Exercises

Exercise 1 Identify the External Structures of the Heart (Refer to numbers

in the figure)

1. BASE OF HEART
2. RIGHT VENTRICLE
3.INTERVENTICULAR GROOVE
4. LEFT VENTRICLE
5. APEX OF THE HEART
Exercise 2 Identify the Structures of the Heart (Answer only)

1. AORTIC ARCH 8. RIGHT VENTRICLE

2. LEFT PULMONARY ARTER 9. CAUDAL VENA CAVE
3. LEFT ATRIUM 10. RIGHT ATRIUM
4. PULMONARY VEIN 11.
5. AORITIC VALVE 12.
6. CHORDAE TENDINEAE
7. LEFT VENTRICLE
 Diagram of the heart
Exercise 3 Identify the Structures of the Heart (Answer only)

1. AORTA
2. AORTIC VALVE
3. RIGHT VENTRICLE
4. MITRAL VALVE
5. LEFT ATRIUM
6. CHORDAE TENDINEAE
7. INTERVENTRICULAR SEPTUM
8. LEFT VENTRICLE
9. TRICUSPID VALVE
10. RIGHT ATRIUM
 Sheep heart (two views)

Exercise 4 Identify Thoracic and Cervical Arteries and Veins (Answer only)
Identify the numbered structures

1. LEFT CAROTID ARTERY

2. LEFT SUBCLAVIAN ARTERY
3. BRACHIOCEPHALIC TRUNK
4. PILMONARY VEIN
5. LEFT AURICLE
6. LEFT VENTRICLE
7. AORTA
8. CAUDAL VENA CAVA
9. RIGHT VENTRICLE’\
10. INTERVENTICULAR GROOVE
11. PULMONARY ARTERIES
12. RIGHT AURICLE
13. AORTIC ARCH
14. CRANIAL VENA CAVA
15. RIGHT SUBCLAVIAN ARTERY
16. RIGHT JUNGULAR VEIN
Exercise 5 Define Clinical Terms

1. Aorta - is the main and largest artery in the human body, originating from the left
ventricle of the heart and extending down to the abdomen, where it splits into two smaller
arteries
2. Aortic valve - disease is a type of heart valve disease. In aortic valve disease, the
valve between the lower left heart chamber (left ventricle) and the main artery to the body
(aorta) doesn't work properly.
3. Artery - a disease of the arteries characterized by the deposition of plaques of
fatty material on their inner walls. See also atheroma and arteriosclerosis.
4. Atrium - is one of two upper chambers in the heart that receives blood from the
circulatory system. The blood in the atria is pumped into the heart ventricles through the
atrioventricular valves.
5. Auricle - The top chamber is known as the atrium (or auricle), while the lower
chamber is known as the ventricle. The two atria serve as receiving chambers for blood
entering the heart, while the more muscular ventricles push blood out
6. Caudal vena cava - Your superior vena cava and inferior vena cava have the
important function of carrying oxygen-poor blood to your heart’s right atrium, where it
moves into your right ventricle and then to your lungs
7. Cranial vena cava - The azygos vein joins it just before it enters the right atrium, at
the upper right front portion of the heart. It is also known as the cranial vena cava in other
animals. No valve divides the superior vena cava from the right atrium.
8. Diastole - . Atrial diastole is the relaxing of the atria, and ventricular diastole the
relaxing of the ventricles.
9. Endocardium - inner soft tissue lining of the heart within the cardiac
chambers and constitutes the superficial surface of the cardiac valves. It apparently
serves as a regulatory mechanism on myocardial contractility.
10. Heart
11. Mediastinum - The mediastinum is frequently the site of involvement of various tumors
: Anterior mediastinum: substernal thyroid goiters, lymphoma, thymoma, and teratoma.
Middle mediastinum
12. Myocardium- the myocardium is functionally the main constituent of the heart and the
thickest layer of all three heart layers.
13. Pericardial sac - The pericardium, also called pericardial sac, is a double-walled sac
containing the heartand the roots of the great vessels
14. Pericardium- The pericardium is one of several serous membranous cavities in the
human body; it is comprised of two closely connected structure
15. Mitral valve- Mitral valve disease is a problem with the valve located between the left
heart chambers (left atrium and left ventricle).
 16. Pulmonary circulation - Pulmonary circulation is the system of transportation that
shunts de-oxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs to be re-saturated with oxygen
before being dispersed into the systemic
17. Pulmonary valve- Pulmonary valve disease is a condition in which the pulmonary
valve the valve located between your heart's lower right heart chamber
18. Pulmonary vessels- Pulmonary vein. The pulmonary veins are the veins that transfer
oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart. The largest pulmonary veins are the four
main pulmonary veins, two from each lung that drain into the left atrium of the heart. The
pulmonary veins are part of the pulmonary circulation .
19. Sinoatrial (SA)node- The sinoatrial (SA) node generally depolarizes quicker than the
rest of the conduction system of the heart. As a result, the SA node is generally the
major pacemaker of the heart
20. Systemic circulation - systemic circulation, in physiology, the circuit of vessels
supplying oxygenated blood to and returning deoxygenated blood from the tissues of the
body, as distinguished from the pulmonary circulation.
21. Systole- Systole is the phase of the cardiac cycle in which the heart muscles are
contracted. Systole can be divided into atrial systole in which the atria contract, and
ventricular systole when the ventricles contrac
22. Tricuspid valve- Tricuspid atresia is a structural heart defect that’s present at birth.
A person with this condition has a solid piece of tissue where the valve should be. This
limits blood flow and can lead to underdevelopment of the right ventricle. It usually
requires surgery
23. Vein Vein: A blood vessel that carries blood that is low in oxygen content from the
body back to the heart. The deoxygenated form of hemoglobin (deoxy-hemoglobin) in
venous blood makes it appear dark
24. Ventricle - A ventricle is one of two large chambers toward the bottom of the heart that
collect and expel blood towards the peripheral beds within the body and lungs.
Exercise 6 Answer the following questions

