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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Art & Culture

Lecture - 04
Cave Architecture (Part-03)
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Cave Architecture (Part-03)

Post-Gupta Cave Architecture
❖ Harsha made no contributions to cave
architecture.
❖ The Chalukyas played a significant role in cave
structures in Badami, Aihole, and Ajanta.
❖ Contributions from the Pallavas.
Post-Gupta Cave Architecture in India
❖ During the post-Gupta and early Medieval
period, cave architecture continued to thrive in
peninsular India.
❖ Badami Chalukya Caves
❖ Pallava Caves
❖ Ajanta Caves (some of the caves at Ajanta were
created during this period.)
❖ Ellora Caves
❖ Elephanta Caves
Specifics:
❖ Badami Chalukya Caves: Under the patronage of
the Chalukyas of Badami/Vatapi, three caves
were carved out at Badami.
Architecture during the Chalukya Period:
❖ The era of the Badami Chalukya dynasty marked a flourishing of art in South India. Under the patronage of
the Badami Chalukyas, the art and architecture in the Deccan region reached its zenith. Temple architecture,
both in caves and structural forms, attained perfection during this period.
❖ Significant developments in culture emerged, notably the evolution and widespread adoption of a new
architectural style known as Vesara. Vesara was a unique blend of South Indian and North Indian building
styles. The Chalukyas primarily utilized locally sourced reddish-golden sandstone as their building material.
❖ Despite ruling over a vast empire, the Chalukyan workshops focused the majority of their temple
construction efforts in a relatively compact region within the Chalukyan heartland. Aihole, Badami,
Pattadakal, and Mahakuta in modern-day Karnataka state became the focal points of their temple-building
activity.
Evolution of Chalukyan Temple Building: Three Phases
❖ The temple construction endeavors of the Chalukyas can be divided into three distinct phases:
1. Early Phase (Last Quarter of 6th Century) - Rock Cut Caves
2. Second Phase
3. Mature Phase
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❖ In the early phase, which commenced in the last quarter of the 6th century, numerous cave temples were
created. Notable examples include elementary cave temples at Aihole, representing Vedic, Jain, and
incomplete Buddhist traditions. This phase also witnessed the development of four elaborate cave temples at
Badami, with Cave 3, a Vaishnava temple, accurately dated to 578 CE.
❖ More than 150 monuments attributed to the Badami Chalukya dynasty, built between 450 and 700, are
scattered in the Malaprabha basin in Karnataka. The rock-cut temples of Pattadakal, a UNESCO World
Heritage Site, along with those at Badami and Aihole, stand out as their most celebrated creations. This
period marks the initiation of the Chalukya style of architecture and the consolidation of the South Indian
architectural tradition.
Early Phase: Last Quarter of the 6th Century
Aihole Cave Temples: During this early phase, prominent cave temples were
constructed, specifically at Aihole. These included three elementary cave
temples:
Vedic Cave (Ravan Phadi Cave):
❖ The exterior is plain, but the cave features intricate embellishments
inside.
❖ The interiors are heavily ornamented and consist of a central hall, two
side shrine sections, and a garbhagriha with a linga at the back.
❖ Sculptures on the walls and part of the ceiling depict Shiva as Nataraja and the Sapta-Matrikas.
❖ Carvings outside the entrance depict warfs and doorkeepers wearing Scythian-type attire.

Jaina Cave (7th-8th Century):

❖ Similar to the Shaiva cave, the exterior is plain with intricate embellishments inside.
❖ The carvings carry symbolic Jain motifs, including two major reliefs of Parshvanatha with a snake canopy
above him and Bahubali with vines wrapped around his legs.
❖ Female attendants accompany both these images.
❖ Other carvings include mythical giant makaras disgorging tiny humans, lotus petal decorations, and two
armed guards holding lotuses.
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❖ The interior features an enthroned seated Jina surrounded mostly by female devotees in various worship
positions.
Badami Cave Temples: During the early phase in the last quarter of the 6th century, four cave temples with
remarkable sculptures were constructed at Badami. These caves exhibit a diversity of religious affiliations:

