Chapter Two

2.1. Vectors in the plane

We assume that you are familiar with the standard (x, y).

Cartesian coordinate system in the plane. Each point p in the plane is identified with its x
and y components: p= (a, b). y

b P= (a, b)

a x

A scalar is a quantity that is determined by its magnitude (its number of units measured in a
suitable scale).

Examples 1 Mass, length, temperature, voltage are examples of scalar quantities.

Quantities that have both magnitude and direction are called vectors. A vector is usually
represented by an arrow, the length of the arrow represents the magnitude of the vector and
the arrow head indicates the direction of the vector.

Examples 2 Velocity, acceleration, displacement and force are examples of vector quantities.

An ordered pair of numbers (a1, a2… an) is called vector. Here ai’s for i=1, 2… n are called
components.

The set of all vectors with n-components. The set of all vectors with n-components is denoted
by IRn.

Vectors are denoted by small case letter with an arrow at the top like 𝑎⃗, 𝑏⃗⃗, 𝑐⃗.

To determine the coordinates of a vector 𝑎⃗ in the plane, the first step is to translate the vector so
that its tail is at the origin of the coordinate system. Then, the head of the vector will be at some
point (a1, a2) in the plane. We call (a1, a2) the coordinates or the components of the vector 𝑎⃗. We
often write 𝑎⃗∈R2 to denote that it can be described by two real coordinates.

1
Desalegn A.
Zero vector: suppose 𝑎⃗ = (a1, a2… an) is any vector in IRn. Then 𝑎⃗ is said to be zero vector if
and only if all components are zero. That is 𝑎⃗ = 0 if and only if ai=0, ∀i = 1, 2, 3… n.

Equal vector: let 𝑎⃗ = (a1, a2… an) and 𝑏⃗⃗ = (b1, b2… bn) be vectors in IRn. Then the two vectors
are said to be equal if and only if their corresponding components are all equal.

That means 𝑎⃗ = 𝑏⃗⃗ if and only if ai = bi ∀i = 1, 2, 3… n.

Example: find the values of x, y, z if 𝑎⃗= (x-y, -1, 7) and 𝑏⃗⃗ = (5, x+y, 3z+1) are equal.

Solution: 𝑎⃗ = 𝑏⃗⃗ ⇒ (x-y, -1, 7) = (5, x+y, 3z+1)

𝑥−𝑦 =5
⇒ {𝑥 + 𝑦 = −1
3𝑧 + 1 = 7

⇒z=2, x=2, y=-3

2.2. Operation on vectors

Consider 𝑎⃗ = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 ) and 𝑏⃗⃗ = (𝑏, 𝑏2 ). Geometrically we can find 𝒂 ⃗⃗

⃗⃗ +𝒃

2
Desalegn A.
Let 𝑎⃗ = (a1, a2… an) and 𝑏⃗⃗ = (b1, b2… bn) be any two vectors in IRn. Then, we define
the sum and differences of these vectors as follows.

Addition of vectors: we define 𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ to be the vector given by

⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗ = (a1 + b1, a2 + b2, … , an + bn ).
𝒂

That is, 𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ is a new vector obtained by adding the corresponding components 𝑎⃗
and⃗⃗⃗
𝑏.

Subtraction of vectors:

We define 𝑎⃗ - 𝑏⃗⃗ to be the vector given by

⃗⃗ - ⃗𝒃⃗ = (a1 - b1, a2 - b2, … an - bn )

𝒂

That is, 𝑎⃗ - 𝑏⃗⃗ is a new vector obtained by subtracting the corresponding components
𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗.

Multiplication of a vector by scalar

If k is scalar, then k𝑎⃗ is a vector given by

k𝒂
⃗⃗ = (ka1, ka2…, kan)

Example: Let 𝑎⃗= (2, 3, 5) and 𝑏⃗⃗ = (1, -1, 3).

Then find

a) 𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ = (2, 3, 5) + (1,-1,3)

= (2+1,3+(-1),5+3)

= (3, 2, 8)

b) 𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ = (2,3,5) - (1,-1,3)

= (2-1,3-(-1),5-3)

= (1, 4, 2)

c) 3𝑎⃗ = (3*2,3*3,3*5)

= (6, 9, 15)

3
Desalegn A.
Directed vector: Any vector with initial point A and terminal point B denoted by ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵
is called directed vector from A to B.

It is obtained by 𝐴𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = B –A.

Examples:

1. Find a vector 𝑣⃗ directed from A to B where A =(2, -1, 3) and B=(5, -4, 7).

Solution:𝑣⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = B – A = (5,-4, 7) – (2,-1,3)

= (3, -3, 4).

2. Let ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = (-2, 0, 4). If the midpoint of the segment ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 is (2, 3,-2). Then find the
end point of 𝐴𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .

Solution: Let A = (a, b, c) and B = (x, y, z) be the coordinate of the end point of the
segment.

Then ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 =B – A = (x-a, y-b, z-c) = (-2, 0, -4)

⇒x-a = -2, y-b = 0 and z-c = -4. …………………….(*)

On the other hand, from the mid-point formula, the mid-point of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 is given by
𝑥+𝑎 𝑦+𝑏 𝑧+𝑐
( , , ) = (2, 3, -2)
2 2 2

⇒x+ a = 4, y+ b= 6 and z+ c = -4 ……………………………..(**)

From (*) and (**), we get

A = (3, 3, 0) and B = (1, 3, -4).