1. Which type of blood vessel carries blood away from the heart? Toward the heart?
 Arteries carry oxygen-rich blood away from the heart to all of the body’s
tissues. They branch several times, becoming smaller and smaller as they
carry blood farther from the heart.
2. What are the two parts of the cardiovascular system? Which part carries blood to
and from the left rear leg of a cow?
 heart, blood vessels, and blood., Blood leaves the
heart and flows towards the rear of the cow by
the abdominal aorta Two major arteries carry the blood
to the udder, on for each half of the udder. These arteries,
pudendal arteries, enter the udder through the inguinal
canal.
3. Why is the wall of the right ventricle thinner than the wall of the left ventricle?
 it has to push blood only up to the lungs through
the pulmonary aorta. But the left ventricle has to push
blood to all parts of the body including the extremities.
Hence its wall has to be quite thick.
4. What is another name for each of these valves: right AV valve, semilunar valve in
the right ventricle, left AV valve, semilunar valve in the left ventricle?
 Tricuspid valve, pulmonary valve, mitral or bicuspid valve, aortic
valve.
5. What is the pacemaker of the heart and where is it located?
 A pacemaker is implanted to help control your heartbeat. Your doctor may
recommend a temporary pacemaker when you have a slow heartbeat
6. List the four conductors that make up the rapid conduction system for an impulse
created by the heart’s pacemaker.
 SA node; AV node; purkinje fibers
7. The working phase of a cardiac cycle is ___. It involves ___ that generates an
impulse that results in muscle contraction.
 Systole; depolariztion.
8. What is happening in the other three heart chambers during left atrial diastole?
 Right atrial diastole, right and left ventricular systole.
9. When the mitral valve is forced closed it produces part of which heart sound, the
first or the second?
 First sound; the sound of the AV valves closing.
10. What is the difference between a heart rate and a pulse?
 The preload is the amount of blood the ventricle receives from the atrium;
the afterload is the amount of physical resistance presented by the aorta.
 Module 9
The Skeleton
Exercise 1 Identify the Structures of Compact and Cancellous Bone (Answer only)

1. Trabecule of spongy bone

2. Osteon of compact bone
3. Haversian canal
4. Periosteum
5. Harvesian system
6. Compact bone
7. Cancellous spongy bone trabeculae
8. Periosteum
9. Outer layer
10. Inner layer
11. Harvesian canal
12. Volkmans canals
13. Blood vessels
Exercise 2 Identify Structures of Long Bone (Answer only)

1. Proximal epiphysis
2. Diaphysis
3. Distal epiphysis
4. Space occupied by red marrow
5. Compact bone
6. Periosteum
7. Articular cartilage
Exercise 3 Identify Bones and Processes of the Thoracic Limb