Cave-I (Shaivism):
❖ Dedicated to Shaivism.
❖ Features sculptures of Lord Shiva, including the iconic portrayal of Shiva as
Nataraja and Harihara (half Vishnu and half Shiva).
Cave II & III (Vaishnavism):
❖ Primarily dedicated to Vaishnavism.
❖ Cave II showcases reliefs of Lord Vishnu in his various incarnations, such
as Trivikrama, Vamana (dwarf avatar), and Varaha (Boar) avatar, along
with various sculptures of Hindu divinities and themes.
❖ Cave III, the largest cave in the complex, intricately depicts Vishnu-related mythology, featuring reliefs of
Trivikrama, Anantasayana, Vasudeva, Varaha, Harihara, and Narasimha.
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Cave IV (Jainism):
❖ Dedicated to Jainism.
❖ Intricately carved structures feature Bahubali, Parshvanatha, and Mahavira, along with symbolic displays of
other Tirthankaras.
❖ This cave is dedicated to the revered figures of Jainism.

All these cave temples at Badami have a plain exterior but boast exceptionally well-finished interiors, comprising
a pillared verandah, a columned hall (mantapa), and a rock-cut cell (shrine) containing the worshipped deity.
Cave 1, initiated in the 6th century AD when Badami was established by Pulakesin I, marks one of the earliest
known temples in the Deccan region. The architectural expansion was later observed by other Chalukyas.
Phase II of Temple Building Activity:
During this second phase of temple building, Aihole and Badami emerged as significant centres.
❖ Aihole:
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➢ Recognized as 'one of the cradles of Indian temple architecture,' Aihole boasts around 70 structures
from this period.
➢ Notable temples include:
❖ Lad Khan Temple: Features interesting perforated stone windows and sculptures of river goddesses.
➢ Megumi Jain Temple: Demonstrates progress in structural design.
➢ Durga Temple: Exhibits a northern Indian-style tower.

➢ Other Dravida-style temples from this period include the Naganatha Temple at Nagaral, Banantigudi
Temple, and Mahakutesvara Temple.
➢ While the exact dating of these temples is debated, there is a consensus that their construction began
around 600 AD.
❖ Vesara Style and Influence:
➢ The Vesara style, characterized by a fusion of South Indian and North Indian architectural elements,
influenced the Eastern Chalukyas (Vengi).
➢ The Kalyani (W) Chalukyas further refined the Vesara style, incorporating Dravidian concepts,
especially in the sculptures.
➢ They erected impressive monuments in the Tungabhadra-Krishna river doab in present-day Karnataka.
The Mature Phase of Chalukyan Temple Architecture:
During the mature phase, structural temples at Pattadakal became significant. Built in the 8th century, these
temples are now recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Pattadakal houses ten temples, with six in the
southern Dravida style and four in the northern Nagara style. Key structures include the Sangamesvara Temple,
Virupaksha Temple, and Mallikarjuna Temple.
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Pattadakal:
❖ Commissioned by Vikramaditya II, these majestic temples
showcase both Dravidian and Nagara styles.
❖ The Virupaksha and Mallikarjuna temples exemplify the Nagara
style, while Sangameswara and a Jain temple follow the
Dravidian style.
❖ Jambulinga, Kasi Visweswara, and Galaganatha temples
contribute to the Nagara style.
❖ The Papanatha temple makes an attempt to blend Northern and Southern architectural styles.
❖ According to art critics, the Badami Chalukya style serves as a "prayaga" or confluence of formal
architectural trends, incorporating both Dravida and Nagara styles.

