Protected Cultivation-NOTES For Students

Greenhouse Technology
Introduction, Types of greenhouses,

Plant response to greenhouse environment
Compiled by: Dr. Arvind Singh Tomar, Dept. of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, GBPUAT, Pantnagar Page 2 of 60
PROTECTED CULTIVATION
Protected cultivation practices can be defined as a cropping technique wherein the micro
environment surrounding the plant body is controlled partially/ fully as per plant need during their period
of growth to maximize yield and resource saving. With advancement in agriculture, various types of
protected cultivation practices suitable for a specific type of agroclimatic zone have emerged. Among
these protective cultivation practices, greenhouse/ poly house-cum-rain shelter is useful for hill zones.
The greenhouse is generally covered by transparent or translucent material such as glass or

plastic. The greenhouse covered with simple plastic sheet is termed as poly house. The greenhouse
generally reflects back about 43% of net solar radiation incident upon it allowing the transmittance of
“photosynthetically active solar radiation” in the range of 400-700 Nm wavelength. The sunlight
admitted to protected environment is absorbed by crops, floor, and other objects. These objects in-turn
emit longwave thermal radiation in infra-red (IR) region for which glazing material has lower
transparency. As a result, solar energy remains trapped in protected environment, thus raising its
temperature. This phenomenon is called, “Greenhouse Effect”. This condition of natural rise in
greenhouse air temperature is utilized in cold regions to grow crops successfully. However, during
summer season due to above stated phenomenon, ventilation and cooling is required to maintain
temperature inside structure well below 35°C.
The ventilation system can be natural or a forced one. In forced system, fans are used which draw
out 7-9m3 of air/sec/unit of power consumed and are able to provide two air changes/minute.
2. Why Protected Cultivation?

➢ The vegetables/ any other produce harvested from protected cultivation have better quality in
terms of fruit size, per fruit weight, Total Soluble Solids (TSS), colour, texture and other quality
parameters.
➢ The productivity of crop under protected cultivation increases manifold (2-10 times) in
comparison to conventional system.
➢ Off-season cultivation of vegetables/ other crops is the most important aspect of protected
cultivation. The winter season vegetable crops such as cauliflower, coriander, spinach etc. can
be grown during rainy season. Similarly, summer season vegetable crops are successfully
grown during winter while, winter season leafy vegetable can be grown during summer.
➢ Under protected environment, incidence of insect and disease are minimized due to its isolation
from open field. Use of microirrigation and off-season cultivation also minimizes disease and
insect incidence which offers reduced use of pesticides.
➢ Protected cultivation offers efficient use of two most precious resources namely, land and water.
Other inputs such as fertilizers, chemicals and labour are also efficiently utilized under such
environment.
➢ The year-round cultivation of single/ multiple crops with high quality produce and high
productivity. The off-season cultivation of vegetable offers better market price and increased
employment generation round the year for small and marginal farmers in hills and peri-urban
areas.
GREENHOUSE – INTRODUCTION
Greenhouse is the most practical method of achieving the objectives of protected agriculture,
where natural environment is modified by using sound engineering principles to achieve optimum plant
growth and yields. A greenhouse is a framed or an inflated structure covered with a transparent or
translucent material in which crops could be grown under conditions of at least partially controlled
environment and which is large enough to permit persons to work within it to carry out cultural
operations.
The growing of off-season cucumbers under transparent stone for Emperor Tiberius in 1st century
is the earliest reported protected agriculture. The technology was rarely employed during next 1500
years. In 16th century, glass lanterns, bell jars and hot beds covered with glass were used to protect
horticultural crops against cold. In 17th century, low portable wooden frames covered with an oiled
translucent paper were used to warm plant environment.
In Japan, primitive methods using oil-paper and straw mats to protect crops from severe natural
environment were used as long ago (the early 1960s). Greenhouses in France and England during same
century were heated by manure and covered with glass panes. The first greenhouse in 1700s used glass
on one side only as a sloping roof. Later in the century, glass was used on both sides. Glasshouses were
used for fruit crops such as melons, grapes, peaches and strawberries, and rarely for vegetable
production.
Protected agriculture was fully established with introduction of polyethylene after World war-II.
The first use of polyethylene as a greenhouse cover was in 1948, when Professor Emery Myers Emmert
of University of Kentucky used less expensive material in place of more expensive glass.
Glasshouses and rigid plastic houses are longer-life structures and are, therefore, most located in
cold regions where these structures can be used throughout the year. In Japan, year-round use of
greenhouses is becoming predominant, but in moderate and warm climate regions, they are still
provisional and are only used in winter.
In India, the cultivation in plastic greenhouses is of recent origin. Since 1960, greenhouse has
evolved into more than a plant protector. It is now better understood as a system of Controlled
Environment Agriculture (CEA), with precise control of air & root temperature, water, humidity, plant
nutrition, carbon dioxide and light. The greenhouses of today can be considered as plant or vegetable
factories. Almost every aspect of production system is automated with artificial environment and
growing system under nearly total computer control.
Greenhouse Effect
In general, the percentage of carbon dioxide in atmosphere is 0.0345% (345 ppm) but due to
emission of pollutants and exhaust gases into atmosphere, its percentage increases which forms a blanket
in outer atmosphere which causes entrapping of reflected solar radiation from the earth surface. Due to
this, atmospheric temperature increases, causing global warming, melting of ice caps and rise in ocean
levels resulting in submergence of coastal lines. This phenomenon of increase in ambient temperature
due to formation of blanket of carbon dioxide is known as “Greenhouse Effect”.
The greenhouse covering material acts in a similar way, as it is transparent to short-wave
radiation and opaque to long-wave radiation. During daytime, short-wave radiation enters into
greenhouse and gets reflected from ground surface. This reflected radiation becomes long-wave
radiation and is entrapped inside greenhouse by covering material. This causes increase in greenhouse
temperature. It is desirable effect from point of view of crop growth, especially in cold regions.
Advantages of Greenhouses
The following are different advantages of greenhouse for growing crops under controlled
environment:
1. Throughout year, four to five crops can be grown in a greenhouse due to availability of required
plant environmental conditions.
2. Crop productivity is increased considerably.
3. Superior quality produce can be obtained as they are grown under suitably controlled
environment.
4. Gadgets for efficient use of various inputs like water, fertilizers, seeds and plant protection
chemicals can be well maintained.
5. Effective control of pests and diseases is possible as growing area is enclosed.
6. Percentage of germination of seeds is high.
7. The acclimatization of plantlets of tissue culture technique can be carried out.
8. Agricultural and horticultural crop production schedules can be planned to take advantage of
market needs.
9. Different types of growing medium like peat-mass, vermiculate, rice-hulls and compost that are
used in intensive agriculture can be effectively utilized.
10. Export quality produce of international standards can be produced.
11. When crops are not grown, drying and related operations of harvested produce can be taken up
by utilizing entrapped heat.
12. Greenhouses are suitable for irrigation automation, application of other inputs and
environmental controls by using computers and artificial intelligence techniques.
13. Extends self-employment for educated youth.
Types of Greenhouse
Greenhouse structures of various types are used successfully for crop production. Although there
are advantages in each type for a particular application, in general there is no single type greenhouse
which can be considered as the best. Different types of greenhouses are designed to meet specific needs.
(A) Greenhouse type based on shape

Greenhouses can be classified based on their shape or style. For the purpose of classification,
uniqueness of cross section of greenhouses can be considered as a factor. As longitudinal section tends
to be approximately same for all types, it cannot be used for classification purpose. The cross-sections
depict width and height of structure and length is perpendicular to plane of cross-section which provides
information about overall shape of structural members, such as truss or hoop. The common types of
greenhouse based on shape are lean-to, even-span, uneven-span, ridge-and-furrow, saw-tooth and
Quonset.
TYPES OF GREENHOUSE
Fig. 1: Lean-to type. Fig. 2: Even-span type.
Fig. 3: Uneven-span type. Fig. 4: Ridge-and-furrow type.
Fig. 5: Saw-tooth type. Fig. 6: Quonset type.
(a) Lean-to type greenhouse: A lean-to type design is used when a greenhouse is placed against
the side of an existing building. It is built against a building, using existing structure for one or more of
its sides (Fig. 1). It is usually attached to a house, but may be attached to other buildings. The roof of
building is extended with appropriate greenhouse covering material and area is properly enclosed. It
typically faces south side. The lean-to type greenhouse is limited to single or double-row plant benches
with a total width of 2.1-3.6m. It can be as long as the building it is attached to. It should face best
direction for adequate sun exposure.
Advantage: It is usually close to available electricity, water, and heat. It is a least expensive
structure. This design makes best use of sunlight and minimizes requirement of roof supports.
Disadvantages: Limited space, limited light, limited ventilation and temperature control. The
height of supporting wall limits the potential size of design. Temperature control is more difficult
because the wall that the greenhouse is built-on, may collect sun’s heat while translucent cover of
greenhouse may lose heat rapidly. It is a half greenhouse, split along the peak of roof.
(b) Even-span type greenhouse: The even-span is a standard type and full-size structure having
two roof slopes of equal pitch and width (Fig. 2). This design is used for small sized greenhouse, and is
constructed on level ground. It is attached to a house at one gable end. It can accommodate
2 or 3 rows of plant benches. The cost of an even-span greenhouse is more than the cost of a lean-to
type, but has greater flexibility in design and provides for more plants. Because of its size and greater
amount of exposed glass area, even-span will cost more to heat.
The design has a better shape than a lean-to type for air circulation to maintain uniform
temperature during winter heating season. A separate heating system is necessary unless the structure is
very close to a heated building. It will house 2 side benches, 2 walks, and a wide center bench. Several
single and multiple span types are available for use in various regions of India. For single span type, the
span in general, varies from 5 to 9 m, whereas length is around 24 m. The height varies from 2.5 to
4.3 m.
(c) Uneven-span type greenhouse: This type of greenhouse is constructed on hilly terrain. The
roofs of unequal width make the structure adaptable to side slopes of hill (Fig. 3). This type of
greenhouses is seldom used now-a-days as it is not adaptable for automation.
(d) Ridge-and-furrow type greenhouse: Designs of this type use two or more A-frame
greenhouses connected to one another along the length of eave (Fig. 4) which serves as furrow or gutter
to carry rain and melted snow away. The side wall is eliminated between greenhouses, which results in
a structure with a single large interior. Consolidation of interior space reduces labour, lowers cost of
automation, improves personnel management and reduces fuel consumption as there is less exposed wall
area through which heat escapes. The snow loads must be taken into frame specifications of these
greenhouses since snow cannot slide off the roofs as in case of individual free-standing greenhouses, but
melts away. In spite of snow loads, ridge-and-furrow greenhouses are effectively used in northern
countries of Europe and in Canada and are well suited to Indian conditions.
(e) Saw-tooth type greenhouse: These are also similar to ridge and furrow type greenhouses
except that, there is provision for natural ventilation in this type (Fig. 5). Specific natural ventilation
flow path develops in a saw-tooth type greenhouse.
(f) Quonset greenhouse: This is a greenhouse, where pipe arches or trusses are supported by
pipe purling running along the length of greenhouse (Fig. 6). In general, covering material used for this
type of greenhouses is polyethylene. Such greenhouses are typically less expensive than the gutter
connected greenhouses and are useful when a small isolated cultural area is required. These houses are
connected either in free, standing style or arranged in an interlocking ridge and furrow.
In inter-locking type, truss members overlap sufficiently to allow a bed of plants to grow between
the over-lapping portions of adjacent houses. A single large cultural space thus exists for a set of houses
in this type, an arrangement that is better adapted to the automation and movement of labour.
(B) Greenhouse type based on utility

Classification of greenhouses can be made depending on functions or utilities. Of different
utilities, artificial cooling and heating of greenhouse are more expensive and elaborate. Hence based on
artificial cooling and heating, greenhouses are classified as greenhouses for active heating and active
cooling system.
(a) Greenhouses for active heating: During night time, air temperature inside greenhouse
decreases. To avoid cold bite to plants due to freezing, some amount of heat has to be supplied. The
requirements for heating greenhouse depend on the rate at which the heat is lost to outside environment.
Various methods are adopted to reduce heat losses viz., using double layer polyethylene, thermo-pane
glasses (two layers of factory sealed glass with dead air space) or using heating systems, such as unit
heaters, central heat, radiant heat and solar heating system.
(b) Greenhouses for active cooling: During summer season, it is desirable to reduce
temperatures of greenhouse than ambient temperatures for effective crop growth. Hence suitable
modifications are made in greenhouse so that large volumes of cooled air are drawn into greenhouse.
This type of greenhouse either consists of evaporative cooling pad with fan or fog cooling. This
greenhouse is designed in such a way that it permits a roof opening of 40% and in some cases nearly
100%.
(C) Greenhouse type based on construction

The type of construction is predominantly influenced by structural material, though covering
material also influences the type. Span of house in-turn dictates selection of structural members and their
construction. Higher the span, stronger should be material and more structural members are used to make
sturdy truss type frames. For smaller spans, simpler designs like hoops can be followed. Therefore, based
on construction, greenhouses can be broadly classified as wooden-framed, pipe-framed and truss-framed
structures.
(a) Wooden-framed structures: In general, for greenhouses with span less than 6 m, only
wooden-framed structures are used. Side posts and columns are constructed of wood without use of a
truss. Pine wood is commonly used as it is inexpensive and possesses required strength (Fig. 7). Timber
locally available, with good strength, durability and machinability also can be used for construction.
Fig. 7: Wooden-framed greenhouse structure.
(b) Pipe-framed structures: Pipes are used for construction of greenhouses, when clear span is
around 12m (Fig. 8). In general, side posts, columns, cross ties and purlins are constructed using pipes.
In this type, trusses are not used.
Fig. 8: Pipe-framed greenhouse structure.
(c) Truss-framed structures: If greenhouse span is greater than or equal to 15m, truss frames
are used. Flat steel, tubular steel or angular iron is welded together to form a truss encompassing rafters,
chords and struts (Fig. 9). Struts are support members under compression and chords are support
members under tension. Angle iron purlins running throughout the length of greenhouse are bolted to
each truss. Columns are used only in very wide truss frame houses of 21.3 m or more. Most of glass
houses are of truss-frame type, as these frames are best suited for pre-fabrication.
Fig. 9: Truss-framed greenhouse structure.
(D) Greenhouse type based on covering materials