1. Scapula
2. Humerus
3. Olecranon
4. Ulna
5. Radius
6. Accessory carpal
7. Carpa bone
8. Splint bone
9. Cannon bone
10. Proximal sesamoid
11. Long pastern
12. Short pastern
13. Navicular bone
14. Coffin bone
Exercise 4 Identify Bones, Joints and Processes of the Pelvic Limb

\
 Exercise 5 Clinical Thinking Challenge
Name the four functions of bone.
1. (1) Support (2) Protection (3) Leverage (4) Storage
2. LONG The ulna is an example of a/an _______ bone.
3. IRREGULAR A vertebra is an example of a/an _______ bone.
4. SHORT The carpal bones are examples of _______ bones.
5. FLAT The parietal bone in the skull is an example of a/an _______ bone.
6. Scapula, pelvis, nasal bone, parietal bone, rib Name an example of a flat bone.
7. Patella, proximal sesamoid bone, distal sesamoid bone Name an example of an
irregular bone not found in the axial skeleton.
8. Skull, hyoid, vertebrae, ribs, sternum What bones make up the axial skeleton?
9. The appendicular skeleton is made up of the _____ and ______. Front leg and hind
leg
10.___ Thoracic ___ The bones of the front leg make up the _____ limb.
11.__ Pelvic _____ The bones of the back leg make up the _____ limb.
12.Tendons What attaches skeletal muscles to bones?
13.Explain where the epiphyseal plates are located in a long bone. Between the shaft
(diaphysis) and the ends (epiphyses) of the bone
14._ Lengthen ___ What does the epiphyseal plate allow the bone to do?
15._ Growth plate _ Another name for the epiphyseal plate is _______.
16.__ Skull __ The bones of the cranium and the bones of the face make up the _______.
17._ Maxillary bones _ Skull bones that make up most of the upper jaw.
18._ Mandible _ Lower jaw.
19.Parietal bones Skull bones that form the dorsolateral portion of the cranium.
20.Temporal bones Bones of the “temple” area of the skull that also contain middle and
inner ear structures.
21.Frontal bones Bones of the “forehead” region of the skull.
22.Occipital bone Bone that forms the “base” of the skull and articulates with the first
cervical vertebra.
23.Nasal bones Skull bones that form the “bridge of the nose.”
24., Turbinates scroll-like bones found inside the nasal cavity of the skull.
25._ Zygomatic archesThin”Cheek bones” of the skull, made up of processes from the
zygomatic and temporal bones.
26.CoccygealThe tail vertebrae.
27.Axis The second cervical vertebra.
28.Vertebrae that are the largest in size and also support the abdominal region. Lumbar
29.Fused vertebrae of the pelvic region. Sacral
30.The first cervical vertebra, articulates with the skull. Atlas
31.Vertebrae that articulate with the ribs. Thoracic
32.Vertebrae in the neck. Cervical
33._What distinguishing processes does the atlas possess? Transverse
34.distinguishing process does the axis possess? Spinous
35.The _______ joins the ribs to the sternum. Costal cartilage
36.Name all the bones of the thoracic limb in order from proximal to distal. Scapula,
humerus, ulna, radius, carpals, metacarpals, phalanges
37.he socket portion of the shoulder joint Glenoid cavity.
38.The main weight-bearing bone of the “lower arm.” Carpal bones
39._ These bones make up the joint that is the equivalent of our
“wrist.” Carpal bones
40._ ”Finger” or digit bones. Phalanges
41.The long bone of the “forearm” that has a proximal process that is the point of the
elbow. Ulna
42.Shoulder blade. Scapula
43.The “hand” bones. Metacarpals
44.The long bone in the “upper arm.” Humerus
45.. The point of the elbow. Olecranon process
46.What bone is partly or completely removed during feline declaw surgery? Distal
phalanges
47.Name all the bones of the pelvic limb from proximal to distal. Pelvis (ilium, ischium,
pubis), femur, patella, tibia,
fibula, tarsals, metatarsals, phalanges
48.The socket portion of the hip joint. Acetabulum
49.The small long bone of the “lower leg.”. Fibula
50.50. These bones make up the “ankle” or “hock.” Tarsals
51._ ”Toe” or digit bones. Phalanges
52.The large long bone of the “lower leg.” Tibia
53._ Pelvis Part of the pelvic limb. Made up of three pairs of bones that are fused
together.
54.The “foot” bones Metatarsals
55.The long bone in the upper “thigh” region. Femur
56.What three fused pairs of bones make up the pelvis? Ilium, ischium, pubis
57.What is the purpose of the obturator foramen? Lighten the pelvis
58.Metacarpal II and metacarpal IV of the two splint bones in the thoracic limb of a
horse?
59.Synovial (diarthrosis) The equivalent of our “heel” bone, the large process that forms
the point of the hock.
60.______________________ The name for a joint that allows free movement.
61.Cartilaginous (amphiarthrosis)The name for a joint that allows only a slight rocking
movement.
62.Fibrous (synarthrosis) The name for a joint that does not allow any movement.
 Module 10
The Integumentary System
1. Exercises
Exercise 1 Identify the following structure on the skin of a pig. (Answer only).