Badami:
❖ The Bhutanatha group of temples at Badami also belongs to this mature phase.
❖ The Badami Chalukya style is considered a confluence of Dravida and Nagara architectural elements.
❖ The Sage Bharata's dance Natyasastra reached an advanced state of development during this period.
Virupaksha Temple at Pattadakal:
❖ The largest and most sophisticated monument at Pattadakal.
❖ Commissioned by Lokamahadevi, the chief queen of Chalukya king Vikramaditya II (733-746 CE).
❖ Inscriptions suggest that Virupaksha and Mallikarjuna Temples were commissioned by the two queens after
Vikramaditya II's military success over the Pallavas of Kanchipuram.
❖ Resembles the Kailasanatha Temple at Kanchi.
❖ Adorned with intricate carvings and sculptures depicting episodes from Ramayana, Mahabharata, and other
legends.
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Architecture of Pallavas:
The Pallavas played a pioneering role in introducing stone architecture to the Tamil country, leaving a lasting
impact due to their use of granite in temple construction and sculpture carving. The evolution of Pallava
architecture can be traced through various stages, particularly beginning with the period of Mahendravarman I.
Pallava architecture can be broadly classified into three categories:
❖ Cave Temples and Rock-cut temples.
❖ Monolithic Rathas and Sculptural Mandapas
❖ Structural temples.
Pallava Cave Shrines:
❖ The Pallava rulers of Kanchipuram were patrons of cave-cutting activities, leading to the creation of cave
shrines within the Tamil region. These cave shrines, known as Mandapas, are associated with Hinduism.
Examples of these cave shrines include the Mandagapattu Tirumurti Temple, Lalitankuras cave at
Tiruchirapalli, and the Varaha cave temple at Mamallapuram. Notably, these cave shrines are smaller and
less complex in plan compared to those at Ajanta and Ellora. The massive pillars in these caves have a
unique design, being square at the bottom and top, and chamfered into an octagonal shape in between.
Additionally, some pillars stand on the heads of lions. The cave facades are generally plain, often marked by
dvarapalas at the two ends. The sanctum within these caves typically houses a linga or images of Shiva,
Vishnu, or Brahma.
❖ Distinctive Pallava Sculpture: Pallava sculpture exhibits a distinctive style, differing from the sculptures of
the Gupta period in North India. The human figures in Pallava sculptures have oval faces with high
cheekbones, and their bodies are slender with tapering limbs.
❖ Pallava Rock-Cut Temples (Mahendravarman Style): The Pallava rock-cut temples, also known as the
'Mahendravarman style,' evolved during the reign of Mahendravarman I. This artistic innovation was
noteworthy because it exclusively employed rock as a building material, earning Mahendravarman I the title
of 'Vichitra Chitta.' These rock-cut temples can be found at various locations in Tamil Nadu, including
Pallavaram, Mamandur, Mahendravadi, Vallam, and Thalavanur. Important examples include the Mahendra
Vishnu Graha Mandapa in Mahendravadi and the Panchapandava Mandapa in Pallavaram.
❖ Examples of Pallava Rock-Cut Temples:
➢ Adivaraha Mandapa, Mahabalipuram: Carved during the reign of Pallava king Narasimhavarman I.
➢ Ramanuja Mandapa, Mahabalipuram: Another significant rock-cut temple in Mahabalipuram.
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Kotikal Cave Temple:

❖ Located in the village of Kottukkal, near Anchal, in the
Kollam district of Kerala.
❖ Features representations of Ganesh, Hanuman, Shiva, and
Nandi.
❖ Believed to date back to the period of the Pallava dynasty,
with an estimated timeframe of the 8th century BC.
Monolithic Rathas of Pallavas - Mamalla Style:
❖ Introduction:
➢ The monolithic rathas and sculptural mandapas collectively represent the Mamalla style of architecture.
➢ Named after the Pallava king, Narasimhavarman I, who was known as Mamalla (630-668 CE).
➢ Mamallapuram, under his rule, transformed into a splendid city of art and architecture.
❖ Pancha Pandava Rathas:
➢ The monolithic rathas at Mamallapuram are known as Pancha Pandava Rathas.
➢ Each ratha, or chariot, is carved entirely from a single rock, earning them the designation "monolithic."
➢ These rathas showcase five different forms of temple architecture.
➢ Important Rathas:
✓ Arjuna Ratha: Contains artistically carved sculptures of Siva, Vishnu, mithuna, and dwarapala.
✓ Dharmaraja Ratha: One of the most exquisite rathas, featuring a three-storied vimana and a
square base.
✓ Bhima Ratha: Rectangular in plan, adorned with beautiful sculptures of Harihara, Brahma,
Vishnu, Skanda, Ardhanarisvara, and Shiva as Gangadhara.