Norm or magnitude of a vector

Definition: Let 𝑎⃗ = (a1, a2… an) be vectors in𝐼𝑅 𝑛 . Then the norm of 𝑎⃗ which denoted
by ‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣ is given by

‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣ = √a1 2 + 𝑎2 2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 2

Examples:

1. Find the norm of 𝑎⃗ = (3, -1, 1) and ⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑏 = (2, 3, 0, 6).

4
Desalegn A.
Solution:

‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣ = √32 + −12 + 12 = √9 + 1 + 1 = √11

‖𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣ = √22 + −32 + 02 + 62 = √4 + 9 + 0 + 36 = √49 = 7.

2. If 𝑎⃗ = (x, 2, x) and ‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣ = 6, find the values of x.

Solution:

‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣ = √x 2 + 22 + 𝑥 2 = √2x 2 + 4 = 6

⇒2x 2 + 4 = 36

⇒x = ±4

⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (3, y+8, -6). If ‖𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣ =5, then find the values of y.
3. Given 𝑎⃗ = (1, -5, 6) and 𝑏

Solution: Here 𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ = (4, y+3, 0). Then

‖𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣ = √42 + (𝑦 + 3)2 + 02 = 5

⇒√16 + y 2 + 6𝑦 + 9 =5

⇒√y 2 + 6𝑦 + 25 =5

⇒y 2 + 6𝑦 + 25 = 25

⇒y = 0, y = -6.

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∣∣ = 4. Find the scalar k.

4. Given vector 𝑎⃗ where ‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣ = 6 and ‖𝑘𝑎

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∣∣ = 4
Solution: By properties of norm, ‖𝑘𝑎

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∣∣ = ∣ k∣ ‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣
⇒‖𝑘𝑎

⇒6 ∣ k∣ = 4
2
⇒k = ±3

Definition: A vector of magnitude (modulus) unity (one) is called a unit

vector.

5
Desalegn A.
 ⃗𝒂⃗
Note that: For any non-zero vector 𝒂
⃗⃗ = is a unit vector in the direction of that of
|𝒂⃗⃗|
vector 𝒂
⃗⃗.

Examples:

1. The vector 𝑢
⃗⃗ = (2/3, 1/3, -2/3) is unit vector because

⃗⃗ ∣∣ = √(2/3)2 + (1/3)2 + (−2/3)2 =1

‖𝑢

2. If 𝑢
⃗⃗ = (2/3, 1/3, t) is unit vector, then find the value of t.

Solution:‖𝑢
⃗⃗ ∣∣ = √(2/3)2 + (1/3)2 + (𝑡)2 =1

⇒√5/9 + (𝑡)2 =1

⇒𝑡 2 =4/9
2
⇒t = ±3

The standard unit vectors are i= (1, 0, 0), j= (0, 1, 0) and k = (0, 0, 1).

Let 𝑎⃗ = (a1, a2, a3) be vectors.

𝑎⃗ = (a1, a2, a3) = a1(1, 0, 0) + a2(0, 1, 0) + a3(0, 0, 1) = a1i + a2j + a3k

Examples:

1. Let 𝑎⃗ = 2i - j + 2k be given vector. Find unit vector in the same and opposite
direction of 𝑎⃗.
Solution: Here ‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣ = √22 + −12 + 22 = √9 = 3.
𝑎⃗⃗ 2i − j + 2k
The unit vector in the direction of 𝑎⃗ is ‖𝑎⃗⃗∣∣ = = 2/3i -1/3j +2/3k.
3

−𝑎⃗⃗ 2i − j + 2k
The unit vector in the opposite direction of 𝑎⃗ is ‖𝑎⃗⃗∣∣ = = -2/3i + 1/3j -
−3

2/3k.
2. Let 𝑎⃗ = i - j + k and 𝑏⃗⃗ = 3i + j + k be given vectors. Then find a unit vector in
the direction of 𝑎⃗+ 𝑏⃗⃗.

6
Desalegn A.
Dot product of vectors

Definition: Let 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ be any two non-zero free vectors. The scalar (dot or inner)
product of 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗, denoted 𝑎⃗ • 𝑏⃗⃗ is defined by:

𝑎⃗ • 𝑏⃗⃗ = |𝑎⃗| |𝑏⃗⃗| cos𝜃

Where  is the angle between 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗.

Let 𝑎⃗ = a1i + a2j + a3k and ⃗⃗⃗

𝑏 = b1i + b2j + b3k be vectors.

Then,

⃗⃗ • ⃗𝒃⃗ = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3
𝒂

Properties of dot product

1. 𝑎⃗ • 𝑏⃗⃗ = 𝑏⃗⃗ • 𝑎⃗
2. 𝑎⃗ • (𝑏⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑐) = 𝑎⃗ • 𝑏⃗⃗ + 𝑎⃗ • 𝑐⃗
3. (k𝑎⃗)• 𝑏⃗⃗= k(𝑎⃗ • 𝑏⃗⃗)
4. 𝑎⃗ • 𝑎⃗ = ‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣2

Example: If ⃗⃗⃗𝑎⃗ = 2i + 3k and 𝑏⃗⃗ = 4i + 6j – k, the dot product is 𝑎⃗ • 𝑏⃗⃗ = 2(4) +0(6) +3(-1) = 5.