Covering materials are major and important component of greenhouse structure. Covering
materials have direct influence on greenhouse effect inside the structure and they alter air temperature
inside the greenhouse. The types of frames and method of fixing also varies with covering material.
Based on type of covering materials, greenhouses are classified as glass, plastic film and rigid panel
greenhouses.
(a) Glass greenhouses: Only glass greenhouses with glass as covering material existed prior to
1950. Glass as covering material has advantage of greater interior light intensity. These greenhouses
have higher air infiltration rate which leads to lower interior humidity and better disease prevention
(Fig. 10). Lean-to type, even span, ridge-and-furrow type designs are used for construction of glass
greenhouse.
Fig. 10: Glass greenhouses.
(b) Plastic film greenhouses: Flexible plastic films (including polyethylene, polyester and
polyvinyl chloride) are used as covering material in this type of greenhouses. Plastics as covering
material for greenhouses have become popular, as they are cheap and the cost of heating is less in
comparison to glass greenhouses (Fig. 11). The main disadvantage with plastic films is its short life e.g.,
best quality ultraviolet (UV) stabilized film can last for four years only. Quonset design as well as gutter-
connected design is suitable for using this covering material.
Fig. 11: Plastic film greenhouses.
(c) Rigid panel greenhouses: Polyvinyl chloride rigid panels, fibre glass-reinforced plastic,
acrylic and polycarbonate rigid panels are employed as covering material in Quonset type frames or
ridge and furrow type frame (Fig. 12). This material is more resistant to breakage and light intensity is
uniform throughout the greenhouse when compared to glass or plastic. High grade panels have long life
(up to 20 years). The main disadvantage is that these panels tend to collect dust and harbour algae, which
results in darkening of panels and subsequent reduction in light transmission. There is significant danger
of fire hazard.
Fig. 12: Rigid panel greenhouses.
Shading nets
There are a great number of types and varieties of plants that grow naturally in most diverse
climate conditions that have been transferred by modern agriculture from their natural habitats to
controlled crop conditions. Therefore, conditions similar to natural ones must be created for each type
and variety of plant. Each type of cultivated plant must be given specific type of shade required for
diverse phases of its development. The shading nets fulfil the task of giving appropriate micro-climate
conditions to the plants.
Shade nettings (Fig. 13) are designed to protect crops and plants from UV radiation, but they
also provide protection from climate conditions, such as temperature variation, intensive rain and winds.
Better growth conditions can be achieved for crop due to controlled micro-climate conditions “created”
in covered area with shade netting, which results in higher crop yields.
Fig. 13: Shading nets.
All nettings are UV stabilized to fulfil expected lifetime at the area of exposure. They are
characterized of high tear resistance, low weight for easy and quick installation with a 30-90% shade
value range. A wide range of shading nets are available in market which are defined on the basis of
percentage of shade they deliver to plants growing under them.
Plant response to greenhouse environment
(Light, Temperature, Relative humidity, Ventilation, CO2)
The productivity of a crop is influenced not only by its heredity but also by microclimate around
it. The components of crop microclimate are light, temperature, air compositions and nature of root
medium. In open fields, only manipulation of nature of root medium by tillage, irrigation and fertilizer
application is possible. The closed boundaries in greenhouse permit control of any one or more of
microclimate components (Fig. 14).
Fig. 14: Microclimatic components influencing plant growth.
(a) Light: The visible light of solar radiation is a source of energy for plants. Light energy, CO2
and water all enter into the process of photosynthesis through which carbohydrates are formed. For
production of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water in the presence of chlorophyll, light energy
is responsible for plant growth and reproduction. The rate of photosynthesis is governed by available
fertilizer elements, water, carbon dioxide, light and temperature. The photosynthesis reaction can be
represented as:
Chlorophyll
CO2 + Water + Light energy Carbohydrates + Oxygen
Plant nutrients
Considerable energy is required to reduce carbon that is combined with oxygen in CO2 gas to the
state in which it exists in carbohydrate. The light energy thus utilized is trapped in carbohydrate. If light
intensity is diminished, photosynthesis slows down and hence the growth. If higher than optimal light
intensities are provided, growth again slows down because of injury to the chloroplasts.
The light intensity is measured by international unit known as Lux. It is direct illumination on
the surrounding surface that is 1m from a uniform point source of 1 international candle. Greenhouse
crops are subjected to light intensities varying from 129.6 Klux on clear summer days to 3.2 Klux on
cloudy winter days. For most crops, neither condition is ideal. Many crops become light saturated, in
other words, photosynthesis does not increase at light intensities higher than 32.2 Klux. Rose and
carnation plants will grow well under summer light intensities. In general, for most other crops if
greenhouse is shaded to the extent of about 40% from May to September, foliage will be deeper green.
Thus, light intensity requirements of photosynthesis vary considerably from crop to crop.
Light is classified according to its wavelength in nanometers (nm). Not all light useful in
photosynthesis process. UV light is available in shorter wavelength range, i.e., less than 400nm and its
large quantities are harmful to plants (Fig. 15). Glass screens are opaque to most UV light and light
below the range of 325nm.
Fig. 15: Spectrum of solar radiation.
Visible and white light has wavelength of 400-700nm. Far red light (700-750nm) affects plants,
besides causing photosynthesis. Infrared rays of longer wavelengths are not involved in plant process. It
is primarily, the visible spectrum of light that is used in photosynthesis. In blue and red bands,
photosynthesis activity is higher. When blue light (shorter wavelength) alone is supplied to plants, the
growth is retarded and plant becomes hard and dark in colour. When plants are grown under red light
(longer wavelength), growth is soft and internodes are long, resulting in tall plants. Visible light of all
wavelengths is readily utilized in photosynthesis.
(b) Temperature: Temperature is a measure of level of heat present. All crops have temperature
range in which they can grow well. Below this range, plant life process stop due to ice formation within
the tissue and cells are possibly punctured by ice crystals. At upper extreme, enzymes become inactive,
and again process essential for life cease. Enzymes are biological reaction catalyst and are heat sensitive.
All biochemical reactions in plant are controlled by enzymes. The rate of reactions controlled by enzyme
often double or triple for each rise of temperature by 10°C, until optimum temperature is reached.
Further, increase in temperature begins to suppress the reaction and finally stop it.
As a general rule, greenhouse crops are grown at a day temperature, which are 3 to 6°C higher
than night temperature on cloudy days and 8°C higher on clear days. The night temperature of
greenhouse crops is generally in the range of 7 to 21°C. Primula, mathiola incana and calceolaria grow
best at 7°C, carnation and cineraria at 10°C, rose at 16°C, chrysanthemum and poinsettia at 17 to 18°C
and African violet at 21 to 22°C.
(c) Relative humidity: As greenhouse is a closed space, relative humidity of greenhouse air will
be more in comparison to ambient air due to moisture added by evapotranspiration process. Some of this
moisture is taken away by air leaving from greenhouse due to ventilation. Sensible heat inputs also lower
relative humidity of air to some extent. In order to maintain desirable RH levels in greenhouses,
processes like humidification or dehumidification are carried out. For most crops, acceptable range of
relative humidity is between 50-80%. However, for plant propagation work, relative humidity up to 90%
may be desirable.
In summer, due to addition of sensible heat in daytime and in winters for increasing night time
temperatures of greenhouse air, more sensible heat is added causing a reduction in relative humidity of
air. For this purpose, evaporative cooling pads and fogging system of humidification are employed.
When relative humidity is on higher side, ventilators, chemical dehumidifiers and cooling coils are used
for de-humidification.
(d) Ventilation: A greenhouse is ventilated for either reducing temperature of greenhouse air or
for replenishing carbon dioxide supply or for moderating relative humidity of air. Air temperatures above
35°C are generally not suited for crops in greenhouse. It is quite possible to bring greenhouse air
temperature below this upper limit during spring and summer seasons simply by providing adequate
ventilation to greenhouse. The ventilation in a greenhouse can be either natural or forced. In case of
small greenhouses (less than 6m wide), natural ventilation can be quite effective during different
seasons. However, fan ventilation is essential to have precise control over air temperature, humidity and
carbon dioxide levels.
(e) Carbon-di-oxide: Carbon is an essential plant nutrient and is present in plant in greater
quantity than any other nutrient. About 40% of dry matter of plant is composed of carbon. Under normal
conditions, CO2 exsits as a gas in atmosphere slightly above 0.0345% or 345 ppm. During day, when
photosynthesis occurs under natural light, plants in greenhouse draw down CO2 level to <200 ppm.
Under these circumstances, infiltration or ventilation increases CO2 levels, when outside air is brought
in to maintain ambient levels of CO2. If level of CO2 is less than ambient levels, CO2 may retard plant
growth. In cold climates, maintaining ambient levels of CO2 by providing ventilation may be un-
economical, due to necessity of hot incoming air in order to maintain proper growing temperature. In
such regions, enrichment of greenhouse with CO2 is followed. The exact CO2 level needed for a given
crop will vary, since it must be correlated with other variables in greenhouse production such as light,
temperature, nutrient levels, cultivar, and degree of maturity. Most crops respond favourably to CO2 at
1000-1200 ppm.
Planning and design of greenhouses,

Design criteria of greenhouse for cooling and heating
A greenhouse is basically the structure of providing and maintaining a growing environment that
will result in optimum production at maximum yield. The agriculture in controlled environment is
possible in all regions irrespective of climate and weather. It is an enclosing structure for growing plants.
Greenhouse must admit visible light portion of solar radiation for plant photosynthesis and, therefore,
must be transparent. At the same time to protect plants, a greenhouse must be ventilated or cooled during
day because of heat load from radiation. The structure must also be heated or insulated during cold
nights. A greenhouse acts as a barrier between plant production areas and external/ general environment.
The term greenhouse refers to a structure covered with a transparent material for the purpose of
admitting natural light for plant growth. Two or more greenhouses in one location are referred to as a
greenhouse range. A building associated with greenhouses that is used for storage or for operations in
support of growing of plants, is referred to as a service building or head house.
(a) Site selection and orientation: A greenhouse is designed to withstand local wind, snow and
crop loads for a specific cropping activity. In this way, the structure becomes location and crop-specific.
The building site should be as level as possible to reduce cost of grading, and the site should be well-
aerated and should receive good solar radiation. Provision of a drainage system is always possible. It is
also advisable to select a site with a natural windbreak. In regions where snow is expected, trees should
be 30.5 m away to keep drifts back from greenhouses. To prevent shadows on crop, trees located on the
east, south, or west sides should be at a distance of 2.5 times their height.
(b) Structural design: The most important function of greenhouse structure and its covering is
protection of crop against hostile weather conditions (low and high temperatures, snow, hail, rain and
wind), diseases and pests. It is important to develop greenhouses with maximum intensity of natural
light inside as well. The structural parts that can cast shadows in greenhouse should be minimized.
The different structural designs of greenhouse based on types of frames are available. A straight
side wall and an arched roof is possibly the most common shape for a greenhouse, but gable roof is also
widely used. Both structures can be free standing or gutter connected with arch roof greenhouse. The
arch roof and hoop style greenhouses are most often constructed of galvanized iron pipe. If tall growing
crops are to be grown in a greenhouse or when benches are used, it is best to use a straight side wall
structure rather than a hoop style house to ensure best operational use of greenhouse. A hoop type
greenhouse is suitable for low growing crops, such as lettuce, or nursery stock which are housed
throughout winter in greenhouses located in extremely cold regions.
A gothic arch frame structure can be designed to provide adequate side wall height without loss
of strength to the structure (Fig. 16).
Fig. 16: Different structural designs of greenhouse.

Loads in designing greenhouse structures include weight of structure itself and, if supported by
structure, loads of equipment for heating and ventilation and water lines. Greenhouse structures should
be designed to resist a 130 km/h wind velocity. The actual load depends on wind angle, greenhouse
shape and size, and the presence or absence of openings and wind breaks.
The ultimate design of a greenhouse depends on following aspects:

✓ The overall structural design and properties of individual structural components.
✓ The specific mechanical and physical properties which determines structural behaviour
of covering materials.
✓ The specific sensitivity of crop to light and temperature to be grown in greenhouse.
✓ The specific requirements relevant to physical properties of covering material.
✓ The agronomic requirements of crop.
(c) Covering materials

The following factors are to be considered while selecting greenhouse covering material i.e.,
light, transmission, weight, resistant to impact, and durability to outdoor weathering and thermal stability
over wide range of temperatures. Before selecting covering material, two important points should be
taken into consideration; (i) purpose for which greenhouse facility is intended, and (ii) service life of
material. In temperate regions where high temperatures are required, covering material with high light
transmission and far Infra-Red absorption must be selected. Also, the loss of heat by conduction should
be minimum.
Covering material Life span
1. Glass and acrylic sheet 20 years
2. Polycarbonate and fiberglass-reinforced polyester sheet 5-12 years
3. Polyethylene 2-6 months
4. Polyethylene stabilized for UV rays 2-3 years
The ideal greenhouse selective covering material should have following properties:
a) It should transmit visible light portion of solar radiation which is utilized by plants for
photosynthesis.
b) It should absorb small amount of UV in radiation and convert a portion of it to fluoresce into
visible light, useful for plants.
c) It should reflect or absorb Infra-Red (IR) radiation which are not useful to plants and which
causes greenhouse interiors to overheat.
d) Should be of minimum cost.
e) Should have usable life of 10 to 20 years.
DESIGN CRITERIA OF CONSTRUCTION
For locating greenhouse, a piece of land larger than grower’s immediate need should be acquired.
The ultimate size of greenhouse range should be estimated. Area should then be added to this estimated
figure to accommodate service buildings, storage, access drives and a parking lot. The floor area of
service buildings required for small farms is about 13% of greenhouse floor area, and it decreases with
increase in size of farm. On an average, service buildings occupy 10% of growing area. The service
building is centrally located in a nearly square design of the farm, which minimizes distance of
movement of plants and materials. Doors between service buildings and greenhouse should be wide
enough to facilitate full use of corridor width. Doors of at least 3.1 m width and 2.7 m height are
common. It is good to have greenhouse gutter at least 3.7 m above the floor to accommodate automation
and thermal blanket and still leave room for future renovations.
CONSTRUCTION OF GLASS GREENHOUSES
Glass greenhouses have an advantage of greater interior light intensity over plastic panel and
film plastic covered greenhouses. Glass greenhouses tend to have a higher air infiltration rate, which
leads to lower interior humidity, which is advantageous for disease prevention. On the other hand, glass
greenhouses have a higher initial cost than double-layer film plastic greenhouses. While comparing price
of a glass greenhouse to a film plastic greenhouse, one needs to consider the initial purchase price of
each item as well as cost of re-covering the film plastic greenhouse every three to four years.
Several types of glass greenhouses are designed to meet specific needs. A lean-to-type design is
used when a greenhouse is placed against the side of an existing building. This design makes best use of
sunlight and minimizes requirements for roof supports. It is found mostly in retail industry. An even-
span greenhouse is one in which two roof slopes are of equal pitch and width. By comparison, an uneven-
span greenhouse has roofs of unequal width, which makes the structure adaptable to the side of a hill.
This style is seldom used today because such greenhouses are not adaptable to automation. Finally, a
ridge-and-furrow design uses, two or more A-frame greenhouses connected to one another along the
length of eave. The sidewall is eliminated between greenhouses, which results in a structure with a single
large interior. Basically, three frame types are used in glass greenhouses, which are wood frames (6.1m
in width), pipe frames (12.2m in width) and truss frames (15.2m in width). Latest glass greenhouses are
primarily of truss frame type and are best suited for pre-fabrication.
All-metal greenhouses proved cheaper to maintain since they require no painting. At present,
virtually all glass greenhouse construction is of metal type. The structural members of glass greenhouse
cast shadows that reduce plant growth during dark months of year. Aluminium sash bars are stronger
than wooden ones and, hence wider panels of glass can be used with aluminium bars. The reduction in
materials and reflectance of aluminium have given these metal greenhouses a great advantage over
wooden greenhouses in terms of higher interior light intensity.
Glass greenhouse construction of today can be categorized as high profile or low profile. The
low-profile greenhouse is most popular in the Netherlands and is known as “Venlo” greenhouse. The
low-profile greenhouses use single panels of glass which extend from eave to ridge. This low-profile
greenhouse slightly reduces exposed surface area, thereby reduces heating cost, but are more expensive
to cool. The high-profile greenhouses require more than single panel to cover the eave to ridge. A
problem with this design is “unsealed junction” between pieces of glass in inner layer. Moisture and dust
may enter between layers and reduce light transmission.
CONSTRUCTION OF PIPE-FRAMED GREENHOUSES
The choice of construction of pipe framed greenhouses (Fig. 17) often favours low initial
investment and relatively long life. Galvanized mild steel pipe as a structural member in association with
wide width UV-stabilized Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE) film is a common option of greenhouse
designers.
MATERIAL REQUIREMENT
The structural members of greenhouse are:

i. Hoops
ii. Foundation
iii. Lateral supports
iv. Poly-grip assembly, and
v. End frame.
Following materials are required for a greenhouse having 4m x 20m floor area:
i. GI pipe class A (25 mm dia., 85 cm long, 30 m total length)

ii. GI pipe class B (15 mm dia., 6.0 m long, 21 Nos.)
iii. GI sheet (20-gauge, size 90 x 24 cm, 4 sheets)
iv. MS flat (25 x 3 mm size, 4 m length)
v. Lateral support to end frames (10 mm dia. rod, 10 m length)
vi. Cement concrete (1:3:6 mix, 1.0 m3)
vii. UV-stabilized LDPE film (single layer 800-gauge, 5.4 m2/kg, 154 m2).
viii. Poly-grip (channel 2000 x 3.5 x 4 cm, 2 Nos.; Angle 2000 x 2 x 2 cm, 2 Nos.; both made
from 20-gauge GI sheet, key 6 mm diameter, 56 mm length)
ix. Wooden end frames (5x5 cm wood, 0.15 m3)
x. Nuts and bolts 9 6 mm diameter, 35 mm long, 70 sets)
xi. Miscellaneous items like nails, hinges, and latches as per requirement
Procedure of Erection
1. A 4m x 20m rectangular area is marked on the site, preferably orienting the longer dimension
in east-west direction. This rectangle will act as floor plan of greenhouse.
2. Mark four points at four corners of rectangle.
3. Start from one corner point and move along the length of marked rectangle, marking a point
every 1.25 m distance until reaching the other corner (16 bays, 17 points). The same
procedure is repeated on other side of rectangle.
4. Dig 10 cm diameter holes upto 70 cm depth on all marked points with the help of bucket
auger or a crowbar. This way a total of 34 holes on both parallel sides of greenhouse floor is
obtained.
5. Polygrip sections formed according to the drawing into two 20m length.
6. Fix pre-fabricated polygrip channels to foundation pipes on 1.25m spacing with the help of
6 mm diameter bolts.
7. Set these assemblies on temporary supports between holes with foundation pipes hanging
vertically in holes.
8. Pour cement concrete mix of 1:3:6 around foundation pipes in such a way that lower 15-20
cm ends are covered in concrete. The concrete is compacted around foundation pipes with
the help of crowbar and is allowed to cure for 2-3 days.
9. After curing, fill soil around foundation pipes to ground level and compact it well.
10. Position end frames on two ends. Mark position of legs and dug holes for fixing of legs. Now
install both end frames.
11. Put ringside of lateral support members on adjacent foundation pipe to the corner, and other
side is hooked to the end frame.
12. Put all hoops in foundation pipes in such a way that straight portion of hoop is inserted into
the foundation and rests on the bolt used for fixing of polygrip channel.
13. Take a 20m long ridge line by spacing 15 mm diameter pipes together. Put 20m long pipe at
ridge line of hoops.
14. Use cross connectors on the ridge line pipe in such a way that one half of it remains on one
side of hoop and other half on other side.
15. Put two bolts of 6 mm diameter in holes provided in the ends of cross-connector. Tie a few
of them with the help of nuts.
16. Repeat same procedure for joining all hoops with ridge line pipe.
17. While forming cross-connectors, distance between cross-connectors or hoops should be
maintained 1.25 m center to center. This polygrip mechanism will provide a firm grip of
ridgeline pipe and hoops at right angles without allowing for slippage.
18. Spread polyethylene film over the structure from one end to other without wrinkles and
keeping the edges together.
19. Place polyethylene film between polygrip channel and right-angle strip and secure them
under pressure with the help of iron rods. The film is stretched gently and fixed on other
parallel side by polygrip. This way, polyethylene is secured on both longer sides.
20. On other two remaining ends, polyethylene is nailed to end frames using wooden battens and
nails.
21. The remaining portion of end frames is covered with polyethylene film, which is secured
with wooden battens and nails.
22. Mechanical ventilation, heating and cooling equipment is installed on frames as per crop
requirement.
Fig. 17: Constructional details of pipe-framed greenhouse.
Precise control of various parameters of greenhouse environment is necessary to optimize energy
inputs and thereby maximize economic returns. Basically, objective of environmental control is to
maximize plant growth. The control of greenhouse environment means control of temperature, light, air
composition and nature of root medium. A greenhouse is essentially meant to permit at least partial
control of microclimate within it. Obviously, greenhouses with partial environmental control are more
common and economical. From the origin of greenhouse to the present, there has been a steady evolution
of controls. Five stages in this evolution include manual controls, thermostats, step-controllers, dedicated
microprocessors and computers. This chain of evolution has brought about a reduction in control labour
and an improvement in conformity of greenhouse environments to their set points. The benefits achieved
from greenhouse environmental uniformity are better timing & good quality of crops, disease control,
and conservation of energy.
(a) Active summer cooling systems: Active summer cooling (Fig. 18) is achieved by
evaporative cooling process. The evaporative cooling systems are developed to reduce problem of excess
heat in greenhouse. In this process, cooling takes place when heat required for moisture evaporation is
derived from surrounding environment causing a depression in its temperature.
Fig. 18: Active summer cooling system.
The two active summer cooling systems presently in use are, (i) fan-and-pad cooling system and
(ii) fog cooling system. In evaporative cooling process, cooling is possible only up to wet bulb
temperature of incoming air.
(i) Fan-and-Pad cooling system: The fan-and-pad evaporative cooling system is available since
1954 and is still the most common summer cooling system in greenhouses (Figs. 19a-19d). Along one
wall of greenhouse, water is passed through a pad that is usually placed vertically in the wall.
Traditionally, pad was composed of excelsior (wood shreds), but today it is commonly made of a cross-
fluted-cellulose material somewhat similar in appearance to corrugated card board. Exhaust fans are
placed on opposite wall. Warm outside air is drawn in through the pad. The supplied water in pad through
the process of evaporation, absorbs heat from air passing through the pad as well as from surroundings
of pad and frame, thus causing cooling effect. Khus-khus grass mats can also be used as cooling pads.
Fig. 19a: Fan-and-pad cooling systems.
Fig. 19b: Longitudinally-distributed fan-pad cooling system.
Fig. 19c: Direct evaporative cooling system. Fig. 19d: Indirect evaporative cooling system.
(ii) Fog cooling system: The fog evaporative cooling system, introduced in greenhouses in 1980,
operates on same cooling principle as the fan-and-pad cooling system but uses quite different
arrangement (Fig. 20). A high-pressure pumping apparatus generates fog containing water droplets with
a mean size of less than 10 microns using suitable nozzles which are sufficiently small to stay suspended
in air while they are evaporating. Fog is dispersed throughout greenhouse, cooling the air everywhere.
As this system does not wet foliage, there is less scope for disease and pest attack. The plants stay dry
throughout the process. This system is equally useful for seed germination and propagation since it
eliminates need for a mist system.
Fig. 20: Schematic of a fogging system.
Both types of summer evaporative cooling system can reduce greenhouse air temperature. The
fan-and-pad system can lower temperature of incoming air by about 80% of difference between dry and
wet bulb temperatures while fog cooling system can lower temperature by nearly 100% difference. This
is due to the fact that complete evaporation of water does not take place due to bigger droplet size in fad
and pad, whereas in fog cooling system, there will be complete evaporation because of minute size water
droplets. Thus, lesser the dryness of air, greater evaporative cooling is possible.
(b) Active winter cooling systems: Excess heat can be a problem during winter as ambient
temperature will be below desired temperature inside greenhouse. Owing to greenhouse effect,
entrapment of solar heat can rise temperature to an injurious level if greenhouse is not ventilated. The
actual process in winter cooling is tempering the excessively cold ambient air before it reaches plant
zone, otherwise, hot and cold spots in greenhouse will lead to uneven crop timing and quality. This
mixing of low temperature ambient air with warm inside air cools greenhouse in winter. Two active
winter cooling systems commonly employed are “Convection tube” cooling and Horizontal Air Flow
(HAF) fan cooling systems.
(i) Convection tube cooling: The general components of convection tube cooling system
(Fig. 21) are louvered air inlet, a polyethylene convection tube with air distribution holes, a pressurizing
fan to direct air in to tube under pressure, and an exhaust fan to create vacuum. When air temperature
inside greenhouse exceeds set point, exhaust fan starts functioning and thus, create vacuum inside
greenhouse. The louver of inlet in the gable is then opened through which cold air enters due to vacuum.
The pressurizing fan at the end of clear polyethylene convection tube operates to pick up cool air entering
the louver. A proper gap is available for air entry, as the end of convection tube is separated from
louvered inlet by 0.3 to 0.6m and the other end of tube is sealed. Round holes of 5 to 8 cm in diameter
are provided in pairs at opposite sides of tube spaced at 0.5-1.0m along the length of tube.
Fig. 21: Convection tube type cooling system.
Cold air under pressure in convection tube shoots out of holes on either side of tube in turbulent
jets. In this system, cold air mixes with warm greenhouse air well above the plant height. The cool mixed
air, being heavier gently flows down to floor level affects complete cooling of plant area. The
pressurizing fan forcing the incoming cold air in to convection tube must be capable of moving at least
same volume of air as that of exhaust fan, thereby avoiding the development of cold spots in greenhouse.
When cooling is not required, inlet louver closes and pressurizing fan continues to circulate air within
the greenhouse. The process minimizes temperature gradient at difference levels. The circulation of air
using convection tube consumes more power than a circulation system.
(ii) Horizontal Air Flow (HAF) cooling: This system uses small horizontal fans for moving air
mass and is considered to be an alternative to convection tube for air distribution. In this method,
greenhouse may be visualized as a large box containing air and fans located strategically moves air in a
circular pattern. This system should move air at 0.6 to 0.9 m3/min/m2 of greenhouse floor area. Fractional
horse power of fans is 31-62 W (1/30-1/15 H.P.) with a blade diameter of 41cm are sufficient for
operation. The fans should be arranged in such a way that air flows are directed along the length of
greenhouse and parallel to the ground. The fans are placed at 0.6 to 0.9m above plant height at intervals
of 15m. They are arranged such that the air flow is directed by one row of fans along the length of
greenhouse down one side to the opposite end and then back along the other side by another row of fans
(Fig. 22). Greenhouses of larger widths may require a greater number of rows of fans along its length.
Fig. 23: Fan arrangements for HAF system in different greenhouse sizes.
Temperatures at plant height are more uniform with HAF system than with convection tube
system. The HAF system makes use of same exhaust fans, inlet louvers and controls as the convection
tube system. The only difference is the use of HAF fans in place of convection tubes for air distribution.
Cold air entering through louvers located at higher level in gables of greenhouse is drawn by air
circulation created by the network of HAF fans and to complete cycle, proper quantity of air is let out
through exhaust fans. The combined action of louvered inlet, HAF fans and exhaust fans distribute cold
air throughout the greenhouse.
Similar to convection tubes, HAF fans can be used to distribute heat in greenhouse when neither
cooling nor heating is required. The HAF fans or convection tube can be used to bring warm air down
from the upper level of gable and to provide uniform temperature in plant zone. It is possible to integrate
summer and winter cooling systems with heating arrangements inside a greenhouse for complete
temperature control requirements for certain days of season.
Greenhouse ventilation
Ventilation is the process of allowing fresh air to enter in to enclosed area by driving out air with
undesirable properties. In greenhouse context, ventilation is essential for reducing temperature,
replenishing CO2 and controlling relative humidity. Ventilation requirements for greenhouses vary
greatly depending on crop grown and the season of production.
The ventilation system can be either a passive system (natural ventilation) or an active system
(forced ventilation) using fans. Usually, greenhouses that are used seasonally, employ natural ventilation
only. The plant response to specific environment factor is related to physiological processes and hence,
latter affects yield and quality. Hence, controlling of environment is of great importance to realize
complete benefit of CEA. Manual maintenance of uniform environmental condition inside greenhouse
is very difficult and cumbersome.
A poor maintenance results in less crop production, low quality and low income. For effective
control of automatic systems, microprocessor and computer are now a days used to maintain
environmental conditions inside greenhouses.
(a) Natural ventilation: In tropics, sides of greenhouse structures are often left open for natural
ventilation. Tropical greenhouse is primarily a rain shelter, a cover of polyethylene over the crop to
prevent rainfall from entering the growing area. This mitigates the problem of foliage diseases.
Ventilators are located on both roof slopes adjacent to the ridge and also on both side walls of
greenhouse. The ventilators on roof as well as those on the side wall accounts, each about 10% of total
roof area.
During winter cooling phase, south-roof ventilators are opened in stages to meet cooling needs.
When greater cooling is required, north ventilator is opened in addition to south ventilator. In summer
cooling phase, south ventilator is opened first, followed by north ventilator. As incoming air moves
across greenhouse, it is warmed by sunlight and by mixing with warmer greenhouse air. With increase
in temperature, incoming air becomes lighter and rises up and flows out through roof ventilators. This
sets up a chimney effect (Fig. 23), which in turn draws in more air from side ventilators creating a
continuous cycle. This system did not adequately cool greenhouse. On hot days, interior walls and floor
are frequently injected with water to help cooling.
Fig. 23: Chimney effect in general passive ventilation.
Roll-up side passive ventilation in polyhouses
In roll-up method of ventilation (Figs. 24a & 24b), air is allowed to flow across the plants. The
amount of ventilation on one side or both sides, may be easily adjusted in response to temperature,
prevailing wind and rain.
Fig. 24a: Roll-up side passive ventilation.
Fig. 24b: Roll-up door flap arrangement for the greenhouse.
During periods of excessive heat, it may be necessary to roll sides up almost to the top. Passive
ventilation can also be accomplished by manually raising or parting the polyethylene sheet. The open
vent areas must be covered with screens to prevent virus diseases. The holes must be large enough to
permit free flow of air. Screens with small holes blocks air movement and cause dust build-up. Roll-up
side passive ventilation on plastic greenhouses is only effective on free standing greenhouses and not on
gutter connected greenhouses.
(b) Forced ventilation: In forced/active ventilation, mechanical devices such as fans are used to
expel air. This type of ventilation can achieve uniform cooling. These include summer fan-and-pad and
fog cooling systems and winter convection tube and horizontal airflow systems. For mechanical
ventilation, low pressure, medium volume propeller blade fans, both directly connected and belt-driven
are used for ventilation. They are placed at the end of greenhouse opposite to air intake, which is
normally covered by gravity or motorized louvers. The fans vents, or louvers, should be motorized, with
their action controlled by fan operation. Motorized louvers prevent wind from opening the louvers,
especially when heat is being supplied to greenhouse. Wall vents should be placed continuously across
the end of greenhouse to avoid hot areas in crop zone.
Evaporative cooling in combination with fans is called as, fan-and-pad cooling system. The fans
and pads are usually arranged on opposite walls of greenhouse (Figs. 25a & 25b).
Fig. 25a: Fan-and-pad type active summer cooling system.
Fig. 25b: Fan and pad Arrangement in active summer cooling system.
The common types of cooling pads are made of excelsior (wood fiber), aluminium fiber, glass
fiber, plastic fiber and cross-fluted cellulose material. Evaporative cooling systems are especially
efficient in low humidity environments. There is growing interest in building greenhouses combining
both passive (natural) and active (forced) systems of ventilation. Passive ventilation is utilized as the
first stage of cooling, while fan-pad evaporative cooling takes over when passive system does not
provide needed cooling. At this stage, vents for natural ventilation are closed. When both options for
cooling are designed in greenhouse construction, initial costs of installation will be more but operational
costs are minimized in long run, since natural ventilation will most often meet the needed ventilation
requirements.
Fogging systems is an alternative to evaporative pad cooling. They depend absolutely on clean
water, free of any soluble salts, in order to prevent plugging of mist nozzles. Such costly cooling systems
are not as common as evaporative cooling pads. Fogging systems are the second stage of cooling when
passive systems are inadequate.
The northern parts of our country experience cold winters, where heating system need to be
employed in greenhouses along with cooling systems for summer, whereas southern region greenhouses
need only cooling systems since winter cold effect is not that much severe there. Greenhouse heating is
required in cold weather conditions, if entrapped heat is not sufficient during nights. The heat is always
lost from greenhouse when surroundings are relatively cooler. Heat must be supplied to a greenhouse at
the same rate with which it is lost in order to maintain a desired temperature. Heat losses can occur in
three different modes of heat transfer, namely conduction, convection, and radiation. Maintenance of
desired higher temperature, compared with surroundings needs heating systems and heat distribution
systems. For the purpose of greenhouse heating, apart from conventional systems, solar energy can also
be used and the heat can be stored using water and rock storage. Different heat conservation practices
are available to effectively utilize heat energy.
MODES OF HEAT LOSS
The heating systems, in a continuous process, should supply heat just enough to compensate
which is lost. Most heat is lost by conduction through covering materials of greenhouse. Different
materials, such as aluminium sash bars, glass polyethylene, and cement partition walls vary in
conduction according to the rate at which each conducts heat from warm interior to colder exterior. A
good conductor of heat loses more heat in a shorter time than a bad conductor and vice versa. There are
only limited ways of insulating covering material without blocking the light transmission. A dead air
space between two coverings appears to be the best system. A saving of 40% of heat requirement can be
achieved when a second covering in applied e.g., greenhouse covered with one layer of polyethylene
loses, 6.8W of heat through each square meter of covering every hour when the outside temperature is
1oC lower than that of inside temperature. When second layer of polyethylene is added, only 3.97 W/m2
is lost (40% reduction).
A second mode of heat loss is that of convection (air infiltration). Spaces between panes of glass
or FRP and ventilators and doors permit passage of warm air outward and cold air inward. A general
assumption holds that the volume of air held in a greenhouse can be lost as often as once every 60
minutes in a double layer film plastic or polycarbonate panel greenhouse, every 40 minutes in a new
glass greenhouse and every 30 minutes in an old well-maintained glass greenhouse, and every 15 minutes
in an old poorly-maintained glass greenhouse. About 10% of total heat loss from a structurally tight
glass greenhouse occurs through infiltration loss.
Fig. 26a: Greenhouse heat loss and gain pathways.
Fig. 26b: Greenhouse heat loss and gain pathways.
A third mode of heat loss from a greenhouse is that of radiation. Warm objects emit radiant
energy, which passes through air to colder objects without warming air significantly. The colder objects
become warmer. Glass, vinyl plastic, FRP, and water are relatively opaque to radiant energy, whereas
polyethylene is not. Polyethylene greenhouses can lose considerable amounts of heat through radiation
to colder objects outside, unless a film of moisture forms on the polyethylene to provide a barrier.
HEATING SYSTEMS
The heating system must provide heat to greenhouse at the same rate at which it is lost by
conduction, infiltration, and radiation. There are three popular types of heating systems for greenhouses
namely, unit heater, central heating system and radiation heating.
The most common and least expensive is the unit heater system. In this system, warm air is
blown from unit heaters that have self-contained fireboxes. These heaters consist of three functional
parts. Fuel is combusted in a firebox to provide heat. The heat is initially contained in exhaust, which
rises through inside of a set of thin-walled metal tubes on its way to the exhaust stack. The warm exhaust
transfers heat to cooler metal walls of tubes. Much of heat is removed from exhaust by the time it reaches
the stack through which it leaves the greenhouse. A fan in the back of unit heater draws in greenhouse
air, passing it over the exterior side of tubes and then out from the heater to the greenhouse environment
again. The cool air passing over hot metal tubes is warmed and the air is circulated.
A second type of system is central heating system, which consists of a central boiler than
produces steam or hot water, plus a radiating mechanism in greenhouse to dissipate heat. A central
heating system can be more efficient than unit heaters, especially in large greenhouses. In this system,
two or more large boilers are in a single location. Heat is transported in the form of hot water or steam
through pipe mains to be growing area, and several arrangements of heating pipes in greenhouse is
possible (Fig. 27).
Fig. 27: Arrangement of heating pipe coils using steam or hot water in greenhouse.
The heat is exchanged from the hot water in a pipe coil located across the greenhouse or an
in-bed pipe coil located in plant zone. Some greenhouses have a third pipe coil embedded in a concrete
floor. A set of unit heaters can be used in place of overhead pipe coil, obtaining heat from hot water or
steam from central boiler.
The third type of system is radiation heating system. In this system, gas is burned within pipes
suspended overhead in the greenhouse. The warm pipes supply heat to the plants. Low intensity infrared
radiant heaters can save 30% or more of fuel compared to conventional heaters. Several of these heaters
are installed in tandem in the greenhouse. Lower air temperatures are possible since only the plants and
root substrate are heated directly by this mode of heating.
The fourth possible type of system is the solar heating system, but it is still too expensive to be
a viable option. Solar heating systems are found in hobby greenhouses and small commercial firms. Both
water and rock energy storage systems are used in combination with solar energy. The high cost of solar
heating systems discourages any significant use by greenhouse industries.
HEAT DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
Heat is distributed from unit heaters by one of two common methods. In convection tube
method, warm air from unit heaters is distributed through a transparent polyethylene tube running
through the length of the greenhouse. Heat escapes from the tube through holes on either side of the tube
in small jet streams, which rapidly mix with surrounding air and set up a circulation pattern to minimize
temperature gradients.
The second method of heat distribution is horizontal airflow. In this system, greenhouse may
be visualized as a large box containing air, and it uses small horizontal fans for moving the air mass.
The fans are located above plant height and are spaced about 15m apart in two rows. Their arrangement
is that, the heat originating at one corner of greenhouse is directed from one side of greenhouse to the
opposite end and then back along the other side of greenhouse. Proper arrangement of fans is necessary
for effective distribution in horizontal airflow system for various greenhouse sizes. Both of these
distribution systems can also be used for general circulation of air and for introducing cold outside air
during winter cooling.
SOLAR HEATING SYSTEM
Solar heating is often used as a partial or total alternative to fossil fuel heating systems. Few solar
heating systems (Fig. 28) exist in greenhouses today. The general components of solar heating system
are collector, heat storage facility, exchange to transfer the solar derived heat to the greenhouse air,
backup heater to take over when solar heating does not suffice and set of controls.
Fig. 28: Solar heating system for greenhouse.
Various solar heat collectors are in existence, but flat plate collector has received greatest
attention. This consists of a flat black plate (rigid plastic, film plastic, sheet metal, or board) for absorbing
solar energy. The plate is covered on the sun side by two or more transparent glass or plastic layers and
on the backside by insulation. The enclosing layers serve to hold the collected heat within the collector.
Water or air is passed through copper tubes placed over black plate and absorb entrapped heat and carry
it to the storage facility. A greenhouse itself can be considered as a solar collector. Some of its collected
heat is stored in the soil, plants, greenhouse frame, floor, and so on. The remaining heat is excessive for
plant growth and is therefore vented to the outside. The excess vented heat could just as well be directed
to a rock bed for storage and subsequent use during a period of heating. Collection of heat by flat-plate
collection is most efficient when the collector is positioned perpendicular to the sun at solar noon. Based
on locations, heat derived can provide 20 to 50% of heat requirement.
Water and rock storage
Water and rocks are the two most common materials for storage of heat in the greenhouse.
One kg of water can hold 4.23 kJ of heat for each 1°C rise in temperature. Rocks can store about
0.83 kJ for each 1°C. To store equivalent amounts of heat, a rock bed would have to be three times as
large as a water tank. A water storage system is well adapted to a water collector and a greenhouse
heating system which consists of a pipe coil or a unit heater which contains a water coil.
Heated water from the collector is pumped to the storage tank during the day. As and when heat
is required, warm water is pumped form the storage tank to a hot water or steam boiler or into the hot
water coil within a unit heater. Although solar-heated water will be cooler than the thermostat setting on
the boiler, heat can be saved, since the temperature of this water need be raised as high as to reach output
temperature of water or steam from the boiler.
A temperature rise of 17°C above ambient condition is expected during daytime in solar storage
units. Each kilogram of water can supply 71.1 kJ of heat, and each kilogram of rock cansupply14.2 kJ
of heat, as it cools by 17°C. A rock storage bed can be used with an air-collector and forced air heating
system. In this case, heated air form collector, along with air excessively heated inside the greenhouse
during day is forced through a bed of rocks (Fig. 29). The rocks absorb much of the heat. The rock bed
may be located beneath the floor of the greenhouse or outside the greenhouse, and it should be well
insulated against heat loss. During night, when heat is required in greenhouse, cool air from inside
greenhouse is forced through the rocks, where it is warmed and the passed back into the greenhouse.
Fig. 29: Cross-section of a typical rock storage unit.
A clear polyethylene tube with holes along either side serves well to distribute warm air
uniformly along the length of greenhouse. Conventional convection tubes can be used for distributing
solar heated air. The water or rock storage unit occupies a large amount of space and a considerable
amount of insulation is provided if the unit is placed outside. Placing it inside the greenhouse offers an
advantage in that escaping heat is beneficial during heating periods, but it is detrimental when heating
is not required. Rock beds can pose a problem in that they must remain relatively dry. Water evaporating
from these beds will remove considerable heat.
GREENHOUSE EQUIPMENT
(a) Microprocessors: Dedicated microprocessors (Fig. 30) can be considered as simple

