ABSTRACT

I
nal gebr
a, thetheoryofequati
onsi sthestudyofalgebrai
cequati
ons
(al
socalled“ polynomialequati
ons”),whichareequati
onsdefinedbya
polynomial.Themai nproblem ofthetheoryofequati
onswast oknow
whenanal gebrai
cequationhasanal gebrai
csoluti
on.
Thi
spr oblem wascompl etelysolv
edin1830byÉv ari
steGaloi
s,by
i
ntroduci
ngwhati snowcal l
edGal oi
st heor
y.

Befor
eGalois,therewasnocl eardistinctionbetweenthe“theor yof
equati
ons”and“ algebra”
.Sincethenal gebrahasbeendr amat icall
y
enl
argedtoincludemanynewsubar eas, andthetheor
yofal gebr ai
c
equati
onsreceivesmuchl essattention.Thus, t
heterm“theor yof
equati
ons”i
smai nlyusedinthecont extoft hehi
stor
yofmat hemat ics,
toavoi
dconf usionbetweenol dandnewmeani ngsof“algebra” .
 Tabl
eofcont
ent
s

Chapt
er1:I
ntr
oduct
ion

er2:Pol
Chapt ynomi
ali
nonev
ari
abl
e

1 :I
2. ntegr
alRat
ional
funct
ionsorPol
ynomi
al

Chapt
er3:Cubi
candBi
quadr
ati
cEquat
ions

3.
1 : Whati
sthe”
Sol
uti
on”ofanEquat
ion?

3.
2 : Car
dan’
sFor
mul
as

3.
3 : Gener
alcubi
cfor
mul
a

3.
4 :I
rr
educi
blecase

3.
5 : Bi
quadr
ati
cequat
ion

3.
6 : Sol
uti
onofBi
quadr
ati
cEquat
ions

Chapt
er4:Sol
uti
onofCubi
cEquat
ionbyCar
don'
sMet
hod

Chapt
er5:Eul
er'
sMet
hod

5.
1 : I
nfor
mal
geomet
ri
cal
descr
ipt
ion

5.
2. : Exampl
e

5.
3. : Der
ivat
ion

Chapt
er6:Concl
usi
on

Chapt
er7:Ref
erences
CHAPTER1:I
NTRODUCTI
ON
Inalgebra,thetheoryofequati
onsi sthestudyofalgebrai
cequati
ons
(al
socalled" poly
nomialequati
ons" )
,whichareequationsdef
inedbya
polynomial.Themai nproblem ofthetheoryofequationswastoknow
whenanal gebrai
cequationhasanal gebraicsol
uti
on.Thisprobl
em was
compl et
elysolvedin1830byÉv ar
isteGalois,
byint
roducingwhatisnow
cal
ledGal oistheory
.

Befor
eGalois,therewasnocl eardistinctionbetweenthe"theoryof
equati
ons"and" algebra"
.Sincethenal gebrahasbeendr amat i
cal
ly
enl
argedtoincludemanynewsubar eas, andthetheoryofalgebrai
c
equati
onsreceivesmuchl essattention.Thus, t
heterm"theor yof
equati
ons"i
smai nlyusedinthecont ex toft hehi
stor
yofmat hemati
cs,
toavoi
dconf usionbetweenol dandnewmeani ngsof"algebra".

HI
STORY
Until
t heendoft he19t hcentur
y,"t
heoryofequati
ons"wasal most
synony mouswi t
h" algebra"
.Foralongtime,themainproblem wast o
fi
ndt hesolut
ionsofasi ngl
enon-li
nearpoly
nomialequati
oni nasingle
unknown.Thef actt hatacompl exsolut
ionalway
sex i
stsisthe
fundament alt
heorem ofal gebr
a,whichwaspr ov
edonlyatt hebeginning
ofthe19t hcenturyanddoesnothav eapurelyal
gebrai
cpr oof.

Nev er
thel
ess,themai nconcer noft healgebraistswast osol vei
nterms
ofradical
s,t
hati stoex presst hesol uti
onsbyaf ormulawhi chisbui
lt
withthefouroper ationsofar i
thmet icsandwi thnthr oots.Thi swas
doneupt odegr eef ourdur ingt he16t hcentury.Scipionedel Fer
roand
NiccolòFontanaTar tagli
adi scoveredsol uti
onsf orcubi cequat i
ons.
GerolamoCar danopubl ishedt hem inhi s1545bookAr sMagna,
togetherwit
hasol utionf orthequar ticequations,discov eredbyhis
studentLodovicoFer rar
i.In1572Raf aelBombellipublishedhi s
L'Al
gebrainwhi chheshowedhowt odeal withthei magi naryquanti
ti
es
t
hatcoul
dappeari
nCar
dano'
sfor
mul
aforsol
vi
ngcubi
cequat
ions.

Thecaseofhi gherdegr eesremai nedopenunt i

lthe19thcent
ury,when
Niel
sHenr ikAbelprovedt hatsomef if
thdegr
eeequationscannotbe
solvedinradi
cals(t
heAbel –Ruf f
initheor
em)andÉv ari
steGal
ois
i
ntroducedat heor
y( presentlycalledGaloi
stheory)t
odecidewhich
equationsaresolv
abl ebyr adical
s.

CHAPTER2:POLYNOMI
ALSI
NONEVARI
ABLE
2.
1Int
egr
alRat
ional
Funct
ionsorPol
ynomi
als

Def
ini
ti
on:

Af
unct
iondef
inedby

=a0xn+a1x
n-1
F(x) +………+an,wherea0≠0,
nisnonnegativ
ei nt
egeranda1
(I
=0,1…….,
n)aref i
xedcompl exnumbersiscal
ledapolynomialofdegree
ninx.Thennumber sa0,
a1,……,anar
ecall
edthecoef
fi
cientoff.

Ifαisacompl
exnumbersucht
hatfαequal
stozer
o,t
henαi
scal
l
ed
zer
oofthepol
ynomi
al.

Theor
em (Fundament
alTheor
em ofAl
gebr
a)

Ev
erypol
ynomi
alf
unct
ionofdegr
een≥1hasat
leastonezer
o.

Remar
k:
n n-
1
Fundament
alt
heor
em ofal
gebr
asay
sthati
ff(
x)=a0x +a1x +………+an,

Wherea0≠0i
sthegi
venpol
ynomial
ofdegr
een≥1t
hent
hei
rexi
sta
compl
exnumberαetsucht
hata0α

WeusetheFundament
alTheor
em ofAl
gebr
a,t
opr
ovet
hef
oll
owi
ng
r
esul
ts.
Theor
em :Ev
erypol
ynomi
alofdegr
eenhasnandonl
ynzer
oes.

Pr
oof
:
n n-
1
Letf
(x)=a0x +a1x +………+an,wher
ea0=0,
beapol
ynomi
alofdegr
ee
n≥1

Byfundamental
theorem ofalgebr
a,f(x)hasatl
eastonezer
o,l
etα1be
thatz
ero.Then(x-
α1)
isaf act
oroff(x)
.