Orthogonal and parallel vectors

Two non – zero vectors 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ are said to be orthogonal if their dot product is
zero.

𝑎⃗⊥𝑏⃗⃗ if and only if 𝑎⃗ • 𝑏⃗⃗ = 0.

Any two non-zero vectors are said to be parallel if and only if one is the scalar
multiple of the other. Let 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ be non-zero vectors.

𝑎⃗//𝑏⃗⃗ if and only if ∃𝑡 ≠0 such that 𝑎⃗ = t𝑏⃗⃗.

Examples:

7
Desalegn A.
1. Show that the vectors 𝑎⃗ = (3, -1, 5) and 𝑏⃗⃗ = (1, 13, 2) are orthogonal.

Solution:𝑎⃗ •𝑏⃗⃗ = 3(1) + (-1)(13) + (5)(2) = 3 – 13 +10 = 0.

2. Let 𝑎⃗ = (3, -t, 2) and 𝑏⃗⃗ = (5t, 17, 3) be vectors. Find t so that 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ are
orthogonal.

Solution: Since 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ are orthogonal, 𝑎⃗ • 𝑏⃗⃗ =0.

3. Are the vectors 𝑎⃗ = (1, 3, -2) and 𝑏⃗⃗ = (3, 9, -6) parallel?

Yes, because ∃𝑡 = 3 such that 𝑎⃗ = 3𝑏⃗⃗.

4. Let 𝑎⃗ = (m, 3, -4) and 𝑏⃗⃗ = (2, -n, 8) be vectors. Find m and n so that 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ are
parallels.

Solution: Here, from the definition of parallel vectors

𝑎⃗//𝑏⃗⃗ if and only if ∃𝑡 ≠0 such that 𝑎⃗ = t𝑏⃗⃗

⇒(m, 3, -4) = t(2, -n, 8)

⇒t =-1/2, m = -1 and n = 6.

5. Let 𝑎⃗ = 2i -3j and 𝑏⃗⃗ = 2i. Find a vector 𝑐⃗ such that 𝑐⃗ • 𝑏⃗⃗ = 6 and 𝑐⃗⊥𝑎⃗.

Solution: Here, let 𝑐⃗ = xi +yj

Then, 𝑐⃗ • 𝑏⃗⃗ = 6⇒2x – 0 = 6

⇒x = 3

Again, 𝑐⃗⊥𝑎⃗ ⇒𝑐⃗•𝑎⃗ =0

⇒2x – 3y= 0
⇒y = 2.

Hence, 𝑐⃗ = 3i +2j.

The Two important inequalities

Let 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ be two vectors.

1.‖𝑎⃗ • 𝑏⃗⃗‖  ‖𝑎⃗‖‖𝑏⃗⃗‖ (Cauchy-Schwarz Inequality)

8
Desalegn A.
 2. ‖𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗‖  ‖𝑎⃗‖ + ‖𝑏⃗⃗‖ (Triangle Inequality)

Angle between two vectors

Recall, the definition of dot product of vectors 𝑎⃗ and𝑏⃗⃗,

𝑎⃗ . 𝑏⃗⃗ = ‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣ ‖𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣cos𝜽

⃗⃗
𝑎⃗⃗ .𝑏
From this, 𝜽 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1(‖𝑎⃗⃗∣∣‖𝑏⃗⃗∣∣)

Example. Given: The angle between two unit vectors 𝑝⃗ and 𝑞⃗ is 60. Then find

i) ‖𝑝⃗ + 𝑞⃗‖ ii) the angle between 𝑝⃗ and 𝑝⃗ + 𝑞⃗

Solutions. i) ‖𝑝⃗ + 𝑞⃗‖2 = (𝑝⃗ + 𝑞⃗) . (𝑝⃗ + 𝑞⃗)

= ‖𝑝⃗‖2 + 2‖𝑝⃗‖ ‖𝑞⃗‖ cos 60 + ‖𝑞⃗‖2

= 2 (1 + cos 60)

= 3.

Therefore ‖𝑝⃗ + 𝑞⃗‖= 3 .

ii) The angle between 𝑝⃗ and 𝑝⃗ + 𝑞⃗

Then 𝑝⃗ • 𝑝⃗ + 𝑞⃗ = ‖𝑝⃗‖2 + ‖𝑝⃗‖ ‖𝑞⃗‖ cos 60

= 1 + cos 60

= 1.5. i)

On the other hand 𝑝⃗ • 𝑝⃗ + 𝑞⃗ =‖𝑝⃗‖ ‖𝑝⃗ + 𝑞⃗‖ cos 

= 3 cos  ii)

From i) and ii) we get:

3
3 cos  = 1.5  cos  =
2
9
Desalegn A.
   = 30.

Therefore the angle between 𝑝⃗ and 𝑝⃗ + 𝑞⃗ is 30.