computers. A typical microprocessor will have a keypad and a two- or three- line liquid crystal display
of sometimes, 80-character length for programming. They generally do not have a floppy disk drive.
They have more output connections and can control up to 20 devices. With these number of devices, it
is cheaper to use a microprocessor. They can receive signals of several types such as, temperature, light
intensity, rain and wind speed. They permit integration of diverse range of devices, which is not possible
with thermostats. The accuracy of microprocessor for temperature control is quite good. Unlike a
thermostat, which is limited to a bi-metallic strip or metallic tube for temperature sensing and its
mechanical displacement for activation, the microprocessor often uses a thermistor. The bi-metallic strip
sensor has less reproducibility and a greater range between ON and OFF steps. Microprocessors can be
made to operate various devices, for instance, a microprocessor can operate ventilators based on
information received from sensor (Figs. 31a & 31b) for wind direction and its speed. Similarly, a rain
sensor can also activate ventilators to prevent moisture sensitive crop from getting wet. A
microprocessor can be set to activate CO2 generator when light intensity exceeds a given set-point, a
minimum level for photosynthesis.
Fig. 30: Dedicated microprocessor for controlling greenhouse environment.
Fig. 31a: Microprocessor with sensors.
Fig. 31b: Microprocessor with sensors.
(b) Computers: Now-a-days, computer control systems are common in greenhouse installation
throughout Europe, Japan and the United States. These computer systems can provide fully integrated
control of humidity, temperature, irrigation and fertilization, CO2, light and shade levels for any size
growing facility (Fig. 32). Precise control over a growing operation enables growers to realize saving of
15 to 50% in energy, water, chemical and pesticide applications. Computer controls normally help to
achieve greater plant consistency, on-schedule production, higher overall plant quality and
environmental purity.
Fig. 32: Computerized control systems in greenhouse.
A computer can control hundreds of devices within a greenhouse (vents, heaters, fans, hot water
mixing valves, irrigation valves, curtains and lights) by utilizing dozens of input parameters, such as
outside and inside temperatures, humidity, outside wind direction and its velocity, CO2 levels and even
the time of day or night. Computer systems receive signals from all sensors, evaluate all conditions and
send appropriate commands every minute to each piece of equipment in the greenhouse and thus,
maintain ideal conditions in each of various independent greenhouse zones defined by the grower.
Computers collect and record data provided by greenhouse production managers. Such a data acquisition
system will enable the grower to gain a comprehensive knowledge of all factors affecting the quality
and timeliness of product. A computer produces graphs of past and current environmental conditions
both inside and outside the greenhouse. Using a data printout option, growers can produce reports and
summaries of environmental conditions such as temperature, humidity and CO2 status for a given day,
or over a longer period of time for current or later use.
As more environmental factors in greenhouse are controlled, there comes a stage when individual
controls cannot be coordinated to prevent system overlap. An example is greenhouse thermostat calling
for heating while the exhaust fans are still running.
With proper software program, which uses environmental parameters as input from different
sensors, can effectively coordinate all equipment without overlap and precisely control all parameters
affecting plant development as desired. Despite the attraction of computer systems, it should be
remembered that the success of any production system is totally dependent on grower’s knowledge of
system and crop management. Computers can only assist by adding precision to overall greenhouse
production practice, and they are only as effective as the software it runs and the effectively of operator.
The advantages and disadvantages of computerized control system are:
Advantages
1. Computer always knows what all systems are doing and, if programmed properly, can coordinate
these systems without overlap to provide optimum environment.
2. Computer can record environmental data, which can be displayed to show current conditions or
stored and processed ones to provide a history of cropping period, and if desired it may also be
displayed in table or graph form.
3. A high-speed computer with networking facility can control several remotely located
greenhouses, by placing computer in a central area and results can be monitored frequently by
the management.
4. With proper programming and sensing systems, computer can anticipate weather changes and
make adjustments in heating and ventilation systems, thus saving the energy.
5. The computer can be programmed to sound an alarm if conditions become unacceptable to and
to detect sensor and equipment failure.
Disadvantages
1. High initial cost investment.
2. Requires qualified operators.
3. High maintenance, care and precautions are required.
4. Not economical for small scale and seasonal production.
(c) Greenhouse heater: Both commercial and domestic greenhouse farming requires heaters as
they are the most important equipment. These heater keeps greenhouse warm whenever inside of
greenhouses gets cold. For using benefit, heater must be handy and technically good especially in winter
season. The best quality equipment surely provides working benefits such as easy to use and time-saving.
Fig.: Greenhouse heater.