Ther
efor
ewecanwr
it
e:

F(
x)=(
x-α1)
Q1(
x),
wher
eQ1(
x)i
sapol
ynomi
alf
unct
ionofdegr
een-
1

I
fn-1≥769/*-
/1,
againbyFundament
alTheor
em ofAl
gebr
a, Q1(
x)
hasatl
eastonezer
o, sayα2.

Theref ore, f(
x)=(
x-α1)(
x-α2)
Q2(
x)wher
eQ2(
x)i
sapol
ynomi
alf
unct
ion
ofdegreen-2.

Repeat
ingt
heabov
ear
gument,
weget

F(x)=( x-
α1)(x -
α2) ………( x-αn)Qn(x),
wher
eQn(
x)i
sapol
ynomi
alf
unct
ion
ofdegreen-n=0,i,
e.,
Qn(x
)isaconst
ant

n
Equat
ingt
hecoef
fi
cientofx onbot
hsi
desoft
heabov
eequat
ion,
we
get

Qn(
x)=a0.

Ther
efor
e,f
(x)
=a0(
x-α2)
(x-α1)
…….
.(
x-αn)

Ifαisanynumberot
hert
hanα1,
α2,…………..αn,
thenf
(x)≠0⇒αi
snota
zer
ooff(x)
.

Hencef
(x)hasnandnzer
oes,
namel
yα1,
α2,
………,
αn.

Not
e:
n n-
1 t
h
Letf
(x)=a0x +a1x +…….
.+an;
a0≠0beann degr
eepol
ynomi
ali
nx.
n n-
1
Then, a0x +a1x +……….
+an=0-
--
--
--
--
--
--
-(1)
I
scal
l
edapol
ynomi
alequat
ioni
nxofdegr
een.

Anumberαi
scall
edar
ootoft
heequat
ion(
1)i
fαi
sazer
ooft
he
pol
ynomi
alf
(x)
.

Henceev
erypol
ynomi
alequat
ionofdegr
eenhasnandonl
ynr
oot
s.

Sol
ved pr
obl
ems
4 2
1.Sol
vex -4x +8x+35=0,
giv
en2+i
√3 i
sar
oot
.

Sol
uti
on:
4 2
Giventhat2+i√3isarootofx -4x +8x+35=0;
sincecompl
ex
rootsoccur
sinconj
ugat
epair
s2-i √3isalsoar
ootofit.
2 2
⇒[x-(2+i√3)
][
x-(2-i
√3)
]=(x-
2) +3=x -4x+7i
saf
act
oroft
he
gi
venpol
ynomi
al.

Divi
dingt
hegi
venpol
ynomi
albyt
hisf
act
or,
weobt
aint
heot
her
fact
oras

X2+4x+5.

2 -4±16-
20
Ther
oot
sofx +4x+5=0,
aregi
venbyx= =-
2±i
.
2

Hencet
hegi
venr
oot
soft
hegi
venpol
ynomi
alar
e2+i
√3,
2-i
√3,
-2+i
and

-
2-1
4 3 2
2.Sol
vex -5x +4x +8x–8=0,
giv
ent
hatoneoft
her
oot
sis1−√5.

Sol
uti
on:

Sincequadr
ati
csur
dsoccuri
nconj
ugat
epai
rsasr
oot
sofapol
ynomi
al
equati
on,

1+√5i
sal
soar
ootoft
hegi
venpol
ynomi
al.
2
x−(1−√5)
⇒[ ][x−(1+√5)
] x−1)
=( −5=x2−2x−4i
saf
act
or.
Divi
dingt
hegi
venpol
ynomi
albyt
hisf
act
or,
weobt
aint
heot
herf
act
oras
2
x –3x+2.

Al x2–3x+2=(
so, x–2)(
x–1)

Thust
her
oot
soft
hegi
venpol
ynomi
alequat
ionar
e1+√5,
1−√5,
1,2.

3.Fi
ndapolynomi
alequat
ionoft
hel
owestdegr
eewi
thr
ati
onal
coef
fi
cient
s

hav
ing√3and1–2i
ast
woofi
tsr
oot
s.

Sol
uti
on:

Si
ncequadr
ati
csur
dsoccuri
npai
rsasr
oot
s,−√3i
sal
soar
oot
.

Sincecompl
exr
oot
soccuri
nconj
ugat
epai
rs,
1+2i
isal
soar
ootoft
he
requi
red

pol
ynomi
alequat
ion.Ther
efor
ethedesi
redequat
ioni
sgi
venby

(x-√3)(
x+√3)[x-(
1-(
1+2i
)]=0

x4-2x
3 2
i
,e.
, +2x +6x-15=0

5 3 2
4.Sol
ve4x +x +x –3x+1=0,
giv
ent
hati
thasr
ati
onal
root
s.

Sol
uti
on:
5 3 2
Letf
(x)=4x +x +x –3x+1.7

Bytheor
em (
1.1.
5.)
,anyr
ati
onal
rootp/q(
ini
tsl
owestter
ms)must
sat
isfyt
hecondi
ti
onthat
,pisdi
vi
sorof1andqisposi
ti
vedi
vi
sorof4.

Sot
hepossi
bler
ati
onal
root
sar
e±1,
±½,
±¼.

Notet
hatf
(-
1)=0,
f(½)=0.Butf
(1)≠0,
f(-
½)≠0,
f(¼)≠0andf
(-
1/4)≠
0.

Sincef
(-
1)=0andf(
½)=0,
weseet
hat(
x+1)and(
x–½)ar
efact
orsof
the
gi
venpol
ynomi
al.Al
sobyf
act
ori
zi
ng,
wef
indt
hat
3 2
f
(x)=(
x–½)(
x+1)(
4x –2x +4x–2)
3 2
Not
ethatx=½i
sar
ootoft
het
hir
dfact
or,
ifwedi
vi
de4x –2x +4x–2
byx–½,
2
weobt
ainf
(x)=(
x–½)
2(x+1)(
4x +4)
2 2
=4(
x–½)(x+1)(
x +1)

Hencet
her
oot
soff
(x)=0,
are½,
½,-
1,±i
.
3 2
Sol
vex –x –8x+12=0,
giv
ent
hathasadoubl
eroot
.

Sol
uti
on:
3 2
Letf
(x)=x –x –8x+12

Di
ff
erent
iat
ing,
weobt
ain:
2
f
1(x)=3x –2x–8.

Si
ncethemult
ipl
eroot
soff
(x)=0ar
eal
sot
her
oot
soff
1(x)=0,
the
pr
oductoft
he

fact
orscor
respondi
ngt
otheser
oot
swi
l
lbet
heg.
c.doff
(x)andf
1(x)
.
Letusfi
ndthe
1
g.
c.doff
(x)andf(x
)
 2 3 2
3x 3x –2x– x –x –8x+
8 123
2
4 3x –6x x
3 2
4x–8 3x –3x –24x
4x–8 +36
0
3 2
3x –2x –8x
2
0 -x –16x+
- 1
363
2
-3x –48x+
108
2
-3x +2x+8
-
50 –50x+
100
x–2

t
her
efor
e,g.
c.d=(
x–2)
2
⇒f
(x)hasaf
act
or(
x–2)
2
Al
so,f
(x)=(
x–2)(x+3)

Thust
her
oot
sar
e 2,2,-3.