Further examples

1. Find the angle between the vectors 𝑎⃗ = i + k and 𝑏⃗⃗ = j + k.

Solution: Here, ‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣ = √2 and ‖𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣ = √2

𝑎⃗ • 𝑏⃗⃗ = 1.
⃗⃗
𝑎⃗⃗ •𝑏 1 𝜋
𝜽 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (‖𝑎⃗⃗∣∣‖𝑏⃗⃗∣∣) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1(2) = 3

2. Find the value of c for which the angle between the vectors 𝑎⃗ = i – 2cj + k and
𝜋
𝑏⃗⃗ = i + j is4 .

Solution: Here,

𝑎⃗ • 𝑏⃗⃗ = 1 – 2c

‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣ = √4𝑐 2 + 2 and ‖𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣ = √2

⃗⃗
𝑎⃗⃗ .𝑏 𝜋 1−2𝑐
Cos𝜽 = ‖𝑎⃗⃗∣∣‖𝑏⃗⃗∣∣ ⇒Cos 4 = (√4𝑐 2 )(1/√2)
+2

⇒4𝑐 2 + 2 = 4𝑐 2 − 4𝑐 +1
−1
⇒c = 4

3. If 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ are orthogonal unit vectors, show that ‖𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣ = ‖𝑎⃗ − 𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣ =√2.

Solution: since 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ are orthogonal unit vectors, ‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣ =‖𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣ = 1 and 𝑎⃗ . 𝑏⃗⃗ =0.

Hence,

I. ‖𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣2 = (𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ )• (𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ ) =‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣2 + ‖𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣2 +2𝑎⃗ • 𝑏⃗⃗ = 1+1+0 = 2

⇒‖𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣ = √2.

II. ‖𝑎⃗ − 𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣2 = (𝑎⃗ - 𝑏⃗⃗ )• (𝑎⃗ - 𝑏⃗⃗ ) =‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣2 + ‖𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣2 - 2𝑎⃗ • 𝑏⃗⃗ = 1+1-0 = 2

⇒‖𝑎⃗ − 𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣ = √2.

10
Desalegn A.
Direction Angles and Direction Cosines

Definition: Let 𝑎⃗ = (a1, a2, a3) be a non-zero vector. The angles,  and 
(between 0 and  inclusively) that 𝑎⃗ makes with the positive x, y and z axes
respectively are called the direction angles of 𝒂
⃗⃗.

Then, the corresponding direction cosines are calculated as:

𝑎⃗ • i = a1 ⇒‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣ ‖𝑖 ∣∣ Cosα = a1
a1
⇒Cos α = ‖𝑎⃗⃗∣∣

𝑎⃗ • j = a2 ⇒‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣ ‖𝑗 ∣∣ Cosβ = a2
a2
⇒Cos β = ‖𝑎⃗⃗∣∣

𝑎⃗ • k = a3 ⇒‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣ ‖𝑘 ∣∣ Cosγ = a3
a3
⇒Cosγ = ‖𝑎⃗⃗∣∣

Besides, from these values the angles themselves can be calculated as

a1 a2 a3
α = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (‖𝑎⃗⃗∣∣), β = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (‖𝑎⃗⃗∣∣) and γ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (‖𝑎⃗⃗∣∣) .

 Cos, cos  and cos  are called the direction cosines of 𝒂

⃗⃗.

Examples:

1. Find the direction cosines and direction angles of the vector 𝑎⃗ = i + k.

Solution: ‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣ = √2

From the definition of direction cosines, it follows that

a1 1 1 𝜋
Cosα = ‖𝑎⃗⃗∣∣ = ⇒α = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1( ) =
√2 √2 4

a2 0 𝜋
Cosβ = ‖𝑎⃗⃗∣∣ = =0⇒β = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1(0) = 2
√2

11
Desalegn A.
 a3 1 1 𝜋
Cosγ = ‖𝑎⃗⃗∣∣ = ⇒γ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1( ) =
√2 √2 4

Projection of vectors

Definition: Let 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ be two non-zero vectors. The components of 𝑎⃗ along 𝑏⃗⃗ is
⃗⃗
𝑎⃗⃗•.𝑏
called the parallel projection of 𝑎⃗ onto 𝑏⃗⃗ and it is given by proj 𝑎⃗𝑏⃗⃗= (‖𝑏⃗⃗∣∣2) 𝑏⃗⃗.

On the other hand, the vector ⊥proj𝑎⃗𝑏⃗⃗ = 𝑎⃗ - proj 𝑎⃗𝑏⃗⃗ is called the orthogonal
projection of 𝑎⃗ onto 𝑏⃗⃗.
⃗⃗
𝑎⃗⃗ • 𝑏
Similarly, the projection of 𝑏⃗⃗ onto 𝑎⃗ is given by (‖𝑎⃗⃗∣∣2) 𝑎⃗.

Examples:

1. Let 𝑎⃗ =3i -6j +12k and 𝑏⃗⃗ = i+ j + k. Find the parallel and orthogonal projection of 𝑎⃗
onto 𝑏⃗⃗.

Solution: Here,

𝑎⃗ • 𝑏⃗⃗ = 9 and ‖𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣ =√3. Thus the parallel projection of 𝑎⃗ onto 𝑏⃗⃗ is

⃗⃗
𝑎⃗⃗ .𝑏 9
proj𝑎⃗𝑏⃗⃗= (‖𝑏⃗⃗∣∣2) 𝑏⃗⃗ = ( 2 ) (i+ j + k) = 3i +3j + 3k.
√3

The orthogonal projection of 𝑎⃗ onto 𝑏⃗⃗ is given by

⊥proj𝑎⃗𝑏⃗⃗ = 𝑎⃗ - proj 𝑎⃗𝑏⃗⃗ = (3i -6j +12k) – (3i +3j + 3k) = -9j + 9k.