❖ Sculptural Mandapas:
➢ Mandapas or halls at Mamallapuram also belong to the Mamalla period, each carved from a single rock.
➢ Side-walls of these mandapas showcase beautiful sculptures depicting Puranic stories.
➢ Notable depictions include the Goddess Durga's attack on Mahishasura in the Mahishasura Mardhini
Mandapa.
❖ Open Art Gallery:
➢ A significant element of the Mamalla style is the Open Art Gallery.
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➢ Miniature sculptures intricately carved on the wall of a large rock.

➢ Notable scenes include the fall of the River Ganga from the head
of God Siva and Arjuna's penance.
❖ Krishna Mandapa:
➢ Sculptural panel in the Krishna mandapa depicts village life with
cows and cowherds with remarkable beauty and skill.
➢ Features images of deer, monkey, cat, mouse, and other animals artistically carved on this massive rock.
Pallava Structural Temples:
❖ Introduction:
➢ The construction of structural temples began during the reign of Rajasimha (Narasimhavarman II)
around 700-728 CE.
➢ These temples, made from granite slabs, are known as structural temples.
➢ Broadly classified into two styles: Rajasimha Style and Nandivarman Style.
❖ Rajasimha Style:
➢ Characterized by temples built during the rule of Rajasimha.
➢ The earliest examples include the Kailasanatha Temple at Kanchipuram and the Shore Temple at
Mamallapuram.
❖ Nandivarman Style:
➢ Represents the style of temples constructed during the rule of Nandivarman II and later Pallava rulers.
➢ Prominent examples include the Vaikunda Perumal Temple at Kanchipuram and others found in
Kanchipuram, Panamalai, Kooram, Thiruthani, and Gudimallam.
❖ Kailasanatha Temple at Kanchipuram:
➢ One of the earliest Pallava structural temples.
➢ Built during the reign of Rajasimha.
➢ Constructed using sandstones.
➢ The vimana or tower is shaped like a hilly comb.
➢ Referred to as the Crown of Pallava architecture or Rajasimheswaram.
➢ Adorned with beautiful sculptures, including scenes from the satirical drama Mattavilasa Prahasana.
❖ Shore Temple at Mamallapuram:
➢ Constructed during the reign of Rajasimha (c. 700-728 CE).
➢ Comprises three shrines dedicated to Shiva and Vishnu.
➢ Unique as a five-storeyed rock-cut monolith.
➢ Known for numerous sculptures, attracting tourists globally.
➢ Monolithic vimanas are distinctive features of Mamallapuram structures.
❖ Successors and Later Temples:
➢ Successors of Rajasimha continued to build structural temples.
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➢ Nandivarman II constructed the Vaikunda Perumal Temple at Kanchipuram.

➢ Later Pallava rulers contributed to temples in various locations, including Kanchipuram, Panamalai,
Kooram, Thiruthani, and Gudimallam.

Structural Temples:

Period King Architectural achievements

600-630 Mahendra Mahendravarmana I Temple at Bhairavkona (North Arcot Group) and

AD varman I Ananteswar temple at Undavalli (Guntur Distt.)

630-668 Narsimha Mandapa temples and Ratha temples 'Mammala' (Sapt Pagodas) at
AD varmana I Mammalapuram (Mahabalipuram)

700-728 Narsimha Kailashnatha Temple at Kanchi, Shore temple at Mammalapuram and

AD varmana
II

880-897 Nandivar Mukteswara, Matangeshwar,Vaikuntaperumal at Kanchi, Parshurameswar

AD mana temple at Gudimallam.
'Aparajit The most popular sculpture at Mahabalipuram, known as 'Arjuna's Penance'
or 'Descent of Ganga'