3 2
5.Showt
hatt
heequat
ion x +qx+r=0hast
woequal
root
sif 27r+
3
4q=0.

Sol
uti
on:
Let f
(x)=x^
2+qx+r -
--
--
--
--
--
--
-(1)
Di
ff
erent
iat
ing,
weobt
ain:
f1(
x)=3x^
2+q -
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
-(2)

Gi
vent
hatf
(x)=0 hast
woequal
root
s,i
.e.
,ithasadoubl
eroot
,sayα.

Thenαi
sar
ootofbot
hf(
x)=0andf
1(x)=0.

Fr he2ndequat
om t ion,
weobt
ainα2=-
q/3

Nowt
hef
ir
stequat
ioncanbewr
it
tenas:
α(α2+q)+r=0

i
.e.
,α(
-q/
3+q)+r=0 ⇒ α=−3r

2qSquar
ingandsi
mpl
i
fyi
ng,
weobt
ain:

27r
2+4q3=0

CHAPTER3:CUBI
CANDBI
QUADRATI
CEQUATI
ONS
3.
1Whati
sthe”
Sol
uti
on”ofanEquat
ion?

Natur
all
y,t
hediff
if
icult
yofsolvi
ngequati
onsincreaseswit
hthei
rdegree,
i
fnotforotherr
easons,becausethehi
gherthedegr eet
hemoreroots
onehastocomput e.Forequat
ionsoft
hef i
rstdegree

ax+b=0,

t
hesol
uti
oni
sgi
venbyt
hef
ormul
a

x=−b/
a

whichshowswhatarit
hmetical
operat
ionhastobeper f
ormedont he
arbi
trar
ycoef
fi
fi
ci
entsinordertopr
esenttherootei
therexact
lyor
approxi
matel
ywithanydesir
edapproxi
mat i
on.

Thesol
uti
onofequat
ionsoft
heseconddegr
ee,

ax2+bx+c=0

i
sgi
venbyt
hef
ormul
a

b±b2-
- 4ac
2a
whichshowscl earl
ythenatureoft
heoper ati
onstobeperfor
medont he
arbi
trar
ycoeffif
ici
entsi
nordertoobtainthevalueofroot
stoany.
desir
edapprox i
mation,i
fnotexact
ly.Theex t
ract
ionofasquareroot
amount sagaintothesolut
ionofaquadraticequati
onbutofthe
fol
lowingveryspecialt
ype:

x2=A

andsothesoluti
onofageneral
quadr
at i
cequat
ionbythef
oregoing
for
mulaisreal
lyareduct
ionoft
heori
ginalpr
obl
em toanot
hersimil
ar
butsi
mplerprobl
em.

Ther
earesyst
emati
cmethodsfor”ext
ract
ing”cuber
ootsofr
eal
number
s,t
hatis,
ofsol
vi
rgspeci
alcubicequati
onsofthef
orm

x3=A

Thisf
acti
nducesust
oconsi
derr
adi
cal
s∛A assomet
hingf
ami
l
iarand
known.

Defi
fi
nit
ion1. 1.Thesol
4. uti
onofanequat i
onthatexhi
bit
sitsroot
sbya
combinati
onofrat
ionaloperat
ionsandrootext
ract
ionsiscall
edan
al
gebrai
csoluti
onorsoluti
onbyr adi
cal
s.

-
1+ 5
4

Exampl
e1.
4.1.

Thus,
fori
nst
ance,
theequat
ion

x4+x3+x2+x+1=0

canbesol
vedal
gebr
aical
l
yandi
tsr
oot
spr
esent
edi
nradi
cal
for
m:

-
1+ 5 √10+2 5 -1-5 10-
25
+ , +i
4 4 4 4
3.
2Car
dan’
sFor
mul
as
GerolamoCar danoi scredi
tedoft
hefirstfor
mulaforsol
vi
ngcubi
c
equation.Hi
sf ormulaappli
estodepressedCubic’s,
butasshownin
depressedcubi c,
itall
owssolvi
ngall
cubi cequat
ion.

Car
dano’
sor
igi
nal
resul
tast
hat
,

fX3+pX+q=0
i

i
sacubicequati
onsuchthatpandqar
erealnumber hat4p3+
ssucht
27q2>0,t
hentheequat
ionhasther
eal
roots

Seeder ivationofroots, t
herei s
sev eralmet hodsf orget t
ingthis
result.Asshowni nnat ureof
r
oot ,thet woot herrootsar enon
-realcompl exconjugate
number s,inthiscase.I twas
lat
ershown( Cardanodi dnot
knowcompl exnumber s)that
thet woot herrootsareobt ained
bymul ti
pl yi
ngoneoft hecube
r
oot sbyt hepr i
mi t
ivecuber oots
ofunity

−1+2,
andt
heot
hercuber
ootby−1−2.

I
f4p3+27q2<0, t
herearethreerealroot
s,butGaloi
stheoryallows
provi
ngt hatt
heycannotbeex pressedbyalgebr
aicexpressioninvol
vi
ng
onlyrealnumbers.Ther
efore,theequati
oncannotbesol vedint hi
scase
withtheknowledgeofCardano’st i
me.Thiscasehasthus, beencall
ed
i
rreducibl
ecase.

I
ncasusi
rr
educi
ble,
Car
dano’
sfor
mul
acanst
il
lbeused,
butsomecar
e
i
sneededi ntheusecuber oot s.Af irstmet hodi stodef i
net hesy mbol √
and∛asr eprestati
ngt hepr inciplev aluesoft her ootfunction( t
hatisthe
rootthathast helargestr eal part).wi t
ht hisconv enti
onCar dano’s
formulaforthet hreeroot sremai nsv alid,buti snotpur el
yal gebraic,as
thedefini
tionofapr incipal par tisnotpur el
yal gebr ai
c,sinceitinvolves
i
nequal i
ti
esf orcompar ingr eal par t
.Al so,theuseofpr i
ncipalcuber oot
maygi veawr ongresultifthecoef f
icientisnon- realcompl exnumber .
Mor eover,i
fthecoef fi
cientsbel ongt oanot herf i
eld,theprincipalcube
rootisnotdef inedingener al.Thesecondwayf ormaki ngCar dano’s
formulaalway scor r
ect, i
stor emar kt hatthepr oductoft hetwocubes
rootsmustbe–p/ 3.i
tr esultst hatar ootoft heequat i
oni s

p q q3 p3
c= wit
hc=3 - -
2 +
3c 2 4 27

Inthisformula,
thesy mbol √and∛denoteanysquarerootandanycube
root.theotherr
oot sofoftheequati
onisobtai
nedeit
herbychangi
ngof
cuber ootorequivalent
ly,
bymulti
ply
ingthecuberootbyaprimi
ti
ve’
s
cuber ootofunit
y,thatis

ofuni
ty,
thati
s .
Thisformulafortherootsisalwayscorrectex ceptwhenp=q=0, under
theconditi
on,ifq=0,ofchoosingthesquarer ootforhavi
ngc≠0.
Howev er,
theformulaisuselessinthesecasesast herootscanbe
expressedwithoutanycuber oot.Si
milarl
y,thef or
mulaisalsouselessin
3 2
theothercaseswher enocuber ootisneeded, thatiswhen4p +27q =0
andwhent hecubi cpolynomiali
snotirreducible.