Cross Product

Definition: Let 𝑎⃗ = a1i + a2j + a3k and 𝑏⃗⃗ = b1i + b2j + b3k be vectors. Then the cross
product of 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ denoted by 𝑎⃗ x 𝑏⃗⃗ is the vector given by

𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
𝑎⃗ x 𝑏⃗⃗ = อ𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 อ = i(a2 b3 - a3 b2) –j(a1 b3 – a3 b1) +k(a1 b2 –a2 b1)
𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3

Example: Let 𝑎⃗ = (5,  1, 0) and 𝑏⃗⃗ = (0, 2,  2). Find 𝑎⃗  𝑏⃗⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗  𝑎⃗.

12
Desalegn A.
 𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
Solution: 𝑎⃗ x 𝑏⃗⃗ = อ5 −1 0 อ = i(2-0)-j(-10-0)+k(10-0) = 2i +10j +10k.
0 2 −2
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
and 𝑏⃗⃗ x 𝑎⃗ = อ0 2 −2อ = i(0-2)-j(0-(-10))+k(0-10) =-2 i -10j – 10k
5 −1 0

Properties of Cross Product

Let 𝑎⃗, 𝑏⃗⃗, 𝑐⃗be vectors and let m be a scalar. Then

i) 𝑎⃗  𝑏⃗⃗=  (𝑏⃗⃗𝑎⃗ )

ii) 𝑎⃗  𝑎⃗ = 0

iii) (m 𝑎⃗)  𝑏⃗⃗ = m (𝑎⃗  𝑏⃗⃗) = 𝑎⃗  (m𝑏⃗⃗ ).

iv) 𝑎⃗• 𝑎⃗  𝑏⃗⃗ = 𝑏⃗⃗• 𝑎⃗  𝑏⃗⃗ = 0.

If  is the angle between 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ (0    ), then

‖𝑎⃗  𝑏⃗⃗‖ = ‖𝑎⃗‖‖𝑏⃗⃗‖sin (𝜃)

Corollary: Two non-zero vectors 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ are parallel if and only if 𝑎⃗  𝑏⃗⃗= 0.

Example: Let 𝑎⃗= (3, 2,  2) and 𝑏⃗⃗ = (0, 3, 7).

a. Determine whether 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ are parallel or orthogonal or neither.

b. Find a vector orthogonal to both 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ .

Solution:

a. 𝑎⃗• 𝑏⃗⃗ = (3  0) + (2  3) + ( 2  7) =  2. Therefore 𝑎⃗• 𝑏⃗⃗ ≠ 0.

and 𝑎⃗  𝑏⃗⃗ ≠ 0

Hence neither 𝑎⃗• 𝑏⃗⃗  0 nor 𝑎⃗  𝑏⃗⃗ ≠ 0.

Therefore 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ are neither parallel nor orthogonal.

b. 𝑎⃗  𝑏⃗⃗ is orthogonal to both 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗

13
Desalegn A.
 𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
𝑎⃗ x 𝑏⃗⃗ = อ3 2 −2อ = i(14-(-6))-j(21-0)+k(9-0) = 20i- 21j +9k.
0 3 7
1.3. Application of vectors
Area and volume

The area of parallelogram whose adjacent sides is the vectors 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗is computed by using

Area = ∣ ∣ 𝑎⃗ X 𝑏⃗⃗ ∣ ∣ = ‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣ ‖𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣ sin𝜽

The area of triangle whose sides is the vectors 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ is given by
1
Area = 2∣ ∣ 𝑎⃗ X 𝑏⃗⃗ ∣ ∣

Examples:

1. Find the area of the parallelogram whose adjacent sides are given by the vectors
𝑎⃗ = i+2 j +3k and 𝑏⃗⃗ = 4i+5j + 6k

𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧:

Area =∣ ∣ 𝑎⃗ x 𝑏⃗⃗ ∣ ∣

𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
But 𝑎⃗ x 𝑏⃗⃗ = อ1 2 3อ = i(12 -15) –j(6-12) +k(5 - 8) = -3i +6j -3k
4 5 6

Area = ∣ ∣ 𝑎⃗ x 𝑏⃗⃗ ∣ ∣ = √−32 + 62 + (−3)2 = √54

2. Find the area of the triangle whose adjacent sides are given by the vectors
𝑎⃗ = i-3 j +2k and 𝑏⃗⃗ = 2i+2j - 2k

Solution:
1
Area = 2∣ ∣ 𝑎⃗ x 𝑏⃗⃗ ∣ ∣

𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
⃗⃗
But 𝑎⃗ x 𝑏 = อ1 −3 2 อ = i(6 -4) –j(-2-4) +k(2 +6) = 2i -6j +8k
2 2 −2

∣ ∣ 𝑎⃗ x 𝑏⃗⃗ ∣ ∣ = √22 + (−6)2 + (8)2 = √104

1 √104
Area = 2∣ ∣ 𝑎⃗ x 𝑏⃗⃗ ∣ ∣ = 2 = √26

14
Desalegn A.
3. Find the area of the parallelogram whose vertices are p(1,2,0), Q(3,4,0), R(4,1,0)
and
S(2, -1,0).

Solution: First let’s find six directed vectors formed by the four vertices

𝑃𝑄 = 2i +2j , ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑃𝑅 = 3i – j, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑆 = i - 3j, 𝑅𝑄
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = i - 3j, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑅𝑆 = 2i +2j and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑆𝑄 = i +4j.