Sittanavasal Caves:
❖ Overview:
➢ Located in Sittanavasal village, Pudukottai district, Tamil Nadu.
➢ Jain rock-cut architecture spanning from the 1st century BC to the 10th century AD.
➢ The name "Sittanavasal" translates to "the abode of great saints" in Tamil.
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❖ Jainism Influence:
➢ Dedicated to Jainism, with rock-cut structures reflecting Jain ideologies.
➢ Represents a significant site for Jain heritage.
❖ Fresco Paintings:
➢ Most paintings in the caves date back to the Pandyan period, specifically the 9th century AD.
➢ The frescos, murals, and decorative paintings adorn the ceiling of the sanctum and ardha-mandapam of
Aravirkovil.
❖ Comparison with Ajanta Caves:
➢ The decorative paintings in Sittanavasal, when compared to the classical cave painting styles in the
Ajanta Caves, exhibit minor variations in the use of materials.
➢ These paintings serve as a link between Ajanta paintings and the Chola paintings of the 11th century in
Thanjavur.
❖ Notable Scenes:
➢ Noteworthy drawings include a depiction of a pond with lotuses.
➢ Illustrates Samava-sarana, a unique audience hall where Tirthankaras gave sermons after attaining
realization (kevala-gnana).
➢ Bulls, elephants, apsaras (angels), and other deities gather in this grand audience hall.
❖ Column Paintings:
➢ Top columns feature paintings of dancing women holding lotuses.
➢ Southern pillars showcase paintings of the king and queen with an umbrella.
❖ Cultural Linkages:
➢ The paintings at Sittanavasal provide cultural linkages between the artistic styles of Ajanta and the
Chola period in Thanjavur during the 11th century.
➢ Illustrate the evolution and continuity of artistic expression in the region.
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Age Of Three Empires:

Rashtrakuta Architecture:
❖ Rashtrakuta Rulers adopted the Dravidian or Pallava style which can be seen in the famous Kailash Temple
at Ellora near Aurangabad (Maharashtra).
❖ The three groups of rock-cut temples in Ellora - Buddhist, Jain and Brahmanical.
❖ The most striking feature is the Dasavatara gallery showing the ten incarnations of Vishnu which is a
masterpiece of architecture of Rashtrakutas.
❖ It even includes several caves excavated from the hillsides around which contain large halls with images of
Hindu Gods.
❖ Island of Elephants near Bombay, the cave temples were also built by the Rashtrakuta Rulers.
❖ The cave temple which belongs to the Brahmanical group of cave temples is dedicated to Shiva and is noted
for its fine sculpture.
Ellora Caves: A World Heritage Site
❖ Construction Period and Patronage:
➢ Ellora Caves were constructed between 600 AD and 1000 AD.
➢ The building initiative was supported by both merchants and local rulers.
❖ Cave Distribution:
➢ The 34 caves were excavated from basalt cliffs in the Charanandri Hills.
➢ Categorically, 12 caves (Cave No. 1 to 12) represent Buddhism, 17 caves (Cave No. 13 to 29) are
associated with the Brahmanical religion, and 5 caves (Cave No. 30 to 34) are dedicated to Jainism.
❖ Tolerance and Harmony:
➢ The diverse representation of Buddhism, Brahmanical religion, and Jainism in Ellora indicates a high
level of tolerance among ancient Indians.
➢ Different religious communities coexisted without animosity, fostering a spirit of harmony.
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❖ Dynastic Contributions:
➢ The Ellora monuments were predominantly built during the Rashtrakuta dynasty.
➢ Hindu and Buddhist caves were constructed under the Rashtrakuta dynasty, while a number of Jain
caves were attributed to the Yadava dynasty.
➢ Funding for construction came from royals, traders, and affluent individuals in the region.
❖ Cultural Diversity and Unity:
➢ The caves stand as a testament to the cultural diversity present during the historical period.
➢ Reflects the unity in diversity as various religious communities came together for artistic and
architectural endeavors.
Brahmanical Caves 13-29:
❖ Cave No. 16 - Kailashanatha Temple:
➢ Houses the Kailashanatha Temple dedicated to Shiva.
➢ Depicts Kailasha mountain, Shiva's abode, and stands as the world's largest monolithic structure.
➢ Construction initiated under the patronage of Rashtrakuta king Krishna in the 18th century.
➢ Completed over 100 years, it's part of the world's largest rock-cut monastery-temple cave complexes.
➢ Recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
➢ Architectural Features:
❖ Modeled after Hindu temples, with influences from Kailash Temple Kanchi and Virupaksha Temple
Pattadakal.
❖ Situated on a complete hillside separated from a mountain range.
❖ Features an entrance gateway with a low gopuram, a multi-storey main temple supported by elephants, a
Nandi shrine, a large hall with carved pillars, and a garbhagriha with a linga-yoni.
❖ Central shrine with a flat-roofed mandapa supported by 16 pillars, surrounded by five other shrines.
❖ Elaborately carved pyramidal Dravidian Shikhara.
➢ Sculptural Elements - All Carved from One Rock:
❖ Basement level adorned with Shaiva, Vaishnava, and Shakti works.
❖ Beautiful sculptures of Hindu Gods, episodes from Ramayana, Mahabharata, Puranas, and twelve childhood
episodes of Krishna.
❖ Includes depictions of Nandi, Ganga, Yamuna, Saraswati, ten avatars of Vishnu, Vedic gods, non-Vedic
deities like Ganesha, Ardhanarishvara, Harihara, Annapurna, Durga, and a masterpiece depicting Ravana
shaking Mount Kailash.
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❖ Cave 15 - Dashavatara Ellora Temple (Vishnu):