(d) Hard-wearing greenhouse staging with long durability: In order to produce more
vegetation comparing to other greenhouses, more importance on greenhouse staging made with heavy-
duty and hard-wearing is required. As a result of that, one can lessen burden to carry heavy pots full of
greenhouse products to the truck for delivery or greenhouse farming. That means greenhouse staging is
used for easier transfer.
(e) Thermometer: Thermometer is one of the most important equipment for greenhouse
farming. The capacity of thermometers depends on the size and shape of greenhouses. For large
commercial greenhouses, arrangement of a heavy-duty thermometer is required.
Fig.: Greenhouse thermometer.

(f) Equipment for water sprinkling: For large commercial greenhouse manual watering
becomes troublesome. In that reason, watering equipment are required to be procured to manage
watering services for plants.
(g) Seed tray: To produce more products through greenhouse farming, seed tray is very
important equipment as with its help seeds in good condition storing them can be ensured.
Fig.: Seed tray.
Materials of construction for traditional and low-cost greenhouses
(Wood/ bamboo, Galvanized iron poles, Aluminium, Reinforced cement concrete,
Glass, Polyethylene film, Poly Vinyl Chloride film, Tefzel T2 film, Fiberglass reinforced plastic rigid
panel, Acrylic & Polycarbonate rigid panel)
Following materials are commonly used to build frames for greenhouse:

i. Wood/ bamboo
ii. Galvanized iron pipe
iii. Aluminium
iv. Steel
v. Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC)
vi. Glass
vii. Polyethylene film
viii. Poly vinyl chloride film
ix. Tefzel T2 film
x. Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic (FRP) rigid panel
xi. Acrylic & polycarbonate rigid panel.
The selection of above materials is based on their specific physical properties, requirements of
design strength, life expectancy and cost of construction materials.
(a) Wood/ Bamboo: Wood and bamboo are generally used in low-cost polyhouses where wood
is used for making frames consisting of side posts and columns, over which polythene sheet is fixed.
The commonly used woods are pine and casuarina, which are strong and less expensive. In pipe-framed
polyhouses, wooden battens can be used as end-frames for fixing covering material. In tropical areas,
bamboo is often used to form gable roof of a greenhouse structure. Wood must be painted with white
colour paint to improve light conditions within the greenhouse. Care should be taken to select a paint
that will prevent growth of mould. Wood must be treated for protection against decay. Chromated copper
arsenate and ammonical copper arsenate are water-based preservatives that are applied to wood that may
come into contact with the soil. Expensive Red wood or cypress (natural decay resistance woods) can
also be used in desert or tropical regions.
Fig.: Wooden scissors-truss type film plastic greenhouse.

(b) Galvanised Iron, Aluminium, Steel, Reinforced Cement Concrete: Galvanised iron (G.I.)
pipes, tubular steel and angle iron are generally used for side posts, columns and purlins in greenhouse
structure, as wood is becoming scarce and more expensive. In galvanising operation, the surface of iron
or steel is coated with a thin layer of zinc to protect it against corrosion. The commonly followed
processes to protect against corrosion are:
(i) Hot dip galvanising (hot-process) process: The cleaned member is dipped in molten zinc,
which produces a skin of zinc alloy to steel.
(ii) Electro-galvanising (cold-process) process: The cleaned member is zinc-plated similar to
other forms of electroplating. The galvanising process makes iron rust-proof to eliminate
problem of rusting. Aluminium and hot-dipped G.I. are comparatively maintenance-free. In
tropical areas, double dipping of steel is required as single dip galvanising process does not
give a complete cover of even thickness to steel. Aluminium and steel must be protected by
painting with bitumen tar, to protect these materials from corrosion, while these materials
contact with ground. Now-a-days, greenhouse construction is of metal type, which is more
permanent. RCC is generally limited to foundations and low walls. In permanent bigger
greenhouses, floors and benches for growing crops are made of concrete.
(c) Glass: Glass has been traditional glazing material all over the world. Widely used glass for
greenhouse are: (i) Single-drawn or float glass and (ii) Hammered and tempered glass. Single drawn or
float glass has uniform thickness of 3-4 mm, while Hammered and tempered glass has a thickness of 4
mm. Single drawn glass is made in traditional way by simply pulling molten glass either by hand or by
mechanical equipment. Float glass is made in modern way by allowing molten glass to float on molten
tin. Coating with metal oxide with a low emissivity is used for saving of energy with adequate light
transmittance. Hammered glass is a cast glass with one face (exterior) smooth and other one (interior)
rough. It is designed to enhance light diffusion. This glass is not transparent, but translucent. Tempered
glass is glass which is quickly cooled after manufacture, adopting a procedure similar to that used for
steel. This kind of processing gives higher impact resistance to the, which is generally caused by hail.
Glass used as a covering material of greenhouses is expected to be subjected to rather severe wind
loading, snow and hail loading conditions. The strength mainly depends on ratio of length: width of
panel and on the thickness of panel, but 4 mm is the most widely used thickness.
(d) Polyethylene film: Polyethylene is principally used today for two reasons namely,
(i) Plastic film greenhouses with permanent metal frames which costs less than glass greenhouses, and
(ii) Plastic film greenhouses are popular because cost of heating them is approximately 40% lower as
compared to single-layer glass or fiberglass-reinforced plastic greenhouses.
Disadvantages:
• Covering materials are short-lived compared to glass and plastic panels.
• UV light from the sun causes plastic to darken, thereby lowering transmission of light, also
making it brittle, which leads to its breakage due to wind.
• A thermal screen is installed inside a glass greenhouse that will lower the requirement to
approximately that of a double-layer plastic film greenhouse, but this increases the cost of glass
greenhouse.
Polyethylene film was developed in the late 1930s in England and spread around the middle of
this century. Commonly used plastic for greenhouse coverings are thermoplastics. Basic characteristics
of thermoplastics are: (i) it consists of long chain molecules, soften with heating and harden with cooling
and this process is reversible, and (ii) they constitute a group of material that are attractive to the designer
for two main reasons:
(a) Thermoplastics have specific physical properties namely, stiffness, robustness and resilience
to resist loads and deformations imposed during normal use, and
(b) It can readily be processed using efficient mass production techniques, resulting in low labour
charge.
The main reason to use polyethylene year-round for greenhouse covering is due to presence of
UV-inhibitor in it, otherwise, it lasts for only one heating season. UV-inhibited plastic cover may last
for a period of 4-5 years. UV-grade polyethylene is available in widths up to 15.2 m in flat sheets and
up to 7.6 m in tubes. Standard lengths include 30.5, 33.5, 45.7, 61, and 67 m. Some companies provide
custom lengths upto a maximum of 91.5 m. Condensation on polythene film is a big problem as it causes
development of disease and waterlogged condition, and oxygen deficiency inside greenhouse. It also
reduces light intensity within greenhouse and to avoid this problem, anti-fog surfactant (discourages
condensation), is built into the film or panel. Warm objects, such as plants, greenhouse frame and soil
radiate IR energy to colder bodies at night, which result in loss of heat in greenhouse. Since polyethylene
is a poor barrier to radiant heat, it is formulated with IR-blocking chemicals into it during manufacture
to stop about half of radiant heat loss. On cold and clear nights, as much as 25% of total heat loss of a
greenhouse can be prevented in this way, while on cloudy nights only 15% is prevented.
UV-stabilised polyethylene, on an average transmits about 87% of Photosynthetically Active Radiation
(PAR) into greenhouse. The IR absorbing polyethylene reduces radiant heat loss and transmits about
82% of PAR into greenhouse. The amount of light passing through two layers of a greenhouse covering
is approximately the square of decimal fraction of amount passing through one layer e.g., when 87%
passes through one layer of UV-inhibited polyethylene, only 76% (0.87 x 0.87) passes through two
layers. Similarly, when 82% passes through one layer of IR-absorbing polyethylene, only
67% (0.82 x 0.82) passes through two layers.
(e) Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC) films: PVC films are UV light resistant vinyl films of
0.2-0.3 mm and have guaranteed life of 4-5 years. The cost of 0.3 mm vinyl film is three times than that
of 0.15mm polyethylene. Vinyl film is produced in rolls up to 1.27m wide. Vinyl films tend to hold a
static electrical charge, which attracts and holds dust. This in-turn reduces light transmittance unless the
dust is washed off from them. Vinyl films are seldom used in the United States. In Japan, 95% of
greenhouses are covered with plastic film, out of which 90% are covered with vinyl film.
(f) Tefzel T2 film: The most recent addition of greenhouse film plastic covering is Tefzel T2 film
(ethylene tetrafluoroethylene). Earlier, this film was used as covering on solar collectors. Anticipated
life expectancy is 20 years. The light transmission is 95% and is greater than that of any other
greenhouse covering material. A double layer has a light transmission of 90% (0.95 x 0.95). Tefzel T 2
film is more transparent to IR radiation than other film plastics. Hence, less heat is trapped inside
greenhouse during hot weather. As a result, less cooling energy is required. Disadvantage is that the film
is available only in 1.27m wide rolls. This requires clamping rails on greenhouse for every 1.2m.
If reasonable width strips become available, price will not be a problem, because a double layer covering
will still cost less than a polycarbonate panel covering with its aluminium extrusions, and will last longer,
and have much higher light intensity inside greenhouse.
(g) Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC) rigid panel: Initially, PVC rigid panels showed much promise
as an inexpensive covering material (almost 40% of cost of long-lasting fiberglass reinforced plastics)
has 5 years life. After commercial application, these panels indicated much shorter life expectancy
(≤ 2 years) which is undesirable factor, because cost of PVC panels is 4-5 times than that of polyethylene
film and they require much more time to install. Now-a-days, PVC rigid panels are not in use.
(h) Fiberglass-Reinforced Plastic (FRP) rigid panel: In recent past, FRP was more popular as
a greenhouse covering material.
Advantages: It is more resistant to breakage by factors, such as hail or vandals. Sunlight passing
through FRP is scattered by fibers in panels, as a result the light intensity is rather uniform throughout
the greenhouse in comparison with a glass covering.
Disadvantages: The panels are subjected to etching and pitting by dust abrasion and chemical
pollution. Based on grade, the usable life period of FRP panel varies. Some grades last up to 5-10 years,
while better grades can last up to 20 years. FRP panels are flexible enough to conform to the shape of
Quonset greenhouses, which make FRP a very versatile covering material. FRP can be applied to
inexpensive frames of plastic film greenhouses or to more elaborate frames of glass type greenhouses.
The price of FRP greenhouse lies between that of a plastic film greenhouse and a glass greenhouse but
the cost is compensated by elimination of need for replacement of film plastic in every year or alternate
years. Corrugated panels are used because of their greater strength. Flat panels are used occasionally for
the end- and side-walls, where load is not great. It is available in 1.3 m width, length up to 7.3 m and in
a variety of colours. The total quantity of light transmitted through clear FRP is approximately equivalent
to that transmitted through glass, but diminishes in relation to its colour. For greenhouse crops in general,
only clear FRP permits a satisfactory level of light transmission (88-90%). Coloured FRP has found a
limited use in greenhouses intended for growing houseplants that require low light intensity and in
display greenhouses for holding plants during sales period. FRP has advantage over glass is that it cools
easily. FRP greenhouses require fewer structural members since sash bars are not needed.
(i) Acrylic and polycarbonate rigid panel: These panels are available for about 15 years for
greenhouse use. The panels have been used for glazing side- and end- walls of plastic film greenhouses
and retrofitting old glass greenhouse. Acrylic panels are highly inflammable, whereas polycarbonate
panels are non-flammable. Acrylic panels are popular due to their higher light transmission and longer
life. These panels are available in thickness of 16mm and 18mm, and have 83% of PAR light
transmission. Acrylic panels cannot be bent, but thinner panels can be bent to fit curved-roof
greenhouses. These panels are also available with a coating to prevent condensation drip. Polycarbonate
panels are preferred for commercial greenhouses due to lower price, flame resistance and greater
resistance to hail damage. Polycarbonate panels are available in thickness of 4, 6, 8, 10 and 16 mm.
These panels are also available with a coating to prevent condensation and also with an acrylic coating
for extra protection from UV light.
GREENHOUSE UTILIZATION IN OFF-SEASON
Drying is traditional method for preserving food. It also helps in easy transport since dried food
becomes lighter because of moisture evaporation. Drying of seed prevents germination and growth of
fungi and bacteria. The traditional practice of drying agricultural produce in developing countries is sun-
drying, which is seasonal, intermittent, slow, and unhygienic. To overcome problems of sun-drying,
mechanical drying is introduced with following advantages:
(i) fast drying,

(ii) large volumes of produce can be handled, and
(iii) drying parameters can be controlled and quality of produce can be maintained.
The energy demand of conventional mechanical dryers is met by electricity, fossil fuels, and
firewood are becoming scarce. Solar energy can be an alternative source for drying of food and solar
dryers are employed for the purpose. The use of greenhouse as a dryer is the latest development. The
drying capabilities of greenhouse can be utilized for curing tobacco leaves, while guarding the harvest
from rain damage.
Drying of agricultural produce: In an efficiently managed greenhouse, there will not be any
time gap between crops. However, for some other management reasons, if crops are not grown in a
particular period, the greenhouse can be utilized as a solar dryer. A small amount (15-30%) of incoming
solar radiation is reflected back from the surface of greenhouse, with the remainder is transmitted into
the interior. Most of this transmitted radiation is absorbed by plants, soil and other internal surfaces, and
the rest is reflected. The usage of greenhouse for the purpose of drying is of recent origin. Scientists
investigated usage of greenhouse type solar dryer for drying grapes and developed a greenhouse type
fruit dryer-cum-hot house used as dryer in summer and as hot house in winter. They were successful in
advocating year-round utilization of greenhouse facility and thus reducing the operation cost per unit
output.
Fig.: Greenhouse dryer.
In general, the produce is spread as thin layers in trays covering the greenhouse area. The trays
can be fabricated with sheet metal and wire mesh. Trays should be arranged horizontally on existing
growing benches or frames. For better operation, proper ventilation should be provided by either forced
or natural ventilation, to remove the moisture liberating from the produce and to control air temperature
inside the greenhouse. The natural ventilation can be enhanced by using a black LDPE chimney
connected to greenhouse.
(a) Tent dryer: Tent solar dryers (Fig.) are cheap and simple to build and consist of a frame of
wood poles covered with plastic sheet. Black plastic should be used on the wall facing away from the
sun. The product to be dried is placed on a support above the ground. It takes same amount of time for
drying of products as in open air drying. The main purpose of dryers is to provide protection from dust,
dirt, rain, wind or predators and they are usually used for fruit, fish, coffee or other products for which
wastage is otherwise high. Tent dryers can also be taken down and stored when not in use. They have
disadvantage of being easily damaged by strong winds.
Fig.: Tent solar dryer.