From these six vectors, the pair of equal (parallel) vectors are 𝑃𝑄
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 2i +2j with 𝑅𝑆
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
2i +2j and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑆 = i - 3j with 𝑅𝑄
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = i - 3j.

Hence, we take ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑃𝑄 = 2i +2j from the first and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑆 = i - 3j from the second.

𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ x 𝑃𝑆
𝑃𝑄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = อ2 2 0อ = -8k
1 −3 0

Area = ∣ ∣ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄 x ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑆 ∣ ∣ = 8.
4. Find the area of the triangle whose vertices are p(3, -2, 0), Q(2, 2, 2) and R(-1, 0,
3).

Solution: first find two vectors with common initial point using the three vertices.
Taking R as common,

𝑅𝑃 = 4i -2j -3k and 𝑅𝑄

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 3i +2j – k

𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ x 𝑅𝑄
𝑅𝑃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = อ4 −2 −3อ = 8i – 5j +14k
3 2 −1

So, area = ∣ ∣ 𝑅𝑃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∣ ∣ = √285

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ x 𝑅𝑄
2

𝑎 𝑏⃗⃗,𝑐⃗ is
The volume of the parallelepiped determined by three non-zero vectors⃗⃗⃗⃗,
given by the absolute value of their scalar triple product.
𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3
That is ⃗⃗⃗
Volume =∣ ⃗⃗⃗𝑎⃗. ( 𝑏𝑥⃗⃗⃗)∣
𝑐 = อ𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3 อ
𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3

Example: Find the volume of parallelepiped generated by

𝑎⃗ = 2i + j +3k,𝑏⃗⃗ = -i + j -2k and 𝑐⃗ = i + j -2k

15
Desalegn A.
 2 1 3
Solution: Volume = ∣ ⃗⃗⃗𝑎⃗. (⃗⃗⃗ 𝑐 = อ−1 1 −2อ = ∣ -6 -12∣ = 28.
𝑏𝑥⃗⃗⃗)∣
1 1 −2

Equation of lines and planes in space

Let l be a line in pass through P(𝑥0, 𝑦0, 𝑧0 ) and parallel to the non-zero vector 𝑢
⃗⃗ = ai
+b j +ck and suppose X(x, y, z) is arbitrary point on this line. Since both P and X are
on l the directed vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑋 is parallel to l. Besides, the line is supposed to be parallel
to the vector𝑢
⃗⃗.

Hence, by transitivity ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑃𝑋//𝑢 ⃗⃗ if and only if ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑋 = t𝑢⃗⃗

⇒X – P = t𝑢
⃗⃗⇒X = P + t𝑢
⃗⃗ is called vector equation of line and t is parameter.

Now from the vector equation by letting X = (x, y, z), P = (𝑥0, 𝑦0, 𝑧0 ) and 𝑢 ⃗⃗ = (a, b, c),
we get that the vector equation to be l: (x, y, z) = (𝑥0, 𝑦0, 𝑧0 ) + t (a, b, c)

Equating corresponding components from these equations, we have

𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑎𝑡
{ 𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝑏𝑡 (This is called parametric equation)
𝑧 = 𝑧0 + 𝑐𝑡

Solve t, we get
𝑥 − 𝑥0
𝑡=
𝑎
𝑦 − 𝑦0
𝑡=
𝑏
𝑧 − 𝑧0
{𝑡 = 𝑐

Equating the value of t,

𝑥−𝑥0 𝑦−𝑦 𝑧−𝑧0
= = is called symmetric equation of line.
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐

Examples:

1. Give the vector, parametric and symmetric equation of the line pass through the
point A(1, 3, 0) and parallel to the vector 𝑢
⃗⃗ = 2i -5 j +7k.

Solution: the vector equation of the line is

X = (1, 3, 0) + t(2, -5, 7)

16
Desalegn A.
The parametric equation is

𝑥 = 1 + 2𝑡
{ 𝑦 = 3 − 5𝑡
𝑧 = 7𝑡

The symmetric equation of the line is

𝑥−1 𝑦−3 𝑧−0
= =
2 −5 7

2. Give the vector, parametric and symmetric equation of the line pass through the
point A(2, -1, 1) and B(1, 3, -2).

Solution: The directed vector is parallel to line is 𝐴𝐵

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (-1, 4, -3).

The vector equation of the line is X = (2, -1, 1) + t(-1, 4, -3)

The parametric equation is

𝑥 = 2−𝑡
{𝑦 = −1 + 4𝑡
𝑧 = 1 − 3𝑡

The symmetric equation of the line is

𝑥−2 𝑦=1 𝑧−1
= =
−1 4 −3

Definition:

Suppose l: X = P + t𝑢
⃗⃗ and m : X = Q + r𝑣⃗ ,t, r ∈ R are any two lines. Then they are
said to be

i) Parallel if their direction vectors 𝑢

⃗⃗ and 𝑣⃗ are parallel
ii) Perpendicular if their direction vectors 𝑢
⃗⃗ and 𝑣⃗ are perpendicular.