1. Hair
2. Epidermis
3. Hair follicle
4. Fascia
5. Dermal papilla
6. Tactile corpuscle
7. Blood capillaries
8. Mecrocrine sweat gland
9. Hair bulb
10. Lamellated
11. Sensory nerve fibers
12. Motor nerve fibers
Exercise 2 Answer the following questions:

1. Why is skin important? Can you think of six important functions of skin?
 The skin is broken up into 3 different layers, the epidermis or top layer,
dermis, and subcutaneous layer. Each of these layers performs important roles
in keeping our body healthy. The skin performs six primary functions which
include, protection, absorption, excretion, secretion, regulation and
sensation.
2. What is keratinization and why is it an important process?
 keratin is a tough, fibrous, waterproof protein that gives skin its resiliency &
strength. Merkel cells & melanocytes are found in this layer.
3. How is the skin of hairy animals different from that of humans?
 Skin covered with fur usually consists of three epidermal layers rather than
five. These layers are the stratum basale, stratum spinosum, and stratum
corneum. T
4. How is the dermis different from the epidermis?
 Unlike the epidermis, which is primarily cellular, the dermis is highly
fibrous. It is composed of dense, irregular connective tissue that contains
collagen, elastic, and reticular fibers. Hair follicles, nerve endings, glands,
smooth muscle, blood vessels, and lymphatics are all found in the dermis
as well, creating a rich and interesting tissue community. Fibroblasts,
adipocytes, and macrophages also are present and represent the most
commonly found cellular elements. The dermis is a tough layer that binds
the superficial epidermis to the underlying tissues. It represents the "hide"
of the animal and is used to make leather.
5. How does hair form and grow?
 The part of hair visible above the skin is called the shaft, and the portion
buried within the skin is called the root. A web of sensory nerve endings
called the root hair plexus envelops the root, making it an important touch
receptor when the hair is bent. Hair is anchored by the hair follicle. The
follicle is an invagination of the epidermis that extends from the skin
surface to the dermis or, occasionally, the hypodermis. The deepest part
of the hair follicle expands to form a hair bulb. At the base of the bulb is a
mound of dermal cells called the papilla. The papilla is covered with
rapidly dividing epithelial cells called the matrix. These cells are nourished
by blood flow from vessels in the underlying papilla, which stimulates
much cell division and growth.
6. What are the three cycles of hair growth?
 1. Anagen is the time of hair growth.
2. Telogen occurs when the maximum length of hair is achieved, the
hair stops growing, the hair follicle shortens, and the hair is held in a
resting phase.
 3. Catagen is the period of transition between the anagen and telogen
phases.
7. Why does hair turn gray and then white as animals age?
 4. As animals age, melanin production decreases, and the hair
begins to turn gray. White hair is formed when the cortex loses its
pigment entirely and the medulla becomes completely filled with
air.
8. What factors stimulate contraction of the arrector pili muscle? Why is this
muscle important?
 The sympathetic nervous system stimulates the contraction of the arrector
pili muscles when an animal is frightened or cold. This reaction is a
defense mechanism designed to make the animal appear bigger and
therefore less vulnerable to potential predators. In addition, hair that
stands erect can better trap insulating layers of air than can nonerect hair,
so animals with erect hair coats stay warmer than animals with flat coats.
The arrector pili muscle also is responsible for forcing sebum from the
sebaceous gland, which helps keep the integument moist and supple.
9. Name two types of sweat gland. How are they different from one another?
 Two types of sweat glands are eccrine and apocrine.
The excretory portion of the eccrine gland consists of a simple coiled
tube located in the dermis or hypodermis and connected to the surface
of the skin by a long duct. In dogs, eccrine sweat glands are found only
in the deep layers of the fat and connective tissue of footpads.
10. Where anal sacs found and what are their importance
to animals?
 Cats and dogs have anal sacs that are located at the 5 and 7 o'clock
positions relative to the anus. They are connected to the lateral
margin of the anus by a small, single duct. The anal sac is lined with
sebaceous and apocrine glands and acts as a reservoir for the
secretions produced by these glands. When the animal defecates or
becomes frightened, some or all of the anal sac contents are
expressed.