(b) Box dryer: The box-type solar dryer has been widely used for small-scale food drying. It consists
of a wooden box with an attached transparent lid. The inside surface is painted black and the product is
supported on a mesh tray above the dryer floor. Air flows into chamber through holes in the front and
exits from vent holes at the top of back-wall.
Fig.: Box solar dryer.

(c) Solar cabinet dryer: The cabinet is a large wooden or metal box and the product is located in trays
or shelves inside a drying cabinet (Fig.). If chamber is transparent, dryer is named as integral-type or
direct solar dryer while, if chamber is opaque, dryer is named as distributed type or indirect solar dryer.
Mixed-mode dryers combine the features of both integral (direct type) and distributed (indirect type)
solar dryers. The combined action of solar radiation incident directly on the product to be dried and hot
air provides necessary heat required for drying process. In most cases, air is warmed during its flow
through a low pressure drop solar collector and passes through air ducts into the drying chamber and
over drying trays containing the crops. The moist air is then discharged through air vents or a chimney
at the top of chamber. It should be insulated properly to minimize heat losses and made durable (within
economically justifiable limits). Construction from metal sheets or water-resistant cladding, e.g.,
paint/resin, is recommended. Heated air flows through stack of trays until the entire product is dry. As
hot air enters through bottom tray, this tray will dry first. The last tray to dry is the one at the top of
chamber.
Fig.: Solar cabinet dryer. Fig.: Natural convection type
solar cabinet dryer.
Curing of tobacco: Tobacco is an important foreign exchange earning commercial crop of India, which
provides employment opportunities to lakhs of people. Curing of tobacco is a delicate and vital process
in producing good quality leaves. Tobacco curing essentially refers to drying of harvested fresh tobacco
leaves under controlled temperature, humidity and ventilation in order to initiate essential bio-chemical
processes. The success of curing also depends on the condition of harvested leaves and their degree of
maturity. The usual curing methods are flue, air, pit, fire and sun-curing. The open-field sun curing is
the cheapest method of curing. The drying capabilities of greenhouse can be successfully utilized for
curing tobacco.
Different stages of tobacco curing require specific environmental conditions for the best product,
which can be maintained easily in a greenhouse. The harvested tobacco leaves are made into bunches of
few leaves by knots and arranged serially to form a string with free ends left for fixing it. Scaffoldings
should be erected inside greenhouse and string of leaves is tied to them for tobacco curing process. To
increase capacity, strings are tied with judicious gap between them and also put in tiers. As curing
progresses, leaves loose moisture and string will become lighter and initial sag in strings can be
corrected. For maintaining uniform product quality, strings can be cycled among tiers in a specified
sequence. Humidity and temperature control by proper ventilation and frequent inspection is important
in tobacco curing operations.
COST ESTIMATION AND ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
Indicative Bill of Material for construction of 100 m2 bamboo polyhouse
S. No. Particulars Qty Rate (Rs.) Cost (Rs.)
3 3
1. Land levelling/ earthwork 65 m 80/m 5200.00
2. Bamboo pole 7-10 cm diameter 240 m 30/m 7200.00
3. Bamboo pole 5-7 cm diameter 350 m 20/m 7000.00
4. Coaltar/ Bitumen or preservative 6 litres 100/litre 600.00
5. Polyfilm 25 micron (Non-UV) 3 kg 200/kg 600.00
6. Nails 5-10 cm size 3 kg 200/kg 600.00
7. Aluminium/ MS strip 2cm wide 80 m 40/m 3200.00
2 2
8. Shadenet 110 m 50/m 5500.00
9. UV Polyfilm 200 micron 280 m2 55/m2 15400.00
10. Insect Proof (IP) net (40 mesh) 50 m2 40/m2 2000.00
11. Rope (Coir/ PP) 3 kg 150/kg 450.00
12. Bamboo pegs 100 Nos. 25/peg 2500.00
13. Aluminium/ MS profile with spring 130 m 30/m 3900.00
14. Doors with fittings 2 1200/door 2400.00
Sub-total (Rs.) 56550.00
15. Miscellaneous items Lum sum 10% of ∑(1- 5655.00
14)
16. Labour charges 100 m2 75/m2 7500.00
Total (Rs.) 69705.00
Or, say (Rs.) 70000.00
Estimated cost for 100 m2 bamboo polyhouse 70000.00
2
Estimated cost for 1 m bamboo polyhouse 700.00
MATERIAL REQUIREMENT FOR CONSTRUCTION OF
“A” TYPE BROKEN ROOF GREENHOUSE (NATURALLY VENTILATED)
Size: 60 m x 30 m = 1800 m2
Pole spacing: Along width = 3 m, and Along length = 4 m.
Ventilation: 100% of floor area and covered with insect-proof (IP) net.
S. No. Items Quantity Rate (Rs.) Cost (Rs.)
1. G.I. pipe
(i) 50 mm dia 100 m 240/m 24000.00
(ii) 25 mm dia 380 m 160/m 60800.00
2. Cement concrete 1:3:6 50 poles 250/pole (60 kg/ pole) 12500.00
3. Polyfilm (200 micron) 450 m2 55/m2 24750.00
2
4. Insect Proof net (40 mesh) 200 m 40/m2 8000.00
5. Doors and entry space 2+1 500 each 1500.00
6. Profile + Zigzag 300 m 30/m 9000.00
Sub-total (Rs.) 140550.00
7. Miscellaneous items & fittings Lum sum 10% of 1-6 14050.00
8. Labour charges 180 m2 125/m2 22500.00
Total (Rs.) 177100.00
Or, say (Rs.) 180000.00
Estimated cost for 180 m2 greenhouse 180000.00
Estimated cost for 1 m2 greenhouse 1000.00
Cost economics for Protected cultivation in polyhouse
ECONOMICS OF GREENHOUSE PRODUCTION
Regardless of type, protected agricultural systems are extremely expensive. The equipment and
production cost may be more than compensated by significantly higher productivity of protected
agricultural systems as compared with open field agriculture. The cost and returns of protected
agriculture vary greatly, depending on the system used, location and crop grown. By design, all protected
agricultural systems of cropping are intensive in use of land, labour, and capital. Greenhouse agriculture
is the most intensive system of all. The intensity of land use is greatly dependent upon the system of
protected agriculture. Year-round greenhouse crop production is, therefore, much more intensive than
seasonal use of mulches and row covers. Coinciding with intensity are yields, which are normally far
greater per hectare from year-round than from seasonal systems. The normal benefit of higher yields of
CEA over open field agriculture depends on the system used and the region of production.
Capital requirements
The capital requirements differ greatly among various systems of protected agriculture.
Mulching is least expensive while greenhouses require the most capital per unit of land. Total cost
involved in the production is the sum of fixed cost and operating cost (Fig.).
The fixed capital costs include land, fixed

and mobile equipment, and structures like
grading, packing and office. Fixed costs also
include taxes and maintenance. The fixed capital
costs for greenhouses clearly exceed those of
other systems of protected agriculture, but vary in
expense according to types of structure, and
environmental control and growing systems.
Operating costs include labour, fuel, utilities,
farm chemicals and packaging materials. The
operating or variable costs and fixed costs are
annual expenditures and these can be substantial.
Annual costs may correlate to some extent with
capital investment.
In estimating capital requirements, the farmer must include cost of entire system as well as
mulch. While greenhouse production systems may be far more expensive than open field systems of
equal land area, open field systems of protected agriculture are normally more expensive in field area
than in greenhouse production. Greenhouses are expensive, especially if environment is controlled by
the use of heaters, fan and pad cooling systems and computer controls.
Economics of production
Production economics considers various components of fixed and variable costs, compares them
with income and evaluates the net return on unit area basis. On an average basis, wages account for
approximately 85% of total variable cost. Wages are greatest expenditure in greenhouse production,
followed by amortization costs and then energy costs, and energy expenditure, when heating is
necessary. About 2/5th of expenses are fixed costs and about 3/5th are variable costs. Depreciation and
interest on investment accounts for most of fixed costs.
Conditions influencing returns: A number of variables which may not show up in yearly financial
balance sheet influence returns to greenhouse operators, such as economics of scale, physical facilities,
cropping patterns and government incentives. The size of any system of protected agriculture will
depend on market objectives of the farmer. Most protected agricultural endeavours are family operated.
Often products are retailed directly to consumer through a road side market at the farm site. In developed
world, greenhouse operations tend to be a size that can be operated by one family (0.4-0.8 ha). A unit of
0.4 ha can be operated by two to three labourers, with additional help at periods of peak activity. The
labour wages can usually be provided by the owner and his family. Moreover, the owner will pay close
attention to management, which is the most important factor. Labour costs may rise significantly if it is
necessary to recruit labour from outside the family. Greenhouse owners who hire a highly qualified
manager may have to operate a larger greenhouse than family size greenhouses in order to balance the
additional salary paid. The greenhouse system economy can be improved with increased size when:
1. There is a unique opportunity to mechanize certain operations.

2. Labour can be more efficiently utilized.
3. Low-cost capital is available.
4. There is economics in purchase of packaging materials and in marketing.
5. Some special management skills are available.
The physical facilities and location of greenhouse influence economics. Another variable that
influences profits from greenhouse is intensity of production, which is determined by structures with
complete environmental control system facilities year-round production and early harvest, thus enabling
the grower to realize higher profits. Year-round production offers year-round employment to the
laborers. With improved transportation facilities, new areas of production in combination with following
factors contribute to lower costs:
1. High sunlight intensity undiminished by air pollution.

2. Mild winter temperatures.
3. Infrequent violent weather conditions.
4. Low humidity during summer for cooling.
5. Availability of water with low salinity levels.
Cropping pattern will have bearing on greenhouse structure. A high-tunnel structure or any
structure not fitted with environmental controlled equipment for heating and cooling will be used only
on seasonal basis. It is common to switch over from greenhouse vegetable production to flower
production, especially in structures with more elaborate environmental control systems.
Growers throughout the world are currently experimenting with alternative crops, such as herbs.
As eating habits change, with times and as consumers are becoming increasingly conscious of diet and
nutritional value of fruits and vegetables, growers must continually look for alternative to existing
cropping patterns. Government policies also influence financial returns from crops. Government may
provide grants or low interest loans, subsidies towards construction costs, fuels, and use of plastics such
as drip irrigation systems, mulches, row covers and covering materials. Such incentives from
Government encourage growers and stimulate greenhouse industry.
Irrigation system used in greenhouses
(Rules of watering, Hand watering, Perimeter watering, Overhead sprinklers,
Boom watering, Drip irrigation)
A well-designed irrigation system will supply precise amount of water needed each day
throughout the year. The quantity of water needed would depend on growing area, crop, weather
conditions, time of year and whether the heating/ ventilation system is operating. Water needs are also
dependent on the type of soil or soil mix and the size and type of container or bed. Watering in
greenhouse most frequently accounts for loss in crop quality. Though the operation appears to be simple,
proper decision should be taken on how, when and what quantity to be given to plants after continuous
inspection and assessment. Since under watering (less frequent) and over watering (more frequent) will
be injurious to crops, the rules of watering should be strictly adhered to. Several irrigation water
application systems, such as hand writing, perimeter watering, boom watering, drip irrigation, overhead
sprinklers are currently in use.
Rules of Watering: Important rules of application of irrigation are:
Rule 1: Use a well-drained substrate with good structure: If root substrate is not well drained
and aerated, proper watering cannot be achieved. Hence substrates with ample moisture retention along
with good aeration are indispensable for proper growth of plants. The desired combination of coarse
texture and highly stable structure can be obtained from formulated substrates and not from field soil
alone.
Rule 2: Water thoroughly each time: Partial watering of substrates should be avoided, the
supplied water should flow from bottom in case of containers, and root zone is wetted thoroughly in case
of beds. As a rule, 10-15% excess water is supplied. In general, water requirement for soil-based
substrates is at a rate of 20 l/m2 of bench, 0.30 to 0.35 litres per 16.5 cm diameter pot.
Rule 3: Water just before initial moisture stress occurs: Since over watering reduces aeration
and root development, water should be applied just before the point when plant enters early symptoms
of water stress. The foliar symptoms, such as texture, colour and turbidity can be used to determine
moisture stress, which vary with crops. For crops that do not show any symptoms, colour, feel and weight
of substrates are used for assessment.
Hand watering
The most traditional method of irrigation is hand watering and in present days, it is un-
economical. Growers can afford hand watering only where a crop is still at a high density, such as in
seed-beds, or when they are watered at a few selected pots or areas that have dried sooner than others.
In all cases, labour saved will pay for automatic system in less than one year. It soon will become
apparent that this cost is too high. In addition to this deterrent to hand watering, there is great risk of
applying too little water or of waiting too long between waterings. Hand watering requires considerable
time and is very boring which is usually performed by inexperienced employees, who may be tempted
to speed up the job or put it off to another time. Automatic watering is rapid and easy and is performed
by grower itself. Where hand watering is practiced, a water breaker should be used on the hose end.
Such a device breaks force of water, permitting a higher flow rate without washing root substrate out of
bench or pot. It also lessens risk of disrupting the structure of substrate surface.
Perimeter watering
Perimeter watering system can be used for crop production in benches or beds. A typical system
consists of a plastic pipe around the perimeter of a bench with nozzles that spray water over the substrate
surface below the foliage (Fig.). Either polythene or PVC pipe can be used. While PVC pipe has
advantage of being very stationery, polythene pipe tends to roll if it is not anchored firmly to the side of
bench causing nozzles to rise or fall from proper orientation to substrate surface. Nozzles are made of
nylon or a hard plastic and are available to put out a spray arc of 180°, 90° or 45°.
Regardless of types of nozzles used, they are staggered across benches so that each nozzle
projects out between two other nozzles on the opposite side. Perimeter watering systems with 180°
nozzles require one water valve for benches up to 30.5 m in length.
Fig.: Perimeter watering system. Fig.: Overhead sprinkler watering system.
Overhead sprinklers
While foliage on majority of crops should be kept dry for disease control purposes, a few crops
do tolerate wet foliage. These few crops can most easily and cheaply be irrigated from overhead. Bedding
plants, azalea liners, and some green plants are crops commonly watered from overhead. A pipe is
installed along the middle of a bed.
Riser pipes are installed periodically to a height well above the final crop height (Fig.). A total
height of 0.6 m is sufficient for bedding plants flats and 1.8 m for fresh flowers. A nozzle is installed at
the top of each riser. Nozzles vary from those that throw a 360° pattern continuously to types that rotate
around a 360° circle. Trays are sometimes placed under pots to collect water that would otherwise fall
on ground between pots and wasted. Each tray is square and meets the adjacent tray. In this way nearly
all water is intercepted. Each tray has a depression to accommodate pot and is then angled upward from
the pot towards the tray perimeter. The trays also have drain holes, which allow drainage of excess water
and store certain quantity, which is subsequently absorbed by substrate.
Boom watering
Boom watering can function either as open or a closed system, and is used often for production
of seedlings grown in plug trays. Plug trays are plastic trays that have width and length dimensions of
approximately 30 × 61 cm, a depth of 13 to 38 mm, and contain about 800 cells. Each seedling is grown
in its own individual cell. Precision of watering is extremely important during 2-8 weeks production
time of plug seedlings.
A boom watering system generally consists of a water pipe boom that extends from one side of
a greenhouse bay to the other. The pipe is fitted with nozzles that can spray either water or fertilizer
solution down onto the crop. The boom is attached at its center point to a carriage that rides along rails,
often suspended above the centre walk of greenhouse bay. In this way, boom can pass from one end of
bay to the other. The boom is propelled by an electric motor. The quantity of water delivered per unit
area of plants is adjusted by the speed at which boom travels.
Drip irrigation system
Drip irrigation (also referred as trickle irrigation), consists of laying plastic tubes of small
diameter on the surface or subsurface of field or greenhouse beside or beneath plants. Water is delivered
to plants at frequent intervals through small holes or emitters located along the tube. Drip irrigation
systems are commonly used in combination with protected agriculture, as an integral and essential part
of comprehensive design. When using plastic mulches, row covers, or greenhouses, drip irrigation is the
only means of applying uniform water and fertilizer to plants.
Drip watering is excellent way to water in greenhouses and tunnels as it keeps humidity low
leading to less pest and disease problems. Water is directed to exactly where it is needed either with an
individual dripper, especially for pot grown plants, or inserted into a pipe for beds. It is ideal for raised
beds.
Drip irrigation provides maximum control over environment variability. It assures optimum
production with minimal use of water, while conserving soil and fertilizer nutrients and controls water,
fertilizer, labour and machinery costs. Drip irrigation is the best means of water conservation. In general,
the application efficiency is 90-95%, compared with sprinkler at 70% and furrow irrigation at 60-80%,
depending on soil type, level of field and how water is applied to furrows.
Drip irrigation is not only recommended for protected agriculture but also for open field crop
production, especially in arid and semi-arid regions of the world. One of the main disadvantages of drip
irrigation is initial cost of equipment per acre, which may be higher than other systems of irrigation.
However, these costs must be evaluated through comparison with expense of land preparation and
maintenance often required by surface irrigation.
Basic equipment for irrigation consists of a pump, a mainline, delivery pipes, manifold, and drip
tape laterals or emitters (Fig.).
The head between pump and pipeline network, usually consists of control valves, couplings,
filters, time clocks, fertilizer injectors, pressure regulators, flow meters, and gauges. Since water passes
through very small outlets in emitters, it is an absolute necessity that it should be screened, filtered or
both, before its distribution in piping reticulation. The initial field positioning and layout of a drip system
is influenced by topography of land and the cost of various system configurations.
Irrigation Techniques for Protected Cultivation