Examples:

Determine whether the following pair of lines are parallel, perpendicular or neither
and for these which are neither find the angle between.

a) l: X = (1, 2, 3) + t(1, 2, -1) and m: X = (1, 0, 1) + t(-3, -6, 3)

b) the lines through A=(1, 3, 5), B =(4, 7, 5) and C= (5, -2, 2),D = (1, 1, 7)
c) the lines through A=(2, -1, 4), B =(2, -2, 5) and C= (3, 4, 3),D = (3, 5, 3)

17
Desalegn A.
Solution:

a) here 𝑢
⃗⃗ = (1, 2, -1) and 𝑣⃗ = (-3, -6, 3)
⇒ 𝑣⃗ = -3𝑢
⃗⃗
⇒ 𝑢
⃗⃗//𝑣⃗

By definition, the lines are parallel.

b) In this case, 𝑢
⃗⃗ = B-A =(3, 4, 0) and 𝑣⃗ = D – C = (-4, 3, 5).
⃗⃗.𝑣⃗ = 0
⇒𝑢
⇒𝑢
⃗⃗⊥𝑣⃗

By definition, the lines are perpendicular.

c) In this case, 𝑢
⃗⃗ = B-A =(0, -1, 1) and 𝑣⃗ = D – C = (0, 1, 0).

But those vectors are neither parallel nor perpendicular and so are the lines
through these points. Let 𝜽 be angle between the lines.
⃗⃗.𝑣
𝑢 ⃗⃗ −1 3𝜋
Then, cos𝜽 = ‖𝑢⃗⃗∣‖𝑣⃗⃗∣∣∣ = ⇒𝜽 =
√2 4

d) For what value of k are the lines l: x=2t,y=1-3t, z= -2-7t and the line
m: X = (2, 3, -5) + r(3, k, -3) are perpendicular?

Intersection of lines
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑥1 + 𝑚𝑡
Suppose l: { 𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝑏𝑡 and m: { 𝑦 = 𝑦1 + 𝑛𝑡 are parametric equation of the lines
𝑧 = 𝑧0 + 𝑐𝑡 𝑧 = 𝑧1 + 𝑟𝑡
l and m.

Here, a point P(x, y, z) will be the intersection of the lines if and only if it satisfies
the equation of both lines at the same time.
𝑥0 + 𝑎𝑡 = 𝑥1 + 𝑚𝑡
Hence, at the point of intersection, we have { 𝑦0 + 𝑏𝑡 = 𝑦1 + 𝑛𝑡
𝑧0 + 𝑐𝑡 = 𝑧1 + 𝑟𝑡

From this simultaneous equation, determine the parameters t and r. Then

substitute the value of t and r in the equation of the lines where they are.

Example:

Given that lines l: x+1=4t, y-3 = t, z-1=0 and m: x +13=12r, y-1 = 6r ,z-2 =-3r.

18
Desalegn A.
Then find the intersection point of the lines.

Solution:

To find the intersection point of the two lines equate corresponding equations.

−1 + 4𝑡 = −13 + 12𝑟
−1
That is, { 3 + 𝑡 = 1 + 6𝑟 ⇒r = 3 , t =-4
1 = 2 + 3𝑟
−1
Hence, put t= -4 in the equation of l, we get P =(-17, -1, 1) and if we put r = in the
3
equation of m, we get point Q =(-17, -1, 1).

Plane in space

A vector is said to be normal to the plane if it is perpendicular to all vectors in the

plane. That means for any two points A and B lying in the plane, the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐴𝐵 is
always perpendicular to the normal vector of the plane.

Suppose 𝜋 is plane passing through the point 𝑃0 and normal to the vector 𝑁
⃗⃗ = ai +bj
+ck. The point P(x, y, z) be any point in 𝜋.

Since 𝑁⃗⃗ = ai +bj +ck is normal to the vector of the plane and the points
𝑃0 (𝑥0, 𝑦0, 𝑧0 ) and P(x, y, z) are on the plane, the vectors ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃0 𝑃 = (𝑥 − 𝑥0, 𝑦 − 𝑦0, 𝑧 − 𝑧0 )
and 𝑁
⃗⃗ = ai +bj +ck are perpendicular.

Thus,𝑃 0 𝑃 •𝑁 = 0 ⇒(𝑥 − 𝑥0, 𝑦 − 𝑦0, 𝑧 − 𝑧0 )•(a, b, c) = 0

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗

a(𝑥 − 𝑥0, ) + b(𝑦 − 𝑦0, ) +c(𝑧 − 𝑧0) =0

ax +by +cy =d where d =a𝑥0, + b𝑦0 +c𝑧0 is equation of plane 𝜋.

Examples:

1. Find the equation of a plane passing through the point (6, 1, -3) and normal to the
vector
⃗⃗ = 3i -2j +4k.
𝑁

Solution:

Take 𝑃0 =(6, 1, -3) and let P = (x, y, z) be arbitrary point on the plane.

