The Concept of the Ecosystem

"I bequeathe myself to the dirt, to grow from the grass I love; If you want me again, look for me under your boot-soles."

- Walt Whitman
In this lesson, we will learn answers to the following questions: What is an ecosystem, and how can we study one? Is the earth an open or closed system with respect to energy and elements? How do we define "biogeochemical cycles," and how are they important to ecosystems? What are the major controls on ecosystem function? What are the major factors responsible for the differences between ecosystems? Format for printing

10/31/2008

Introduction - What is an Ecosystem?

An ecosystem consists of the biological community that occurs in some locale, and the physical and chemical factors that make up its non-living or abiotic environment. There are many examples of ecosystems -- a pond, a forest, an estuary, a grassland. The boundaries are not fixed in any objective way, although sometimes they seem obvious, as with the shoreline of a small pond. Usually the boundaries of an ecosystem are chosen for practical reasons having to do with the goals of the particular study. The study of ecosystems mainly consists of the study of certain processes that link the living, or biotic, components to the non-living, or abiotic, components. Energy transformations andbiogeochemical cycling are the main processes that comprise the field of ecosystem ecology. As we learned earlier, ecology generally is defined as the interactions of organisms with one another and with the environment in which they occur. We can study ecology at the level of the individual, the population, the community, and the ecosystem. Studies of individuals are concerned mostly about physiology, reproduction, development or behavior, and studies of populations usually focus on the habitat and resource needs of individual species, their group behaviors, population growth, and what limits their abundance or causes extinction. Studies of communities examine how populations of many species interact with one another, such as predators and their prey, or competitors that share common needs or resources. In ecosystem ecology we put all of this together and, insofar as we can, we try to understand how the system operates as a whole. This means that, rather than worrying mainly about particular species, we try to focus on major functional aspects of the system. These functional aspects include such things as the amount of energy that is produced by photosynthesis, how energy or materials flow along the many steps in a food chain, or what controls the rate of decomposition of materials or the rate at which nutrients are recycled in

the system.

Components of an Ecosystem
You are already familiar with the parts of an ecosystem. You have learned about climate and soils from past lectures. From this course and from general knowledge, you have a basic understanding of the diversity of plants and animals, and how plants and animals and microbes obtain water, nutrients, and food. We can clarify the parts of an ecosystem by listing them under the headings "abiotic" and "biotic". ABIOTIC COMPONENTS Sunlight Temperature Precipitation Water or moisture Soil or water chemistry (e.g., P, NH4+) etc. All of these vary over BIOTIC COMPONENTS Primary producers Herbivores Carnivores Omnivores Detritivores etc. space/time

By and large, this set of environmental factors is important almost everywhere, in all ecosystems. Usually, biological communities include the "functional groupings" shown above. A functional group is a biological category composed of organisms that perform mostly the same kind of function in the system; for example, all the photosynthetic plants or primary producers form a functional group. Membership in the functional group does not depend very much on who the actual players (species) happen to be, only on what function they perform in the ecosystem.

Processes of Ecosystems
This figure with the plants, zebra, lion, and so forth illustrates the two main ideas about how ecosystems function: ecosystems have energy flows and ecosystems cycle materials. These two processes are linked, but they are not quite the same (see Figure 1).

Figure 1. Energy flows and material cycles. Energy enters the biological system as light energy, or photons, is transformed into chemical energy in organic molecules by cellular processes including photosynthesis and respiration, and ultimately is converted to heat energy. This energy is dissipated, meaning it is lost to the system as heat; once it is lost it cannot be recycled. Without the continued input of solar energy, biological systems would quickly shut down. Thus the earth is an open system with respect to energy. Elements such as carbon, nitrogen, or phosphorus enter living organisms in a variety of ways. Plants obtain elements from the surrounding atmosphere, water, or soils. Animals may also obtain elements directly from the physical environment, but usually they obtain these mainly as a consequence of consuming other organisms. These materials are transformed biochemically within the bodies of organisms, but sooner or later, due to excretion or decomposition, they are returned to an inorganic state. Often bacteria complete this process, through the process called decomposition or mineralization (see previous lecture on microbes). During decomposition these materials are not destroyed or lost, so the earth is a closed systemwith respect to elements (with the exception of a meteorite entering the system now and then). The elements are cycled endlessly between their biotic and abiotic states within ecosystems. Those elements whose supply tends to limit biological activity are called nutrients.

The Transformation of Energy

The transformations of energy in an ecosystem begin first with the input of energy from the sun. Energy from the sun is captured by the process of photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide is combined with hydrogen (derived from the splitting of water molecules) to produce

carbohydrates (CHO). Energy is stored in the high energy bonds of adenosine triphosphate, or ATP (see lecture on photosynthesis). The prophet Isaah said "all flesh is grass", earning him the title of first ecologist, because virtually all energy available to organisms originates in plants. Because it is the first step in the production of energy for living things, it is called primary production (click here for a primer on photosynthesis). Herbivores obtain their energy by consuming plants or plant products,carnivores eat herbivores, and detritivores consume the droppings and carcasses of us all.