(Greenhouse/ Shade Net House and Walking/ Low Tunnel)
Plants depend on water and within protected structure with no rainfall to supply it naturally and
added warmth to make soil dry out more quickly. However, near zero wind velocity under many
protected environments such as polyhouses, poly tunnels, low tunnels etc., water requirement of many
crops decreases significantly. Traditional watering-cans are simplest solution to the problem. They are
useful in providing very specific, targeted watering for individual plants, particularly if they are being
grown in pots or containers. However, as a means of achieving mass watering, they are far too labour-
intensive to be practical for anything other than smaller greenhouses.
Many gardeners are inclined to try to overcome limitations of watering-can by using a hose-pipe
instead, but this approach itself has its problems chiefly in terms of achieving the delivery of water where
it is really needed, rather than on the leaves and soil surface. The traditional method of irrigation as in
case of open field condition creates lot of disease under protected environment because of increased
level of relative humidity along with increased temperature. Therefore, appropriate irrigation techniques
having characteristics of frequent application of water in small quantity as per crop need at right location
in right manner is essential for obtaining maximum benefit of protected cultivation. Microirrigation has
ability to provide right amount of water, at right time, at right place in right manner.
Similarly, nutrients may also be applied precisely along with irrigation water by using fertigation
device through microirrigation. In this way significant amount of two important agricultural inputs
(water and nutrients) could be saved significantly besides controlling environmental (non-point source/
agricultural) pollution. Further, it has potential to increase crop yield. There is an additional positive
environmental impact from precision irrigation in that farm runoff, a major source of water pollution,
can be reduced. The major limitations associated with precision irrigation are high initial cost and
requirement of skilled workforce from operation and maintenance point-of-view.
It is very difficult to obtain full benefit from protected cultivation without microirrigation and
fertigation. An efficient irrigation system preferably microirrigation combined with fertigation system
must be an essential component of protected cultivation. Therefore, an irrigation system is essential for
growing plants in a greenhouse. Plants rely on water to live and grow and because a greenhouse will not
allow natural rainfall in, artificial means for irrigation become necessary. A variety of irrigation methods
exist, and each method has benefits and drawbacks. Choosing the best irrigation method depends largely
on the size of protected structure and types of plants growing inside. Often the most effective irrigation
comes from a combination of methods.
Types of irrigation systems for nurseries
A plant nursery requires an irrigation system to water plants effectively and simultaneously.
Creating a nursery to house plants can involve a significant effort and commitment. Necessary decisions
include selecting plant species, soil types and building materials. Also, consideration on amount of time
and money available to invest in such a project is essential. Nurserymen should think about which
watering or irrigation system best suits their nursery type and size.
(a) Overhead sprinkler irrigation: Nurserymen using overhead sprinklers typically have two
options. The first option, rotary sprinkler heads, contain a rotating nozzle that sends a torrent of water
over plants. The second option, stationary sprinkler heads, sends a rapid flow of water against a plate.
The impact disrupts steady stream of water, turning it into a continuous spray that waters plants.
Although overhead sprinkler systems are the most common option in nurseries, they are not very
efficient. They require high pressure pumps that consume large quantities of energy. Overhead sprinklers
also waste about 80% of water emitted. In nurseries containing plants with large or broad leaves, these
plants encourage water waste when leaves redirect water away from plant containers rather than into the
soil. Some gardeners compensate for water loss by installing slanted plant beds that channel water into
ponds where it can accumulate and be recycled back into the nursery, although this may also recycle
bacteria, sodium, fertilizer or pathogens as well.
(b) Microirrigation: Unlike overhead sprinklers, microirrigation systems are highly efficient
and can function using low pressure. However, soil, algae and chemical fertilizers can clog emitters for
which various types of filters are provided. Three types of microirrigation systems are used in nurseries.
One type of microirrigation, known as, capillary mat system, uses tubes that carry water into a mat.
The mat becomes saturated with water, providing containers sitting on top of mat with a supply of water
to soak up through plant root systems. Although capillary mat irrigation uses 60% less water than
conventional overhead sprinkler systems, they can cause salt accumulation in soil over long periods of
time.
The second type of microirrigation system is known as microsprayer, microsprinkler or spray
stake system. Considered one of the most efficient nursery irrigation systems, microsprayers use a tube
to carry water directly into the soil from a water source. Not only does this eliminate water waste that is
deflected off broad plant leaves, microsprayers carry water directly to the plant’s root system. Although
microsprayers cost more than overhead sprinklers when installed in small plants, they operate efficiently
in larger plants with more foliage and heavier canopies.
The third type of microirrigation is known as spaghetti tube system. This nursery irrigation
method uses narrow tubes to bring water into plant container. A miniature weight at one end of tube
ensures that it stays in container. Water travels from one pore to another, through a capillary system.
Consequently, gardeners must use a high quality, uniform soil for maximum efficiency. When using
spaghetti tube system, gardeners should keep soil moist at all times as dry soil will lead to poor water
distribution.
(c) Capillary sandbeds: Unlike sprinkler and microirrigation systems, capillary sandbeds do not
involve any electricity. Containing wood panels, a plastic liner, sand, a small water reservoir, drainage
pipe and valve, capillary sandbeds are built to slant slightly, allowing water released into the raised end
to slowly travel to the lower end. Providing an even and continuous water supply, capillary sandbeds
involve less maintenance. Plants grow evenly, relying less on fertilizer and pesticide. However, capillary
sandbeds do attract weeds. Gardeners can purchase products to reduce occurrence of weeds or they can
remove them manually. Capillary sandbeds also have high installation costs.
Types of mist irrigation systems recommended in polyhouse
Overhead irrigation can produce constant humidity in poly-tunnels. A misting sprinkler system
produces a very fine spray or mist over plants. Greenhouses, poly-houses and poly-tunnels can use either
overhead or bench misting. The best type for needs depends on what is growing, the size of poly house,
and growing conditions in concerned area.
(a) Overhead systems: In overhead misting systems, lines or sprinklers are installed under the
roof framework of poly-house, and this “rain” water down onto plants. This type of irrigation system is
easy to automate and produces high humidity. This high humidity allows to protect crops against frost
damage. For best coverage, overhead sprinklers are spaced to around 50-60% of wetting diameter of
sprinkler.
(b) Bench misting: Bench misting uses a central line of sprinklers or hoops placed at or just
above the level of plants. Bench misting requires plants to be placed on raised benches, and these must
be made of materials that are impervious to water, such as metal. One can also use a self-contained
misting bench, in which bench is partially covered with a “roof”. This allows to have just a single misting
bench in poly-house, and a different watering system in remaining poly-house.
Benefits: Both type of misting system are well suited to plants that need to be kept moist, such
as seedlings, and to reduce temperature in a poly-house. Misting is commonly used for propagation and
for growing tropical plants that require constant humidity. Some misting systems can also be used to
spray fertilizers evenly and finely. Fertilizer applied this way is more easily absorbed into plants than
fertilizer applied on the soil. By allowing to vary humidity within the poly-house, mist systems also
allow varying temperature and control growing conditions.
Drawbacks: It can be easy to over-water with either type of mist irrigation system. To prevent
this, a timer can be used to turn water “on” and “off”. Misting nozzles have very fine holes that can clog
up if hard water is used. Misting also works best if poly-house is completely enclosed, as a breeze can
disrupt fine spray and cause areas to remain dry. Misting may not be suitable for all types of plants, so
if poly-house contains many different types of plants, with different water tolerances, one may need to
water each type of plant individually, or use individual benches, rather than using an overhead mist
irrigation system.
Ebb and flood tables

Ebb and flood tables are frequently used in greenhouses where growers raise plants
hydroponically. But an ebb and flood table may also be used for plants that the grower is growing
traditionally. In an ebb and flood table, plants are kept in a tray that has a hose nozzle at one end to admit
water into the tray and a drain at the other end where the gardener can let water out of the tray. Plants
that are kept in individual receptacles in the tray wick up water from the base of their containers.
Gardeners who wish to recycle water and eliminate waste make use of ebb-and-flow systems for their
greenhouses.
Fig.: Ebb and flow tables for watering.
Hand watering
Hand watering is most basic method of irrigation for a greenhouse. Watering cans or hoses with
nozzles allows tailor watering to needs of individual plants. This is also the most labour-intensive method
for plant irrigation and may not be effective for large greenhouses.
IRRIGATION SCHEDULING
Greenhouse drip irrigation scheduling

Availability and decreased quantity of water for agriculture highlight’s objective of optimizing
productivity with adequate and efficient irrigation that replenish root zones soil water deficit and
maximize applied water that is stored in rooted soil profile and used afterwards by crop in order to
produce best yields. As crop responds more to soil water level and irrigation regime than to method of
irrigation, information developed for other irrigation methods is applicable to drip systems, in general.
Four basic questions must be answer in pursue precise irrigation scheduling:
1) When to irrigate? (Frequency)
2) How much water to apply? The amount of water to be applied must replenish evapotranspirated
water, once corrected by the application efficiency (as far as soil-water content variations are
unimportant, due to high frequency of drip irrigation). When saline waters are used, applied water must
cover leaching requirements. Other components of water balance are normally unimportant in drip
irrigated greenhouses (unless rainfall penetrates inside, as it is the case in flat-roofed perforated plastic
greenhouses).
3) Where to irrigate (point/ line/ strip/ disc source)
4) How to irrigate – drip (surface or subsurface), bubbler, micro sprinkler, mist etc.
Evapotranspiration (ET) in protected environment
Evaporation of water requires energy. The availability of energy depends on microclimate of

protected environment as solar radiation is the primary source of energy in ET process. In an unheated
greenhouse, energy used in ET process can reach 70% of incoming solar radiation. The amount of ground
area covered by crop is the most relevant factor affecting ET. Evaporation (E) from soil surface is high
following an irrigation, but decreases rapidly as soil surface dries. The transpiration (T) will increase
with rise of intercepted radiation (and subsequent increase of ground covered by the crop), while soil
evaporation (E) will decrease as crop progressively shades soil surface. Other energy sources
(greenhouse heating hot air flow) can increase ET.
Crop evapotranspiration (ETc) or crop water requirements can be related with a reference value
“reference evapotranspiration” (ET0) which is defined as, “rate of evapotranspiration from an extended
surface of 8 to 15 cm tall green grass cover of uniform height, actively growing, completely shading
the ground and not short of water”.
ETc = kc x ET0 ...(1)
The crop coefficient (kc) is “ratio between ETc and ET0” and it depends basically on crop
characteristics, sowing/ planting dates, crop development rate, length of cycle, climatic conditions and
irrigation frequency, especially at the beginning of cycle. In greenhouses, Class-A pan evaporation
method, as well as FAO-radiation and Priestley-Taylor methods have been proposed as more reliable
for ET estimation for periods of several days. The difficulty of an accurate measurement of wind inside
greenhouse limits use of Penman method. The ease of management of evaporation pan, without
sophisticated equipment is remarkable, but a proper pan placement is necessary. The crop coefficient
figures for different vegetable crops under greenhouses have been estimated by different researchers.
When using Class-A pan method:

ET0 = kp x E (kp = pan coefficient, and E = pan evaporation) …(2)
ETc = kc x ET0 = kc x kp x E …(3)
Studies showed that kp inside greenhouse is approximately 1.0 and is higher than open-air values.
Drip irrigation frequency
In conventional irrigation, soil water depletion must be maintained below certain threshold (i.e.,
available soil water depletion) in order to avoid crop transpiration reductions, that can induce yield
decrease. A proper irrigation frequency will avoid excessive depletion. In drip irrigation systems, good
management will always be based on very high irrigation frequency, even several times each day,
especially when using saline water.
Different plant and soil parameters have been suggested to schedule irrigation frequency. A wide
range of plant-based measurements more or less sophisticated (sap flow, stem diameter, water potential,
plant temperature, etc.) have been suggested to detect stress, using plant as a bio-sensor. The leaf water
potential method, reliable when used in conventional irrigation systems, is not practical in drip irrigated
vegetable crops. Plant temperature-based methods of water stress detection are more accurate in
greenhouse than in open field but they must be developed and locally adapted. The crop water stress
index, based on higher temperature of crop when suffering from water stress has been suggested as a
more reliable method, but it is not easy to use. The soil water matrix potential measurement, in drip
irrigated soils using tensiometers is a reliable way for monitoring soil water conditions in wetted zone,
in order to fix irrigation frequency and to confirm adequacy of applied water amount. At least two
tensiometers should be placed at two depths in each observation point, a few cm away from emitter,
depending on soil water distribution and rooting patterns. Other methods for monitoring soil
water potential, as gypsum blocks need a good calibration depending on composition of soil solution.
In soil-less culture, irrigation frequency must be several times per day, dividing daily water
requirements, according to evaporative demand and water storage characteristics of substrate. In first
approach, evolution of solar radiation along the day (that determines primarily the evaporative demand)
can be a guide to schedule irrigations. Various automatic devices have been developed. Some of them
are based in maintaining a minimum level of water in substrate (i.e., using electrodes to activate
irrigation), while other automatic devices use a balance to replace evapotranspirated water. The simplest
method is to pre-program irrigation time or volume. The conductivity of drainage water is used to adjust
irrigation dosage and frequency.
Water Saving and Water Use Efficiency
Normally greenhouse grower is not interested in water saving. The crude/ little knowledge about
irrigation requirements among growers induce them to over-irrigate. Proper information on irrigation
requirements at farm level can help to overcome this lack of interest to reduce water demand.
Different measures to save water and improve its use at farm level, include reducing the water
requirements, increasing water availability and raising yields. The use of mulching (plastic sheet, sand,
gravel etc.) has been widely used to limit evaporation of soil water and reduce ET. Subsurface drip
irrigation can reach similar results. Various cultural practices affect water demand.
An adequate greenhouse environmental management can reduce water demand, increase crop
yields and, therefore, improve water use efficiency. Manipulating ventilation, misting, shading and CO2
injection are effective techniques for that purpose.
Tapping rainwater from greenhouse roof is an easy way to increase water resources especially
relevant for its excellent quality. Slight deficit-irrigations have been recommended as they do not affect
yield in tomato, though they can reduce total biomass.
Maximizing uniformity of water application is one of the easier ways to save water at farm level
is frequently forgotten. The evaluation of emission uniformity of drip system should be done
periodically.
Automated Watering
Watering a large number of plants in a well-stocked greenhouse can be a major task, especially
if it is to be done by hand. However, there are alternative approaches available, including seep-hoses,
drip irrigation, misters and sprinkler systems, which make the job much easier. Many of these systems
can be automated to varying degrees, using modern timers or controllers, which range from cheap to
very sophisticated and costly. Water timers, for instance, fit between irrigation hose and tap and can be
set to allow watering to take place at specific times of day and for a given period, allowing water at night
to avoid evaporation. These relatively simple devices keep the soil nicely moist. More complex water
controllers can take automation even further, measuring soil moisture and watering accordingly to keep
growing conditions at their optimum.
Water Quality Management for Greenhouse Irrigation
A dependable irrigation water supply is a vital component of any greenhouse growing operation.
The water source may contain essential nutrients such as iron or nitrate in high enough concentrations
to justify a reduction in levels applied through a fertility program. Water may also contain harmful
impurities that require corrective procedures. Water quality can be a deciding factor when choosing
among sites for establishing a new greenhouse business or, where the opportunity exists, to choose
among two or more water sources at a particular site. Growers should have their irrigation water tested
by a university or reliable private laboratory any time when a new water source is established, whether
it be from a well, river, pond, or municipal system. Afterwards, water should be tested at least twice per
year to establish how much variability there is in water quality over time. One good approach is to take
one test during a wet period and another during a dry period because high rainfall can dilute water
impurities and drought can concentrate water impurities. Once a water quality pattern has been
established, yearly testing is usually sufficient.
Other Aspects of Drip Irrigation Management
Well-designed drip irrigation systems must apply water uniformly, in such a way that different
emitters discharge almost the same rate. A good management must maintain a good emission uniformity
that is easy to quantify.
Physical, chemical and biological agents can be responsible for emission uniformity decay due
to clogging. Physical clogging can be prevented with a good filtration of water and regular flushing of
lines and emitters.
Chemical clogging is normally originated when soluble salts precipitate on emitters as water
evaporates from emitter surfaces between irrigation runs. Injected chemicals (fertilizers, pesticides) are
also responsible for frequent clogging. Most cases of chemical clogging can be solved by acid treatment
or injection. Acid injection to reduce pH of water between 1 and 2 should be adequate while, in severe
clogging cases, emitters must be soaked in dilute acid solution (approximately 1%) and even cleaned
individually. Acids are highly corrosive and extreme caution must be observed with their use. Surfaces
in contact with acid solutions should be of stainless steel or plastic, and must be rinsed well after contact
with acid. The biological clogging can be solved with injection of a biocide followed by flushing to clear
the system of organic matter.
A well designed microirrigation system must be properly managed to attain a high level of
application uniformity in order to obtain a fairly good water use efficiency. The use of Class-A
evaporation pan radiation method and tensiometers may be helpful for estimation of water requirement
and irrigation scheduling. Various other techniques such as use of mulch can be used to further enhance
water and nutrient use efficiency along with improving the quality of produce and precise resource
savings. Automation further reduces manual intervention and increases the input use efficiency.
PASSIVE SOLAR GREENHOUSE
Production of agricultural crops depends on two main factors: solar radiation and climate. Plants
need solar radiation for photosynthesis, and the interior environment (temperature and humidity) must
match the plants requirements. Generally, greenhouses can sustain such conditions, but need fuel-based
heating for sustaining through cold winters.
A passive solar greenhouse is a greenhouse heated entirely by sunlight, with no additional

fuel-based heating. It absorbs as much as possible solar energy (sunlight during day) in winter season
for the following gradual emission of accumulated solar energy for heating purposes.
Operation principle
The main operation principle of a solar greenhouse lies in accumulation and storage of solar
energy (sun radiation) during daytime and gradual release of heat energy during night.
Thus, solar greenhouse:
- Collects maximum amount of solar radiation during day;

- Efficiently stores heat collected from sun radiation during day;
- Releases this heat to interior of building during night;
- Heat losses are reduced by insulation of whole greenhouse;
- Can be ventilated to avoid over-heating.
Advantages
Passive solar greenhouses are widely disseminated in China since 1970s; where currently over
700 thousand hectares area is occupied by solar greenhouses. Greenhouses of this type are suitable for
use in other areas of the Hindu Kush, Himalaya, and Pamir ranges with a similar climate and
socioeconomic situation, such as high valleys of India; Nepal; the Tibetan Plateau in China; Bhutan;
Pakistan; Afghanistan; Tadjikistan, Kirghizstan and Uzbekistan in Central Asia.
Design
Passive solar greenhouse is designed along an east-west axis, with the length of south face
increased and angled to present largest possible surface area to the sun. The size of east and west facing
walls are meant to minimize heat loss and shade inside greenhouse, and the north wall is heavily
insulated. The design of a greenhouse for a specific location is influenced by site characteristics, climate,
and expected amount of snowfall.
Structure
The structure of a passive solar greenhouse consists of three main elements:
1) Walls on the east, west, and north sides;

2) Wooden carcass with a polythene sheet on south side, which picks up
largest amount of solar energy. The polythene sheet is set at an angle and
supported by a wooden frame. Depending on financial capacities, weather
conditions and will of agricultural producers, carcass can be made of metal
and covered with glass;
3) A (solid) roof on north side to limit heat loss. The roof is tilted to avoid
shading in winter and reduce interior volume.
The walls of a solar greenhouse need to have heat insulating properties for preventing heat loss
through the walls. For this purpose, walls are composed of three layers:
1) an inner wall built with mud brick, rammed earth, or stone and painted in black for better heat
absorbing is used to store heat during day and release it in night;
2) an insulating layer of materials like straw, saw-dust, wood shavings, dry leaves, dry grass, or
wild bush cuttings pressed between the two.
3) an outer load-bearing wall built with mud brick, rammed earth, or stone.
Very important is also to install a good ventilation system with doors on both western and eastern
walls and windows in roof.
Moveable insulation (parachute, cloth) is used as a curtain below the polythene after sunset to reduce
heat loss which can be removed after sunrise. Alternatively, a so-called thermo-blanket can be installed
above polythene/ glass cover to block heat inside greenhouse and establish a buffer layer between cold
air and transparent (southern) wall of solar greenhouse.
Construction steps
The actual construction can start after selecting appropriate location

site and preparing all materials. The construction itself can be
divided into following basic steps:
(1) Constructing foundation: Foundations are the basis of every

structure. The orientation and outline of wall positions must be
exactly as given in design to ensure maximum efficiency of
greenhouse. The outline of walls is first drawn on ground and
foundations are then dug and filled.
(2) Building walls: The walls are built on foundations. The walls must be shaped in precise way shown
in designs so that roof angle is correct. The back wall is a simple vertical wall whose top is parallel to
bottom. Low density materials (e.g., straw, sawdust, wood shavings, dry leaves, dry grass etc.) are poor
conductors and storers of heat and are thus, being good insulators help to retain heat inside greenhouse.
These materials are filled into cavity between load-bearing wall and thermal mass wall.
(3) Making and installing door: A door is built into wall to provide access and act as a ventilator for
cooling. It is constructed in wall opposite to prevailing wind to reduce unwanted drafts.
(4) Making and installing wall ventilator: In order to cool greenhouse by natural ventilation, a side
shutter is installed across from the main door in opposite wall. The ventilator is composed of a fixed
frame and an articulated shutter.
(5) Constructing roof: The north and side-walls of greenhouse are constructed in a shape that supports
roof.
(6) Making and installing roof ventilators: One or two ventilators are installed in roof of greenhouse,
and door and wall shutter provide lower openings. The roof ventilator frames are installed at the same
time as the roof structure is constructed.
(7) Finishing walls.
(8) Installing polythene sheet: It is very important point to ensure that polythene sheet is stretched tight
and attached firmly to prevent it flapping in wind. If this is done properly, the sheet can last as long as
seven years. If not, damage resulting from flapping and rubbing can destroy sheet in one season.
Polythene expands with heat, so it should be fixed during warmest hour of a sunny day when it is well-
expanded so that it becomes tight as it cools. If it is fixed when cold, it will later expand and become
loose, and be more susceptible to wind damage.
(9) Installing night insulation: The insulation is only effective if a space is left between polythene and
cloth and air inside this space is trapped; the cloth must be air-tight and joint between cloth and polythene
should be sealed at the top, bottom, and sides. The cloth may be wet in morning and should dry during
the day.
Building A Passive Solar Greenhouse

1. Laying foundation
The first thing to do is to layout foundation. A 4” x 6” treated lumber setting on two-foot concrete
piers at the corners and in the middle of each post was used. Each post was wrapped in plastic.
2. Framing greenhouse
The greenhouse was framed with 2’ x 6’s throughout and then entire outside walls were wrapped
in plastic. Insulation was put in walls and roof.
3. Getting right angles
4. Add metal siding to outside as well as an insulated door
5. Finished product

Protected Cultivation-NOTES For Students

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Protected Cultivation-NOTES For Students

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Protected Cultivation-NOTES For Students

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Greenhouse Technology

Introduction, Types of greenhouses,

The greenhouse is generally covered by transparent or translucent material such as glass or

2. Why Protected Cultivation?

(A) Greenhouse type based on shape

Fig. 1: Lean-to type. Fig. 2: Even-span type.

Fig. 3: Uneven-span type. Fig. 4: Ridge-and-furrow type.

Fig. 5: Saw-tooth type. Fig. 6: Quonset type.

(B) Greenhouse type based on utility

(C) Greenhouse type based on construction

Fig. 7: Wooden-framed greenhouse structure.

Fig. 9: Truss-framed greenhouse structure.

(D) Greenhouse type based on covering materials

Fig. 11: Plastic film greenhouses.

Fig. 12: Rigid panel greenhouses.

Fig. 13: Shading nets.

Fig. 14: Microclimatic components influencing plant growth.

Planning and design of greenhouses,

Fig. 16: Different structural designs of greenhouse.

The ultimate design of a greenhouse depends on following aspects:

(c) Covering materials

DESIGN CRITERIA OF CONSTRUCTION

CONSTRUCTION OF PIPE-FRAMED GREENHOUSES

The structural members of greenhouse are:

i. GI pipe class A (25 mm dia., 85 cm long, 30 m total length)

Fig. 18: Active summer cooling system.

Fig. 19b: Longitudinally-distributed fan-pad cooling system.

Fig. 20: Schematic of a fogging system.

Fig. 21: Convection tube type cooling system.

Fig. 23: Chimney effect in general passive ventilation.

Roll-up side passive ventilation in polyhouses

Fig. 24a: Roll-up side passive ventilation.

Fig. 25a: Fan-and-pad type active summer cooling system.

Fig. 26a: Greenhouse heat loss and gain pathways.

Fig. 26b: Greenhouse heat loss and gain pathways.

HEAT DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

SOLAR HEATING SYSTEM

Fig. 28: Solar heating system for greenhouse.

Fig. 29: Cross-section of a typical rock storage unit.

(a) Microprocessors: Dedicated microprocessors (Fig. 30) can be considered as simple

Fig. 30: Dedicated microprocessor for controlling greenhouse environment.

Fig. 31a: Microprocessor with sensors.

Fig. 32: Computerized control systems in greenhouse.

The advantages and disadvantages of computerized control system are:

Fig.: Greenhouse heater.

Fig.: Greenhouse thermometer.

Fig.: Seed tray.

Following materials are commonly used to build frames for greenhouse:

Fig.: Wooden scissors-truss type film plastic greenhouse.

(i) fast drying,

Fig.: Greenhouse dryer.

Fig.: Tent solar dryer.

Fig.: Box solar dryer.

Cost economics for Protected cultivation in polyhouse

The fixed capital costs include land, fixed

1. There is a unique opportunity to mechanize certain operations.

1. High sunlight intensity undiminished by air pollution.

Rules of Watering: Important rules of application of irrigation are:

Fig.: Perimeter watering system. Fig.: Overhead sprinkler watering system.