Then, from the definition

19
Desalegn A.
We have ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃0 𝑃 • 𝑁 ⃗⃗ =0⇒(𝑥 − 6𝑦 − 1, 𝑧 + 3 )•(3, -2, 4) = 0

⇒3(x-6)-2(y -1)+4(z+3) =0

⇒3x-2y +4z = 4

2. Find the equation of plane through P(1, 2, -1), Q(3, 2, 4) and R(0, 1, 5).

Solution:

Here, three points are given rather than a point and a normal vector.

Since the three points are on the plane, the vector

𝑃𝑄 = 2i +5k,
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑃𝑅 = -i –j + 6k are lying on the plane. But from the property of cross
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
product, the vector 𝑁 ⃗⃗ = 𝑃𝑄
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ x 𝑃𝑅
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is perpendicular to both of the vectors and so is to
plane containing them.

𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
So, 𝑁
⃗⃗ = 𝑃𝑄
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ x 𝑃𝑅
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = อ 2 0 5อ = 5i -17j -2k
−1 −1 6

Hence, using point P(1, 2, -1) , we have

: 5(x-1) -17(y-2)-2(z+1) = 0 ⇒5x – 17y – 2z = -27.

Definition:

Any two planes in space are said to be

i) Parallel if their normal are parallel

ii) Perpendicular if their normal are perpendicular

Examples:

Determine whether the following pair of planes are parallel, perpendicular or

neither and for these which are neither find the angle between.

a) 2x - 3y + 5z = 11 and x +4y +2z = -7

1
b) 2x – 6y + z = - 2 and –x + y - 2 k = 5

c) X +y +z = 7 and x +y –z = -13

Solution:

20
Desalegn A.
 a) 𝑛1 = 2i -3j +5k and 𝑛2 = i +4j +2k
⇒ 𝑛1 . 𝑛2 = 2 – 12 +10 = 0
⇒ 𝑛1 ⊥ 𝑛2
Hence, the planes are perpendicular.
1
b) 𝑛1 = 2i -6j +k and 𝑛2 = -i + 3j -2k

⇒ 𝑛1 = -2𝑛2
⇒ 𝑛1 //𝑛2
This means the plane themselves are parallel.
c) In this case, 𝑛1 = i + j +k and 𝑛2 = i +j - k which are neither parallel nor
perpendicular and so the planes.
Therefore, the angle between the planes is given by
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑛1.𝑛2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 1
Cos𝜽 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗∣‖𝑛2
‖𝑛1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗∣∣∣
=3
1
𝜽= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (3)
3. Find the equation of the plane
a) through P(-2, 1, 4), Q(1, 0, 3) and perpendicular to the plane 𝜋: 4x –y + 3z
=2
b) containing the point P(-1, 2,-5) and perpendicular to the planes 𝜋1 : 2x – y +
z = 1 and
𝜋2 : x + y - 2z = 3.

Solution:

a) If two planes are perpendicular their normal are perpendicular and thus the
normal vector f one plane is parallel to the other plane. Thus, the vector 𝑁
⃗⃗ = 4i

–j + 3k is parallel to the required plane and 𝑃𝑄

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 3i – j + 3k.
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
𝑁2 = 𝑁1 x 𝑃𝑄 = อ4 −1 3 อ = 4i + 13j – k.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
3 −1 −1
Hence, the equation of the plane is 4(x +2) +13(y - 1) – (z - 4) = 0 ⇒4x +13y –z
=1.
b) The normal vectors of the given planes are N =2i – j + k and M =i + j -2k. But
the plane that we are required is given to be perpendicular to the given plane
and thus it is parallel to these normal vectors.

21
Desalegn A.
 Hence, N X M = i+5j +3k can be used as a normal vector to the required
plane.
The plane 𝜋: x+1+5(y -2) +3(z +5) = 0 ⇒x +5y +3z = -6.
Intersection of a line and plane

Suppose 𝜋: ax +by +cz =d is a plane and l is a line given in parametric form as

𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑎𝑡
l: { 𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝑏𝑡 .
𝑧 = 𝑧0 + 𝑐𝑡

Then, the intersection of the line and planes is a point (x, y, z) which satisfies the
equation of line and plane at the same time.

Examples: Find the intersection point of the line l: x =2-3t, y = 4+3t, z = 3 -5t and
the plane

𝜋: 2x +3y +4z = -6

Solution: putting x =2-3t, y = 4+3t, z = 3 -5t in 𝜋: 2x +3y +4z = -6 gives

2(2 – 3t) +3(3 – 5t) + 4(3 – 5t) = -6

⇒17t = 34

⇒t = 2

Then, putting t =2 in the equation of line gives x =-4, y = 10, z = -7.

Hence, the intersection point is (-4, 10, -7).

𝑦+1 𝑧−2
3. The line l: x = = and the plane x +y+ z =1
2 −3

Solution: In this case, the equation of the line is not parametric form. So, first
change it in parametric form:

x =t, y = -1 +2t, z = 2 -3t

⇒x + y +z =1

⇒t-1 +2t +2 -3t =1

⇒1 = 1 (which is always true for all value of t)

Therefore, the line lies in the plane.

22
Desalegn A.
 23
Desalegn A.