Thefor
mulaisal
socorr
ectwhenpandqbel
ongt
oanyf
iel
dof
char
act
eri
sti
cothert
han2or3.

3.
3GENERALCUBI
CFORMULA
Acubi
cfor
mul
afort
her
oot
soft
hegener
alcubi
cequat
ion(
wit
ha≠0)

ax3+bx2+cx+d=0
canbededucedf rom ev
eryvari
antofCar dano’sformulabyr eductionto
adepr essedcubi c.Thevar
iantthatispresentedhereisv al
idnotonl yfor
real
coef fi
cienta, b,
c,dbelongingtoanyf i
eldofcharacteri
sticdif
ferent
of2and3.Thef ormulabeingrathercomplicated,i
tiswor t
hsplit
tingitin
smallerformulas.

Let

∆0 =b2–3ac

∆1=2b3 –9abc+27a2d

and C=

Wherethesymbols√and∛ar einter
pre2b3t
edasanysquar erootand
anycuberootar
eei t
her“+”or“_
” ;
Thechoiceisalmostarbi
tr
ary,and
changi
ngitamountstochoosingadi ff
erentsquarer
oot.Howev er
,ifa
choi
ceyiel
dsc=0,thentheothersignmustbesel ect
edinst
ead.Then
oneoftheroot
sis

1 ∆0
x=- (b+c+ )
3a c

Theothertworootscanbeobtai
nedbychangi
ngthechoi
ceoft
hecube
rooti
nthedefi
nit
ionofc,or,
equival
entbymul
ti
plyi
ngcbyapri
mit
ive
cuberootofuni
ty,t
hatis

-
1+ 3
2

I
not
herwor
ds,
thet
hreer
oot
sar
e

1 ∆0
x1= - (
b+£kc+ k
3 £c

3.
4Ir
reduci
bleCase
Weretur
nnowt othedi
scussi
onofthegener
alsol
uti
onandconsi
der
whathappenswhen∆<0.Acur i
ousphenomenonoccur
shere,f
orin
t
hiscase

q2 p3 ∆
+ =i-
4 27 108

I
spur
elyi
magi
nar
yandbot
hnumber
s

q -
∆ q ∆
A=- +i ,
B=- -
i
2 108 2 108

areimagi nar
y,sothatther
ootsofequat
ion(1.12)i
nSec1.4.
2are
expressedthroughthecuberoot
sofimaginarynumbers,
andyetal
l
thr
eeoft hem arereal
.Toseethi
slet
3
√A=a+bi

beoneoft hecuberoot
sofA.Si
nceBisconj
ugat
etoA,thenumbera−
3
biwil
lbeoneofthecuberoot
sofB,andi
tmustbe √B i
nordert
o
sat
isf
ythecondit
ion
3 3
√A.√B=-
p/3

Thus
3
√A=a+bi,3√B=a-
bi

andf
rom Car
dan’
sfor
mul
asi
tfol
l
owst
hatt
her
oot
s

y
1=2a

y
2=(
a+bi
)w+(
a-bi
)w2=-
a-b√3

y
3=(
a+bi
)w2+(
a+bi
)w=-
a+b√3

ar
ereal
and,
mor
eov
er,
unequal
.Iti
scl
eart
haty
2 =y
3.I
fy1=y
2,

weshoul
dhav
e

b=−a√3
sot
hat
3
√A=a(
1-i
√3)

Butt
hen

A=a3(1−i
3
√3)=−8a3

wouldbereal
,whichisnott
rue.Si
mil
arl
y,i
tisshownt
haty
1=y
3.

Exampl
e.Tosolv
et heequat
ion

y
3−3y+1=0

I
nthi
scase

∆ 3
P=-
3,.Q=1,
∆=81,
√ =
108 2

1 1 3
A= +i3=w, i =w2
B= -
2 2 2 2

andt
her
eal
root
sar
epr
esent
edi
nthef
orm
3
y
1= √w+3√w4

y
2=w3√w+w23√w3

y
3=w2√w+w3√w2

Theseexpr
essi
onsar
enutsui
tabl
efordi
rectcal
cul
ati
onbecauseoft
he
cuberoot
sofimagi
nar
ynumbers.I
fwetrytofi
nd
3
√ω=a+bi

algebrai
cal
l
y,wear
eledt
othesol
uti
onoft
het
wosi
mul
taneous
equati
ons

a3-3ab2=-
1/ 3a2b–b3=√3/
2, 2

Sol
vi orb2i
ngf nthef
ir
standsubst
it
uti
ng

22a3+1
B=
6a

i
ntot
hesecond,
wef
ind
 2a3+1
b(
3a-2
)= 3
6a 2

whence

3 3a 2 27a2
b= ,
b=
16a3-
1 ( 1)
16a3-
2

Equat
ingt
het
woexpr
essi
onsf
orb2,
wehav
etheequat
ion

2a3+1 27a2
=
6a 16a3-
1

whi
chaf
terduesi
mpl
i
ficat
ionsbecomes
9 6 3
(
2a)+3(
2a)−24(
2a)+1=0

Set
tngx=8a3,wehav
i eforxacubi
cequat
ion
3
x +3x2−24x+1=0
3
whichbyt
hesubst
it
uti
onx=y−1i
str
ansf
ormedi
ntoy−27y−27=0or
,
set
ti
ng
3
y=−3z ,
int
oz −3z+1=0.Eutt hisisthesameequati
onthatwe
wantedt
osolve.Consequent
ly,
wedi dnotadvanceastepi
nt r
yingt
o
fi
ndaandbbyanal gebrai
cprocess.Thefactthatt
her
ealrootsofa
cubi
cequati
on

y
3+py+q=0

i
ncase

4p3+27q2<0

arepr esentedinaf or
mi nvolvi
ngthecuber ootsofimagi
nar
ynumber s
puzzl
edt heoldal gebr
aistsforalongti
me, andt hi
scasewascall
edby
them casusi r
reducibi
l
is,i
rreduci
blecase.Weknownowt hat
,for
i
nstance, whenpandqar er at
ionalnumbers,butamongthethreereal
root
sofanequat ion
3
y +py+q=0
nonei
srati
onal
,i
tisabeolut
elyimpossi
blet
oexpressanyoft
heser
oot
s
i
nafor
mi nvol
vi
ngonlyrealr
adical
sofanykind.

3.
5Bi
quadr
ati
cequat
ion
Asi nthecaseofcubicequat
ions,biquadrat
icequationshavebeen
studiedforalongti
me.TheancientAr abswereknownt ohavest
udied
them from ageometri
calpoi
ntofview.Intthissectionwewi l
ldi
scuss
twoal gebr
aicmethodsofsolvi
ngsuchequat ions.Letusfir
stseewhata
biquadrati
cequati
onis.