Module 12
 Avian Anatomy and Physiology

Exercises
Feather Types and Structure
2. Exercise 1 Draw, label and describe the feather structure

1.Label the inferior umbilicus on the drawing.

2.What is the function of the inferior umbilicus?
3.Label the rachis on the drawing.
4.Provide a definition for rachis:
5.Label the vane on the drawing. The three components of the vane include the barbs,
barbules, and hooklets.
6.What is the function of these components?
3. Exercise 2 Draw Feather Types
Draw the following feather types in the boxes provided below: contour feather,
semiplume feather, down feather, filoplume feather, and bristle feather.

Semiplum
Contour
e

Down Filoplume

Bristle
4. Exercise 3 Feather Identification (Answer only)

1. A
2. A
3. A
4. A

KELETAL ANATOMY
Exercise 4 Explore the Avian Lightweight Skeletal Structure
What four evolutionary modifications of the avian skeleton account for its lightweight
nature?

Decreased number of bones. 2. Fusion of bones. 3.

Decreased bone density. 4. Decreased bone matrix
Exercise 5 Label the Avian Skeleton

1. Complete orbit ring

2. Nostril
3. Lower mandible
4. Ds
5. Clavicle
6. Stenal keel
7. Sternum
8. Femur
9. B
10. Metacarrals
11. Ulna
12. Radus
13. Numerus
14. Scapula
15. Pelvic
16. Pagos
17. Femur
18. Tibia
19. Tarsus

5. Exercise 6 Explore on Avian Pectoralis Muscle

Where does the pectoralis muscle originate and where is its insertion?
1.Origin. Anterior surface of the medial half of the clavicle
2.Insertion. Lateral lip of the bicipital groove of the humerus and the
anterior lip of the deltoid tuberosity
6. DIGESTIVE ANATOMY Exercise 7 Label and Describe an Avian Digestive
System

ESOPHAGUS

CROP

PROVENTRICULUS
LIVER
GIZZARD
SMALL INTESTINE
1.

PANCREAS
SMALL INTESTINE
CAECA Label
the
LARGE INTESTINE crop on
CLOACA the
drawing,
and then define the function of the crop.
2.Label the proventriculus, and then define the function of the proventriculus.
Part of the digestive system characterized by macroscopic papillae around the
duct opening of the glands; epithelium is composed of columnar cells which
continue into glands as cuboidal epithelium; oxynticopeptic cells are present;
the glandular stomach
3.Label the gizzard, and then define the function of the gizzard.
Part of the digestive system responsible for grinding ingesta; lined by cuticle
with simple columnar epithelium; tunica muscularis consists of smooth muscle
cells criss-crossed by bands of dense, fibrous CT; lamina propria and
submucosa are typical and contain mucous glands
4.Label the cloaca, and then define the function of the cloaca.
Part of the digestive system composed of the coprodeum, urodeum, and
proctodeum; lined by simple columnar epithelium; tunica mucosa is folded
extensively and compartmentalizes this structure; lymphatic tissue is present
5.Label the esophagus, vent, pancreas, ileum, jejunum, rudimentary ceca, and duodenum.
RESPIRATORY ANATOMY
 7. Exercise 8 Answer the following
1.How does a bird create sound using the syrinx?
So that air moving through the syrinx is squeezed, causing the membranes and
pessulus to vibrate, making a sound. The bird has wonderful control over these
parts, so it can produce a variety of sounds. Despite being of such simple
construction, syrinxes are unbelievably efficient sound-makers
2.Label and shade in the following air sacs: cranial thoracic, caudal thoracic, cervical,
abdominal, and interclavicular, as well as the lung and trachea.
3.What are the three functions of the air sacs?
A. Air sacs are air-filled space in the body of a bird that
forms a connection between the lungs and bone
cavities.
B. They act as balloons and helps in breathing by acting as
accessory respiratory organs and also in regulating the
temperature.
C. It does not play any role in storing of food.

REPRODUCTIVE ANATOMY
8. Exercise 9 Label and Discuss an Avian Reproductive System

OVARY
INFUNDIBULUM

MAGNUM ISTHMUS

UTERUS

VAGINA