and have focused on the en-
3.6. Chitin and chitosan as functional polymers vironmental impacts associated with production or services [168–172].
A circular bioeconomy strategy must be managed holistically, that is,
Chitin and chitosan are most used as functional polymers in a from natural resource consumption through processing and waste man-
wide variety of applications [45,118]. Chitin and chitosan have attrac- agement; in other words, it must be managed from a life cycle viewpoint.
tive properties like high biocompatibility, biodegradability, antibacte- This has fueled research and efforts to build a circular biorefinery, which
rial, and anticancer activity [6,57,119]. They have been transformed aims to create materials and chemicals from renewable sources and to
into fibers [120,121], films [122–124], hydrogels [125–127], or mi- achieve sustainable consumption and production. In the implementation
crospheres [128–130]. Chitin and chitosan polymers have mostly been of circular bioeconomy, biomass wastes play a major role based on the
used in biomedical and medicinal applications, for example, in gene reuse and recycling of materials to reduce waste production in achieving
and medication delivery [131–133], wound treatment [134–137], bone both resources and environmental sustainability. However, the success
regeneration [138–141], and tissue engineering [32,142,143]. Chitin of seafood waste usage depends on conversion yield and cost of sepa-
carbon nanotube composite scaffolds was utilized as a scaffold for neu- ration. Therefore, efficient, sustainable, and innovative intervention in
ral growth as well as support of synaptic function of neurons. The ad- the biorefinery platforms could scale up the conversion of seafood waste
dition of carbon nanotubes to a chitin biopolymer improved the elec- to high value-added products. The European Commission defines bioe-
trical conductivity of the scaffold, which can be used for in vitro tis- conomy as “the production of renewable biological resources and the
sue engineering of neurons and, potentially, as an implantable elec- conversion of these resources and waste streams into value-added prod-
trode for stimulation and repair of neurons [144]. Chitin nanofibrils ucts, including food, feed, bio-based products and bioenergy” [173]. In
have been used as reinforcing materials in biodegradable composite this context, the growing recent attention to chitin plays an important
scaffolds for tissue engineering [145]. ChitoFlex® PRO is an antibac- role in the economic growth and sustainable development.
terial hemostatic dressing material manufactured by Tricol biomedical Chitin, the second most prevalent polymer after cellulose, can be eas-
Inc [146]. Talymed® manufactured by Marine Polymer Technologies ily produced from crustacean shell waste, such as crabs, shrimps, and
Inc is an advanced bio-active matrix based wound dressing material de- lobster, and has a large potential to satisfy consumer requirements in a
signed for healing ulcer wounds in diabetes, surgical wounds, second- variety of commercial sectors. Because of its versatility in applications
degree burns [147]. Furthermore, they have been used as pesticides ranging from biomedicines to textiles, food, pharmaceuticals, and cos-
[148,149], food preservatives [150,151] and antioxidants [152–154], in metics, chitin has proven to be a profitable method to convert waste
the agricultural, culinary, and cosmetics sectors. Chitosan based trans- from the marine food processing sector into useful goods (Fig. 5). Re-
parent tissue dressing material are suitable for face masks and other covery of editable other components such as fish protein hydrolysates
cosmetic applications [155]. Chitin films are also used in the food pack- to obtain protein rich fish meal also enables self-sustainability in the
aging industry and in medical devices [156–158]. Novel chitin/ hydrox- seafood industry [174,175]. Interdisciplinary approaches and innova-
yapatite composite plastics (CHP) were successfully fabricated by us- tive strategies need to be exploited to ensure maximization of resource
ing an environmentally friendly aqueous NaOH/urea solvent, and then recovery and contribution of biorefinery practices to achieve sustainable
radially oriented under the negative pressure, which showed excellent goals.
biodegradability and potential application in the bone tissue engineer- To accomplish improved environmental management, sound re-
ing field [159]. Chitosan-based thin films can be coated either directly search and policy must work in nexus. In the last few decades, research
on the surface of the food material (mostly produce and meat prod- and innovations has increased exponentially to address the gaps which
ucts) or indirectly on the surface of the packaging material [160,161]. has resulted in significant increase in the utilization of seafood waste
Besides blending chitosan with other biopolymers, several researchers and sustainability. In 2020, the global chitin and chitosan production
report its blending with synthetic polymers like polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) was estimated at 106.9 thousand metric tons, which is expected to grow
[162,163], poly (lactic acid) (PLA) and salicylic acid [164], polyethy- up to 281 thousand metric tons by 2027 [176,177]. With a wide range
lene terephthalate/polypropylene (PET/PP) [165]. Several studies have of potential biomedical applications as well as other commercial sec-
also investigated the use of chitin and chitosan in wastewater treat- tors, chitin/chitosan-based materials are projected to provide signifi-
ment for absorption of heave metals like lead, cadmium, arsenic, cant breakthroughs and new opportunities for economic growth, devel-
etc. [166,167]. opment, and health. Despite the fact that chitin has the potential to
provide great commercial features, its industrial use in numerous indus-
4. Environmental and socio-economic impact tries is currently limited due to challenges with optimizing mechanical
and biological properties according to intended application. As a result,
In recent years, the global consumption of seafood has been in- considerable study is necessary for the design and optimization of chitin
creasing substantially. The industrial processing of shellfish, such as processing processes into various forms and possibly reinforced materi-
shrimp, crab and krill for human food generates huge amounts of wastes als for regulating characteristics within an acceptable range. Processes
which comprises about 50–60% of the total weight [4,28]. Due to a low that are environment friendly and cost-effective need more attention to
biodegradation rate, accumulation of large quantities of this seafood be scaled-up for generation of revenues for industrial benefit. Moreover,
waste has become a major problem in the seafood processing industry the challenge of social awareness for green chemistry system should also
[4,49]. A huge amount of this waste is discarded into the ocean, used as be addressed by scientists and policy makers to successfully implement
landfills or incinerated, thus increasing energy consumption, financial seafood waste biorefineries on a large scale.
cost and environmental problems [4–6]. Better seafood waste manage-
ment is needed to overcome the environmental issues and usage of the 5. Conclusion and future perspective
leftover biomass for production of high commercial value products. A
“nexus thinking” approach which enables transition from a linear model The creation of a sustainable waste management system is critical
(which does not emphasize on the conservation of raw materials and has to reduce trash output as much as possible and using waste created as
no eco-efficiency) towards a circular model can be implemented to the a resource for reuse, recycling, and recovery. In this approach, the us-
seafood sector. To assess the sustainability, a detailed life cycle analysis age of seafood waste byproducts might help to the creation of high-value

7
J. Chakravarty and T.A. Edwards Energy Nexus 8 (2022) 100149

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