Def
ini
ti
on:
Anequat
ionoft
hef
orm

ax4+hx
3
+CX2+dx+c=0,wherea,b,c,d,eERandanot3.equal
sto
0,ist
hemostgeneral
for
m ofabi
quadraticequat
ion(
oraquar
tl
c
equat
ion,oraf
our
thdegr
eeequat
ion)overR.
4
Cal
lyout
hinkofex
ampl
esofquar
ti
cequat
ionsov
erK?Whataboutx +
2
5=√2x-x?
4 2
Thi
scer
tai
nlyi
saquar
ti
cequat
ion,
asi
tiseq"
iva1entt
ox +x -√2x+5
=0.
4
Whatabout√x=x +I ?Thisisn'
tevenapolynomialequat
ion.Soi tcan'
t
beaquarti
c.Letusnowconsi dervari
ousway sinwhichwecal l
sol v
ean
equati
onofdegree4.I nsomecases, asyouhav eseeninExampl e4,
suchanequationcallbesolvedbysolvingr
elatedquadrat
icequations.
Butmostbiquadrati
cequat i
onscan'tbesol
vedi nthi
smanner .Twoal -
gebri
cmethodsf orobtai
ningt her
ootsofsuchequat i
onswere
dev
elopedi
nthe16t
hand17t
hcent
uri
es.Bot
ht hodsd
hesemet epend
ont
hesol
vi
ngofacubi
cequat
ion.Letusseewhatt
heyar
e

3.
6Sol
uti
onofBi
quadr
ati
cEquat
ions
Abiquadr
ati
cequat
ioni
sa4-
degreeequati
onwit
houtt
het
ermsof
degree1and3.Tosol
veabi
quadrat
icequat
iony
ouhavet
odoachange
ofvari
abl
e:z=x2.Thenyouhav
etosol
vet
hequadr
ati
cequat
ionand
fi
nall
yundothechange.

Theal
gebrai
csolut
ionofbiquadr
ati
cequat
ionswasdi
scov
eredby
Fer
rar
i,
apupi
lofCardan.Wri
tetheequati
on

X4+ax3+bx
2
+cx+d=0

I
nthef
orm

X4+ax3=−bx
2
–cx–d

a2 2
Andadd x t obot
hsi
dest
hen
4

a
x2+ x
( )
^2=(
a^2/
4-b)
x^2-cx-
d
2

I
sanequati
onequival
enttotheorigi
nalequati
on.I
ftheright-
hand
memberof(1.
22)wereaper f
ectsquare,t
hesoluti
onoft hi
sequati
on
wouldbei
mmediate.Butingenerali
tisnotso.Thebasicideain
Fer
rari
’
smethodconsist
sinaddingtobothsidesof(1.22)

( )
2
a
2 y
yx+ x +
2 4

Soast ohav
eaperfectsquarei
ntheleft
-handsi
def
orani
ndet
ermi
nat
e
y.Equati
on(1.
22)i
sthentransf
ormedinto

a y a2 1 12
x2+ x+ )
( ^2=( -b+y
)x^
2+(
-c+ ay
)+(
-d+ y)
2 2 4 2 4

Nowwecanseekt
odet
ermi
neysot
hat

(a2
4 ) (
-b+yx2+ -
1
)
c+ ayx+(
2
-
12
d+ y
4
)

Becomest
hesquar
eofal
i
nearexpr
essi
onex+f
.

I
ngener
al,
if

Ax2+Bx+C=(
ex+f
)2,
Then

B2–4AC=0

Andconver
sel
y.I
nfact
,equat
ion(
1.25)i
sequi
val
entt
othet
hree
rel
ati
ons

A=e2,
2
B=2ef
, C=f

Sot
hat(
1.26)i
ssat
isf
ied.Conv
ersel
y,supposet
hat(
1.26)hol
ds.

Then,
ifbothA=0andC=0,wehaveal
soB=0, andtherel
ati
ons(
6)wi
l
l
hol
dfore=f=0.Ifbot
hAandCarenotzer
olet
,forexampl
e,A6=0.
Then,
wet ake

b
e-
√A,f
-
2e

Andbyv
irt
ueof(
1.26)weshal
lhav
e
2.
C=f

Thus,t
heright
-handsideof(1.
23)wi
ll
bet hesquar
eofal
i
near
expr
essionex+fi fysat
isf
iest
heequati
on

( )( )
2
1 a2 1
ay
-c- 4y
+ - b( 2-
d)
2 4 4y

Or
,inexpandedf
orm,

Y3–by
2
+( y+4bd–a2d–c2=0(
ac–4d) 1.30)

I
tsuf
fi
cestotakeforyanyrootofthi
scubicequat
ion,cal
l
edt
he
r
esol
ventoft
hebiquadrat
icequat
ion,i
nordertohave

( ) ( )
a2
4
-b+4x2+
1
2ay
1
cx+ 2-
-
4y
d=(
ex )
+f2

Wit
hproper
lychoseneandf
.Thebi
quadr
ati
cequat
ionappear
stheni
n
t
hefor
m

( a 1 2
x2+ x
2 2 )
+ y =(
ex )
+f2
Andspl
i
tsi
ntot
woquadr
ati
cequat
ions

a 1 a 1
x3+ x+ y=-
x2+ x+ y=ex+f , ex-
f
2 2 2 2

Whi ch,beingsol vedinturn,suppl

ythefourrequestedroots.The
soluti
oni ssi
mpl ifi
edincaset heresc’
vent(1.
28)hasar ootrati
onall
y
expressiblethrougha,b,
c,d.Insuchacaset hisrootmaybechosenf ory,
andt herootsoft hebiquadr at
icequati
onareexpressibl
ethrough
quadr at
icradicals.Buti
ngener altheexpr
essionfortherootswil
linvolv
e
quadr at
icandcubi cr
adicals.

Exampl
e1.
4.4.Letusappl
ythi
smet
hodt
otheequat
ion

X4+4x–1=0

I
nthi
scase

A=0,
b=0,
c=4,
d=−1

Andt
hecor
respondi
ngcubi
cresol
vent
3
y +4y–16=0

Basar
ati
onal
root2.Taki
ngy=2,
expr
essi
on(
1.24)becomes

4x+2=(2x-2)
2
2x2-

Andt
hesol
uti
onwi
l
lbeachi
evedbysol
vi
ngt
woquadr
ati
cequat
ions

x+1= 2x-2,x2+1=-2x+√2

Thef
ourr
oot
soft
hepr
oposedequat
ionar
ethen

1 1
1+ 8+ ,1+ 8-
2 2
CHAPTER4:SOLUTI
ONOFCUBI
CEQUATI
ONBYCARDON’
S
METHOD
Pr
ocess

Letusconsi
der
edcar
don’
scubi
c

equat
ion,
i.
e.,

ax3+3bx
2
+3cx+d=0……………(
1)

z-b
i
fweputz=ax+b=x =
a
3 2
z-
b z -
b z-
b
( ) +3 ( ) +3 ( ) + =0
a a a
3 2
+3b2z–b3)+3ab(z
2
a(
z -3bz 2bz+b2)+
-