➢ Features sculptures depicting the ten avatars of Vishnu.
➢ Includes inscriptions of Dantidurga, Gajasura, the death of Hiranyakashipu, Tripurantika, Markendeya,
Garuda, Nandi, dancing Shiva, Andhakasura, Govardhanadhari, and Gajendravarada.

❖ Cave 21 - Rameshwar Temple:

➢ Credited to the Kalachuri dynasty.
➢ Narrates the story of Parvati's pursuit of
Shiva.
➢ Carvings depict Parvati and Shiva at leisure,
Parvati's wedding, Shiva dancing, and
Kartikeya.
➢ Large display of Sapta Matrika, flanked by
Ganesha and Shiva, and representations of
Durga, Ganga, and Yamuna.
➢ Symmetrical layout following the mandapa square principle, with an equilateral triangle arrangement of
the Shiva linga and goddesses.
Buddhist Caves 1-12 at Ellora:
❖ Earliest and Latest Caves:
➢ Cave 6 is the earliest Buddhist cave at Ellora, while the latest are Caves 11 (Do Thal) and 12 (Tin Thal).
➢ Caves 11 and 12 feature three-storey monasteries with Vajrayana iconography.
❖ Plaster and Paint:
➢ All caves were meticulously plastered and painted, enhancing their aesthetic appeal.
❖ Multi-Storeyed Viharas:
➢ Caves 11 and 12 serve as prayer halls, viharas, or monasteries.
➢ Large, multi-storeyed structures carved into the mountain face, housing various functional areas such as
living quarters, sleeping quarters, kitchens, and other rooms.
❖ Iconography and Shrines:
➢ Adorned with shrines featuring carvings of Gautama Buddha, bodhisattvas, and saints.
➢ The stone carvings emulate the appearance of wood, showcasing a unique artistic touch.
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❖ Architectural Significance:
➢ Caves 5, 10, 11, and 12 hold architectural importance.
➢ Cave 5 stands out as a hall with parallel benches in the
center and a Buddha statue at the rear.

❖ Cave 10 - Visvakarma Cave:

➢ Unique as the only chaitya (prayer hall) among the Buddhist
caves.
➢ Nicknamed the "Carpenter's Cave" due to the rock finish
resembling wooden beams.
➢ Features a gavaksha (arched window) with idols of male and
female deities, including Maitreya, Tara, Avalokitesvara
(Vajradhamma), Manjusri, Bhrkuti, and Mahamayuri, carved in
the distinctive Pala dynasty style.
Jain Caves 30-34 at Ellora:
❖ Time Period and Sect:
➢ Constructed during the 9th and early 10th
centuries.
➢ Comprising five Jain caves dedicated to the
Digambara sect.
❖ Size and Detailed Carvings:
➢ Relatively smaller in size compared to Buddhist
and Hindu caves.
➢ Feature highly detailed carvings, showcasing
intricate craftsmanship.
❖ Emphasis on Jina Depiction:
➢ Emphasize the depiction of the twenty-four Jinas, significant figures in Jainism.
➢ Works include carvings of gods, goddesses, yaksa (male nature deity), yaksi (female nature deity), and
human devotees from Jain mythology.
❖ Cave 30: Chota Kailash:
➢ Unique cave with distinctive carvings and Jain iconography.
❖ Cave 31:
➢ Carvings of Parshvanatha, guarded by yaksha Dharanendra with his seven hoods.
➢ Depiction of Gommateshvara and Vardhamana Mahavir Swami seated on a lion-throne with a chakra in
the middle panel.
➢ Presence of yaksha Matanga on an elephant and yakshi Siddhaiki seated in savya-lalitasana on a lion
with a child on her lap.
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❖ Cave 32: Indra Sabha:

➢ Largest among the Jain series, dated to the 9th century under
Rashtrakuta patronage.
➢ Features a simple gateway leading to a courtyard with a monolithic
shrine having a pyramidal roof.
➢ A double-storey temple is excavated at the rear, with a columned
mandapa in the interior.
➢ Carvings of Jain Tirthankharas adorn the walls in a monolithic
style.
❖ Cave 33: Jagannath Sabha:
➢ Another notable cave in the Jain series.

Elephanta Caves: A World Heritage Site

❖ Location and Historical Renaming:
➢ Situated near Mumbai, originally known as Gharapuri (the city of caves).
➢ Renamed Elephanta by the Portuguese.
❖ Portuguese Naming Story:
➢ The Portuguese discovered a massive elephant image overlooking the sea on the island.
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➢ This image led to the island being named Elephanta; the elephant image is now housed in a museum in
Mumbai.
❖ Number and Religious Affiliation of Caves:
➢ A total of 7 caves on Elephanta, with 5 dedicated to the Brahmanical religion (Shaivism and
Vaishnavism).
➢ The remaining 2 caves are affiliated with Buddhism.
❖ Patronage by Rashtrakuta Rulers:
➢ Constructed under the patronage of the Rashtrakuta Rulers.
❖ Brahmanical Group Features:
➢ Brahmanical caves are primarily dedicated to Shiva and renowned for their exquisite sculptures.
➢ Features a massive mandapa supported by twenty pillars
on the periphery.
➢ Accessible via flights of steps leading from front and
back courtyards.
❖ Trimurti Sculpture:
➢ The temple gained fame for housing a colossal Trimurti
sculpture.
➢ Depicts the three aspects of the Supreme - Creator, Preserver, and Destroyer.
❖ Cave Distribution:
➢ Highlights the distribution of caves, showcasing the religious diversity on the island.
❖ World Heritage Site:
➢ Recognized as a World Heritage Site for its cultural and historical significance.
➢ Represents a blend of artistic excellence and religious heritage.
1. Ravananugraha
2. Shiva-Parvati, Mount Kailash
3. Ardhanarishvara
4. Sadashiva Trimurti
5. Gangadhara
6. Wedding of Shiva
7. Shiva slaying Andhaka
8. Nataraja
9. Yogishvara
East Wing Shrine
10. Kartikeya
11. Matrikas
12. Ganesha
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13. Dvarapala
West Wing Shrine
14. Yogishvara
15. Nataraja
16. Linga

Buddhist Caves 6 & 7 at Elephanta:

❖ Cave 6: Sitabai's Temple Cave Vihara:
➢ Originally a vihara, or Buddhist monastery, known as Sitabai's temple cave.
➢ Lacks decorative elements.
➢ Converted and repurposed as a church by the Portuguese during their occupation.
❖ Cave 7: Stupa from 2nd Century BCE:
➢ Contains a stupa, dating back to the 2nd century BCE.
➢ Reflects the historical evolution of the site and its religious significance.
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❖ Coins and Historical Artifacts:

➢ Unearthed coins from the caves trace back to the Western
Kshatrapas in the 4th century CE.
➢ Provides archaeological insights into the historical and cultural
connections of the region.
❖ Time Period of the Caves:
➢ The caves collectively span a period from the 5th to the 8th
century CE.
➢ Represent a significant duration of Buddhist influence and
artistic development on Elephanta Island
Mandapeshwar Caves (Montepzir) in Mumbai:
❖ Historical Overview:
➢ 8th-century rock-cut shrine dedicated to Shiva situated near Mount Poinsur in Borivali, Mumbai, along
the River Dahisar.
❖ Original Buddhist Viharas:
➢ Originally designed as Buddhist viharas, reflecting the diverse religious history of the site.
❖ Name Origin and Neighborhood Influence:
➢ The name of the neighborhood is derived from the Mandapeshwar temple.
➢ Believed that "Mount Poinsur" is a corruption of the name "Mandapeshwar."
❖ Portuguese Church Ruins:
➢ Ruins of an old Portuguese-built church, Immaculate Conception Church, stand atop the caves.
➢ Offers a glimpse into the layers of cultural and religious history at the site.
❖ Sculptures and Statuettes:
➢ Rich collection of sculptures depicting Ardhanarishvara, Nataraja, Sadashiva, Ganesha, Brahma,
Vishnu, and statuettes showcasing the marriage of Shiva and Parvati.
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Shivleni Caves in Ambajogai, Maharashtra:

❖ Location and Date:
➢ Situated in Ambajogai, Maharashtra.
➢ Rock-cut cave monuments dating back to the reign of King Udayaditya (c. 1060-1087) from the
Paramara dynasty of Malwa.
❖ Rock-Cut Excavations:
➢ Total excavations hewn out of rock, carved deep
inside the hill.
➢ Showcase intricate sculptures of Hindu deities,
including Shiva, Saptamatrikas, Ganesha, and
Nandi.
❖ Cultural and Historical Significance:
➢ Reflects the artistic and religious expressions of the
Paramara dynasty during King Udayaditya's rule.
➢ Offers insights into the regional religious landscape and artistic practices of the time.

UPSC CSE Prelims 2023 - History Questions

#Q Consider the following pairs:
State Well known for
1. Besnagar : Shaivite cave shrine
2. Bhaja: : Buddhist cave shrine
3 Sittanavasal : Jain cave shrine
How many of the above pairs are correctly matched?
A. Only one
B. Only two
C. All three
D. None

Q1. Which one of the following statements is correct? (2021)

A. Ajanta Caves lie in the gorge of Waghora river.
B. Sanchi Stupa lies in the gorge of Chambal river.
C. Pandavlena Cave shrines lie in the gorge of Narmada river.
D. Amaravati Stupa lies in the gorge of Godavari river.

Q2. Some Buddhist rock-cut caves are called Chaityas, while the others are called Viharas.
What is the difference between the two? (2013)
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(a) monks Vihara is a place of worship, while Chaitya is the dwelling place of the
(b) monks Chaitya is a place of worship, while Vihara is the dwelling place of the
(c) to it Chaitya is the stupa at the far end of the cave, while Vihara is the hall axial

Q3. With reference to the history of Indian rock-cut architecture, consider the following statements: (2013) Goo.
1. The caves at Badami are the oldest surviving rock-cut caves in India
2. The Barabar rock-cut caves were originally made for Ajivikas by Emperor Chandragupta Maurya
3. At Ellora, caves were made for different faiths.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

Q4. Consider the following historical places: (2013)

1. Ajanta Caves
2. Lepakshi Temple
3. Sanchi Stupa
Which of the above places is/are also known for mural paintings?
(a) 1 only
(b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 1, 2 and 3
(d) None

Mains Question
Q1.The rock-cut architecture represents one of the most important sources of our knowledge of early Indian art
and history. Discuss. (2020) (10 marks/150 word)
Q2. Indian Philosophy and tradition played a significant role in conceiving and shaping the monuments and their
art in India. Discuss. (2020)

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