3a2c(
z- +a3d=0
b)
3
z ca–b2)
+3( 2b3–3abc+a2d)=0
z+(
Z3 +3HZ+G=0………………….
(2)
eH=ca–b2
Wher
G=2b3-3abc+a2d

Tosol
vet
heequat
ion(
2),
weput

Z=p1/3+q1/3………………………(
3)

Cubi
ngbot
hsi
desweget

Z3=p+q+3p1/3q1/3(
p1/3+q1/3)

Z3 =p+q+3p1/3q1/3z

Z3-3p1/3q1/3z-(
p+q)=0………….
(4)

Compar
ing2and4,

-
(p+q)=G

3p1/3q1/3=3H
And -
Hence,
pandqar
ether
oot
soft
heequat
ion.
2
t–(p+q)
t+pq=0
2
t+Gt–H3=0
t=− ±√ +4

G+ G2+4H3
-
Wet
ake
2p=
3
2
2
− +√ 2+4 3
- 4H3
G-G2-
q=
2

Calcul
ati
ngthecuber
oot
sofpandqandputt
ingt
heseval
uesin
equati
on(3)
,wecanfi
ndoutt
hatt
her
ootsoft
heequati
on(2)
.

Now,t
hecuber
oot
sofpar
e

P1/3,
p1/3w,
p1/3w2

Si
mil
arl
y,cuber
oot
sofqar
e
q1/3,
q1/3w,
q1/3w2

Amongt heser
oot
sther
ewi
l
lonl
ythr
eecombi
nat
ionwhi
chwi
l
lsat
isf
y
theequati
on,
Thesecombi
nat
ionsar
e(p1/3,
q1/3)
,(p1/3w,
q1/3w2) p1/3w2,
and( q1/3w)

Hencet
her
ewi
l
lbet
hreeandonl
ythr
eev
aluesof(
2),
whi
char
e
Z=p1/
3+q1/
3,p1/
3w+q1/
3w2,p1/
3w2+q1/
3w

From t
hesethr
eevaluesof(2),wecancal
cul
atet
het
hreer soft
oot he
equat
ion(1)byusi
ngt her
elat
ionZ=ax+b

PROBLEMS:
 3
1.Sol
vecubi
cequat
ionx -18x-35=0bycar
donmet
hod
3
Sol
uti
on: Wehav
ex -18x-35=0……….
..
.(1)

Her
e,a=1,
b=0,
c=-
18,
d=-
35

Tosol
vet
hisequat
ion,
weput

X=p1/3+q1/3…………(
2)

OnCubi
ngbot
hsi
des,weget;
3 1/
3 1/
3 1/
p +q1/3)
3
X =p+q+3p q (
X3=p+q+3p1/3q1/3X
X3-3p1/3q1/3X-(
p+q)=0…………(
3)

Compar
ingequat
ion(
1)and(
3)weget
,

p1/3q1/3=6 and,
p+q=35

Ther
efor
e,pq=216

and,
p+q=35

Hence,
p,qar
ether
oot
soft
heequat
ions

2
t–(p+q)
t+pq=o
2
t-35t+216=0
2
t -27t-8t+216=0
(t-27)(t-8)=0
t=27, 8

Letp=27,
q=8

Ther
efor
e,p1/3+q1/3=( 1/
27)3
+(
8)1/
3

=3+2=5
Next
,p1/3w+q1/3w2=3w+2w-2

Andp1/3w2+q1/3w= i

Hencer
oot
sar
e i

3 2
2. sol
vet
hecubi
cequat
ion x -15x -33x+847=0bycar
don’
s

met
hod sol
uti
on:
wehav
e

x3-15x2-
33x+847=0……….
(1)

compar
ingwi
thcar
don’
sequat
ion

ax3+3bx
2
+3cx+d=0

her
e,a=1,
b=-
5,c=-
11,
d=847

put
ti
ngz=ax+b=x–5,

(
1)becomes
3 2
(
Z+5)–15(
Z+5)–33(
Z+5)+847=0

z3+15z2
+75z+125-15(
z2
+10z+25)-33z-
165+847=0
3
z –108z+432=0………….(
2)

t
osol
vet
hisequat
ion,
weput

z=p1/3+q1/3

Cubi
ngbot
hsi
des
 3
z =p+q+3p1/3q1/3(
p1/3+q1/3)
3
z =p+q+3p1/3q1/3z
3
z -3p1/3q1/3z–(p+q)=0
………………………(
3)

Compar
ing2and3

p1/3q1/3=36 and

p+q =-
432

t
her
efor
e,pq=46656andp+q=-
432

hence,
p,qar
ether
oot
sof
2 2
t–(
p+q)
t+pq=0 t+432t+46656=0

t=

t
her
efor
e,t=-
216,
-
216

p=-
216,
q=-
216

t
her
efor
e,

p1/3+q1/3=(
1/
3 1/
3
-216) +(
216) =

-
6–6=-
12

P1/3w+q1/3w2=p1/3(
w+w2) (
since,
p=q)

p1/3
=- (
si 1+w+w2=0)
nce,
1/
3
=-
(-
216) =6

Andp1/3w2+q1/3w=6(sameasabov
e)

Hencet
hreer
oot
sofequat
ion(
3)ar
e-12,
6,6

Andsot
hreer
oot
sofequat
ion(
1)ar
e-7,
11,
11
3. Pr
ovethatt
herootoft
heequt
ionX3-3x+1=0ar
e2cos2 /
9
,
2cos8 /9,2cos14 /9

Ans:
thegi
venequat
ioni
s
X3-3x+1=0………….
(1)
Comparingwi thcar
don’sequat
ion
3 2
ax +3bx+3cx+d=0
Here,
a=1, b=0, c=-1,d=1
1/3 1/3
Letx=p +q …………. .(
2)

bet
her
ootof(
1) cubi
ng(
2)

x3=p+q+3p1/3q1/3(
p1/3+q1/3)
3
x =p+q+3p1/3q1/3x
3
x –3p1/3q1/3x–(
p+q)=0………………(
3)
Compar
ing(1)and(
2)
1/
3 1/
3
-
3=-
3p q x

And1=-
(p+q)
Ther
efor
e,pq=1
andp+q=-
1
Ther
efor
ep,
qar
ethe
r
oot
sof
2
t+t+1=0

t=

-1±1-4
t=
2

t
her
efor
,p= andq=
t
her
efor
ep

………….
…(4)

l
et =r
cosƟ and =r
sinƟ

Ty
peequat
ionher
e.
2 1
t
her
efor
e,r= +3=1andt
anƟ=-
√3

=t
an2π/
3ther
efor
e,r=1,
Ɵ=2π/
3……….
.(
5)

4) p1/3+q1/3=(r
1/
3
f
rom( cosƟ+i
rsi
nƟ)
1/
3
+(
rcosƟ–i
rsi
nƟ)

=r
1/3{
(cosƟ+i
sinƟ)
1/3+(
cosƟ–i
sinƟ)
1/3}
1/
3 1/
3
=r [{cos(2kπ+Ɵ)
} +i
sin(
2kπ+
1/
3
Ɵ)}
1/
3
+{
cos(
2kπ+Ɵ)–i
sin(
2kπ+Ɵ)
} ]
1/
3
=r [cos(
2kπ+Ɵ)
/3+i
sin

(
2kπ+Ɵ)
/3 +cos(
2kπ

+Ɵ)
/3–i
sin(
2kπ+Ɵ)
]

Wher
e,k=0,
1,
2
1/
3
=2r cos(
2kπ+Ɵ)
/3,
k=0,
1,
2

=2cos2π/
9,2cos8π/
9,2cos14π/
9

[
usi
ng5]

Hence,
ther
oot
sof(
1)ar
e

2cos2π/
9,2cos8π/
9,2cos14π/
9 ans.
 3
4.Sol
vex –3x–14=0bycar
don’
smet
hodAns:
we

hav
e
3
x +3x–14=0

her
e,a=1;
b=0;
c=1;
d=-

14 t
osol
vet
heequat
ion

weput,

x–p1/3+q1/3.
..
..
..
..
.(
2)

cubi
ng

x3=p+q+3p1/
3q1/
3(p1/
3
3
+q1/
3) x =p+q+3p1/3q1/3x
3
x –3p1/3q1/3x-(p+q)=0……….

(
3) combi
ng(
1)and(
3)-

3p1/
3q1/
3=3

And-(
p+q)=-
14

Pq=-
1andp+q

=14P,
qar
ethe

r
oot
sof
2
t-(
p+q)
t+pq=0
2
t-14t–1=0
t
her
efor
e,t=

Wear
econsi
der
ingp=7+5 andq=7-

Letp

Ther
efor
e,7+5

=m(
m

Equat
ingr
ati
onal
andi
rr
ati
onal
par
ts

m2+6)
7=m( …………(
5)

2+3m2)
5=( ………….
.(
6)

Butm=1

Sat
isf
iedby(
5)andm=-
1isnotsat
isf
ied

Form=1

Ther
efor
e,p

Si
mil
arl
yq

Ther
efor
e,p

Now,
p )

=-
1+i
√6

Ther
efor
ep

Hence,
rootof(
1)ar
e2,
-
CHAPTER5:Eul
er’
sMet
hod
Inmat hemat i
csandcomput ationalscience,theEulermet hod(also
call
edf orwardEulermet hod)isaf ir
st-ordernumericalproceduref or
solvi
ngor dinar
ydiffer
ent i
alequat i
ons( ODEs)withagi venini
ti
al value.I
t
i
st hemostbasi cex pl
icitmethodf ornumer i
cali
ntegrati
onofor dinary
diff
erenti
alequationsandi sthesi mplestRunge–Kut tamet hod.The
Eulermet hodisnamedaf terLeonhar dEuler,whotreateditinhisbook
Insti
tuti
onum calculii
ntegrali
s( publi
shed1768–1870) .
[1]

I
ll
ust
rat
ionoft
heEul
ermet
hod.Theunknowncur
vei
sinbl andi
ue, ts
pol
ygonal
appr
oxi
mat
ioni
sinr
ed.
TheEulermet hodisaf i
rst-
ordermet hod, whichmeansthatthelocal
err
or(err
orperst ep)isproport
ionaltot hesquareofthestepsize,and
thegl
obal err
or(erroratagivent i
me)ispr oporti
onalt
othestepsiz e.
TheEulermet hodof t
enservesast hebasi stoconstr
uctmorecompl ex
methods,e.g.,pr
edictor
–correctormet hod.
5.
1Inf
ormalGeomet
ri
calDescr
ipt
ion
Considertheproblem ofcal
culati
ngt heshapeofanunknowncurve
whichstartsatagivenpointandsat i
sfiesagi
vendiff
erent
ial
equati
on.
Here,adiffer
enti
alequati
oncanbet houghtofasaformulabywhichthe
slopeofthetangentli
net othecurvecanbecomput edatanypointon
thecurve,oncethepositi
onoft hatpointhasbeencal
culat
ed.

Theideaisthatwhil
et hecurveisini
ti
all
yunknown,i
tsst
art
ingpoi
nt,
whichwedenot eby,A0i sknown(seethepict
ureontopri
ght)
.Then,
fr
om thedif
ferent
ialequation,t
heslopetothecur
veatA0canbe
computed,andso, t
het angentl
ine.

Takeasmal lst
epal ongthattangentli
neupt oapoi ntA1.Alongt his
smallstep,theslopedoesnotchanget oomuch, soA1wi llbecloset o
thecurve.Ifwepr etendthatA1isstil
lonecurv e,t
hesamer easoni ngas
fort
hepoi ntA0abov ecanbeused.Af terseveralsteps,apol ygonal
curv
eA0A1A2A3……….i scomput ed.I
ngener al
,thiscurvedoesnotdi verge
toofarfrom theor i
ginal
unknowncur ve,andt heerrorbetweent hetwo
curv
escanbemadesmal li
fthestepsizeissmal lenoughandt he
i
nterval
ofcomput ationisfi
nite:
[2]

y
’(t
)=f
{t,
y(t
)}. y
(t0=y0

Chooseaval
uehfort
hesi
zeofev
eryst
epandset t
n=t
0+nhNow,
onestepoft
heEul
ermet
hodfr
om

tnt
otn+1=t
n+h

yn+1=y
n+hf
(tn,
yn)

thevalueofynisanappr
ox i
mationofthesolut
iontotheODEatt i
met
n:

yn~ y(tn)TheEulermethodisexpl
ici
t,i
.e.t
hesolut
ionyyn+1 i
san
expl
i
citfunct
ionofyIfori<n

Whi
letheEul
ermethodi
ntegr
atesafir
st-
orderODE,anyODEoforder
{
\di
splay
sty
leN}Ncanberepr
esentedasasy st
em offi
rst
-or
derODEs:
t
otreatt
heequat
ion
Y(N)(
t)=f
(t,
y(t
),
y'
(t
),
………y
(N-
1)
(t
)

5.
2Exampl
e
Gi
vent
hei
nit
ial
val
uepr
obl
em

y
’=y
, y
(0)
=1,

Wewoul
dli
ket
ouset
heEul
ermet
hodt
oaappr
oxi
mat
ey4

Usi
ngst
epsi
zeequalt
o1(
h=1)

I
ll
ust
rat
ionofnumer
icali
ntegrat
ionfortheequat
iony ’
=y,
y(0)
=1.}
.Blue
i
stheEulermet
hod;
green,themi dpoi
ntmethod;red,
theexactsol
uti
on,

y
=e^
{t}
.Thest
epsi
zei
sh=1.
0.

TheEul
ermet
hodi
s

y
n+1=yn+hf
(tn,
yn)
.

Sof
ir
stwemustcomput
ef(
t0,
y0)
.Int
hissi
mpl
edi
ff
erent
ial
equat
ion,
the
f
unct
ionfi
sdef
inedbyf
(t,
y)=y
.Wehav
e

f
(t y0)
0, =f(
0,1)
=1.

Bydoingtheabov
estep,wehavef
oundtheslopeoft heli
nethati
s
tangentt
othesol
uti
oncurv
eatthepoi
nt(0,1).Recal
l t
hatthesl
opei
s
defi
nedasthechangei
nydivi
dedbythechangei ntor

Thenextstepi
stomult
ipl
ytheabov
eval
uebyt
hest
epsi
zeh,
whi
chwe
takeequal
tooneher
e

h•f
(y0)
=1•
1=1.

Sincethestepsizeist
hechangeint,whenwemul t
ipl
ythestepsi
z eand
theslopeofthetangent
,wegetachangeinyvalue.Thi
svalueisthen
addedt otheini
ti
alyval
uetoobtai
nthenextv
aluetobeusedf or
comput at
ions.

y
0+hf
(Y0)
=y1=1+1•
1=2

Theabov
est
epsshoul
dber
epeat
edt
ofi
ndy
2,y3,
y4

y
2=y1+hf(y
1)=2+1•
2=4

Y3=y
2+hf
(y2)
=4+1•
4=8

Y4=y
3+hf
(y3)
=8+1•
8=16

Duetotherepet
it
ivenat
ureoft
hisal
gor
it
hm,itcanbehel
pful
to
or
ganizecomputati
onsi
nachartfor
m,asseenbelow,
toavoi
dmaki
ng
er
ror
s.

N. y
n. t
n.F(
tn,
yn) h. ∆y
. yn+1

0 1 0 1 1 1 2

1 2 1 2 1 2 4

2 4 2 4 1 4 8
3 8 3 8 1 8 16

Theconclusionoft hi
scomput ationisthaty 4=16.Theexactsoluti
onof
thedi
ff
erentialequationisy (
t)=e^{
t},soy (
4)=e^ {
4}\
appr
ox54. 598}.
Alt
houghtheappr ox i
mat i
onoft heEulermet hodwasnotv eryprecisei
n
thi
sspeci
f i
ccase, parti
cular
lyduet oalargev aluest
epsizeh,its
behavi
ourisqualitati
velycorr
ectast hefigur
eshows.

Usi
ngsot
herst
epsi
ze

Thesamei
l
lust
rat
ionf
orh=0.
25.

Assuggestedint heintr
oduct i
on,theEulermet
hodismor eaccuratei
f
thestepsize{\
displayst
yleh} hissmaller
.Thet
ablebelowshowst he
resul
twithdif
ferentstepsizes.Thet oprowcorr
espondstotheex ample
i
nt heprevi
oussect i
on,andt hesecondr owisi
ll
ust
ratedi
nthef i
gure.

St
epsi
ze r
esul
tofEul
er’
smet
hod. er
ror

1 16.
00 38.
60

0.
25 35.
53 19.
07

0.
1 45.
26 9.
34
0.
05 49.
56 5.
04

0.
025 51.
98 2.
62

0.
0125 53.
26 1.
34

Theer rorrecordedinthel astcolumnofthet ableisthediff

erence
betweent heex actsoluti
onatt =4andt heEulerapproximation.I
nt he
bottom oft hetable,
thest epsizeishalft
hest epsizeinthepr evi
ousrow,
andt heerrorisalsoapprox imatelyhal
ftheerrorinthepr ev
iousrow.
Thissuggest sthattheerrorisroughlyproportionalt
ot hestepsize,at
l
eastf orfairl
ysmal lv
aluesoft hestepsize.Thisistrueingeneral,al
so
forotherequat i
ons;seet hesectionGlobaltr
uncat i
oner r
orformor e
detail
s.

Othermet hods,suchasthemidpointmethodalsoill
ustr
atedinthe
fi
gur es,
behavemor efavour
ably:
theglobaler
rorofthemi dpoi
ntmethod
i
sr oughlyproport
ionalt
othesquareofthestepsize.Forthi
sreason,t
he
Eulermet hodissaidtobeafir
st-
ordermethod,whil
et hemidpoint
met hodissecondor der
.

Wecanex t
rapolatef rom t
heabov etabl
ethatt hestepsi
zeneededt oget
ananswerthatiscor rectt
ot hr
eedecimal pl
acesisapproximatel
y
0.
00001,meaningt hatweneed400, 000steps.Thislar
genumberof
st
epsentai
lsahi ghcomput ati
onalcost
.Fort hi
sreason,hi
gher
-order
methodsareempl oy edsuchasRunge–Kut t
amet hodsorli
near
mult
ist
epmet hods, especial
lyifahighaccuracyisdesir
ed.
[6]

5.
3Der
ivat
ion

TheEulermethodcanbeder i
vedinanumberofway
s.Fi
rst
ly,
ther
eis
thegeometr
icaldescr
ipt
ionabove.

Anot
herpossi
bil
i
tyi
stoconsi
dert
heTay
lorexpansi
onoft
hef
unct
iony
ar
oundt0

y
(t0+h)=y
(t0)+hy
’+(t
0) 2h2y“(t
+1/ 0)
Thedifferent
ialequationst at
esthaty ’
=f(
t,y
).Ifthisissubsti
tut
edint he
Tayl
orexpansi onandt hequadrati
candhi gher-ordertermsareignored,
theEulermet hodarises. [
7]TheTaylorexpansioni susedbelowt o
anal
y zetheerrorcommi t
tedbytheEulermet hod, anditcanbeex t
ended
toproduceRunge–Kut t amethods.

Acl
osel
yrel
atedder
ivat
ioni
stosubst
it
utet
hef
orwar
dfi
nit
edi
ff
erence
f
ormul
afort
hederiv
ativ
e,

' y
yt
0~
h

I
nt hedif
ferenti
alequati
ony’=f
(t,
y).Agai
n,t
hisy
iel
dstheEul
er
met hod.
[8]Asimilarcomput
ati
onleadstothemidpoi
ntmethodandt
he
backwardEul ermethod.

Fi
nal
ly,onecanint
egrat
ethedi
ff
erent
ial
equat
ionfr
om t
0tot
0+hand
appl
ythefundamentalt
heor
em ofcal
cul
ustoget:
 Concl
usi
on

HereIhav etocomet oendofmypr ojecttopic"Theor yofequationsand

i
t'sapplicat
ions".Anditwaswonder fulandl earningex per
ience.Thi
s
projectwasagr eatwayt ohelpmyselfreal i
zemor eabouttheTheoryof
equat i
onsandi t
'sappli
cati
ons.I
nthispr ojectwesol vecubi cEquati
ons
tofindther oot
'sbyCardon'sMethod.Int hisprojectwedi scussed
Euler'
smet hodhisex ampleandit'
sDer ivations.

Atl ast"i
twasgreatfunt
omaket hispr
ojectanditalsomademetodo
researchesonthetopici
ncl
uded.Ihopeyouwi l
lacceptmyproj
ect
happilywhichIhavemadewithacalm andhardwor kingmi
ndanda
sincereheart
".
 Ref
erences

1.Theor
yofequat
ions,
Lal
j
ipr
asad

2.ht
tps:
//en.
m.wi
ki
pedi
a.or
g>wi
ki
.

3.www.
Let
u.edu

4.ht
tps:
//www.
proj
ect
mat
hs.
ie.

5.www.
bri
tanni
ca.
com