Figure 2 portrays a simple food chain, in which energy from the sun, captured by plant photosynthesis, flows fromtrophic level to trophic level via the food chain. A trophic level is composed of organisms that make a living in the same way, that is they are all primary producers (plants),primary consumers (herbivores) or secondary consumers (carnivores). Dead tissue and waste products are produced at all levels. Scavengers, detritivores, and decomposers collectively account for the use of all such "waste" -- consumers of carcasses and fallen leaves may be other animals, such as crows and beetles, but ultimately it is the microbes that finish the job of decomposition. Not surprisingly, the amount of primary production varies a great deal from place to place, due to differences in the amount of solar radiation and the availability of nutrients and water. For reasons that we will explore more fully in subsequent lectures, energy transfer through the food chain is inefficient. This means that less energy is available at the herbivore level than at the primary producer level, less yet at the carnivore level, and so on. The result is a pyramid of energy, with important implications for understanding the quantity of life that can be supported. Usually when we think of food chains we visualize green plants, herbivores, and so on. These are referred to asgrazer food chains, because living plants are directly consumed. In many circumstances the principal energy input is not green plants but dead organic matter. These are called detritus food chains. Examples include the forest floor or a woodland stream in a forested area, a salt marsh, and most obviously, the ocean floor in very deep areas where all sunlight is extinguished 1000's of meters above. In subsequent lectures we shall return to these important issues concerning energy flow. Finally, although we have been talking about food chains, in reality the organization of biological systems is much more complicated than can be represented by a simple "chain". There are many food links and chains in an ecosystem, and we refer to all of these linkages as a food web. Food webs can be very complicated, where it appears that "everything is connected to everything else", and it is important to understand what are the most

important linkages in any particular food web.

Biogeochemistry
How can we study which of these linkages in a food web are most important? One obvious way is to study the flow of energy or the cycling of elements. For example, the cycling of elements is controlled in part by organisms, which store or transform elements, and in part by the chemistry and geology of the natural world. The term Biogeochemistry is defined as the study of how living systems influence, and are controlled by, the geology and chemistry of the earth. Thus biogeochemistry encompasses many aspects of the abiotic and biotic world that we live in. There are several main principles and tools that biogeochemists use to study earth systems. Most of the major environmental problems that we face in our world toady can be analyzed using biogeochemical principles and tools. These problems include global warming, acid rain, environmental pollution, and increasing greenhouse gases. The principles and tools that we use can be broken down into 3 major components: element ratios, mass balance, and element cycling. 1. Element ratios In biological systems, we refer to important elements as "conservative". These elements are often nutrients. By "conservative" we mean that an organism can change only slightly the amount of these elements in their tissues if they are to remain in good health. It is easiest to think of these conservative elements in relation to other important elements in the organism. For example, in healthy algae the elements C, N, P, and Fe have the following ratio, called theRedfield ratio after the oceanographer who discovered it: C : N : P : Fe = 106 : 16 : 1 : 0.01 Once we know these ratios, we can compare them to the ratios that we measure in a sample of algae to determine if the algae are lacking in one of these limiting nutrients.

2. Mass Balance Another important tool that biogeochemists use is a simple mass balance equation to describe the state of a system. The system could be a snake, a tree, a lake, or the entire globe. Using a mass balance approach we can determine whether the system is changing and how fast it is changing. The equation is: NET CHANGE = INPUT + OUTPUT + INTERNAL CHANGE In this equation the net change in the system from one time period to another is determined by what the inputs are, what the outputs are, and what the internal change in the system was. The example given in class is of the acidification of a lake, considering the inputs and outputs and internal change of acid in the lake.

3. Element Cycling Element cycling describes where and how fast elements move in a system. There are two general classes of systems that we can analyze, as mentioned above: closed and open systems. A closed system refers to a system where the inputs and outputs are negligible compared to the internal changes. Examples of such systems would include a bottle, or our entire globe. There are two ways we can describe the cycling of materials within this closed system, either by looking at the rate of movement or at the pathways of movement.

1. 2.

Rate = number of cycles / time * as rate increases, productivity increases Pathways-important because of different reactions that may occur

In an open system there are inputs and outputs as well as the internal cycling. Thus we can describe the rates of movement and the pathways, just as we did for the closed system, but we can also define a new concept called the residence time. The residence time indicates how long on average an element remains within the system before leaving the system.

1. 2. 3.

Rate Pathways Residence time, Rt

Rt = total amount of matter / output rate of matter (Note that the "units" in this calculation must cancel properly)

Controls on Ecosystem Function

Now that we have learned something about how ecosystems are put together and how materials and energy flow through ecosystems, we can better address the question of "what controls ecosystem function"? There are two dominant theories of the control of ecosystems. The first, called bottom-up control, states that it is the nutrient supply to the primary producers that ultimately controls how ecosystems function. If the nutrient supply is increased, the resulting increase in production of autotrophs is propagated through the food web and all of the other trophic levels will respond to the increased availability of food (energy and materials will cycle faster). The second theory, called top-down control, states that predation and grazing by higher trophic levels on lower trophic levels ultimately controls ecosystem function. For example, if you have an increase in predators, that increase will result in fewer grazers, and that decrease in grazers will result in turn in more primary producers because fewer of them are being eaten by the grazers. Thus the control of population numbers and overall productivity "cascades" from the top levels of the food chain down to the bottom trophic levels. So, which theory is correct? Well, as is often the case when there is a clear dichotomy to choose from, the answer lies somewhere in the middle. There is evidence from many ecosystem studies that BOTH controls are operating to some degree, but that NEITHER control is complete. For example, the "top-down" effect is often very strong at trophic levels

near to the top predators, but the control weakens as you move further down the food chain. Similarly, the "bottom-up" effect of adding nutrients usually stimulates primary production, but the stimulation of secondary production further up the food chain is less strong or is absent. Thus we find that both of these controls are operating in any system at any time, and we must understand the relative importance of each control in order to help us to predict how an ecosystem will behave or change under different circumstances, such as in the face of a changing climate.

The Geography of Ecosystems

There are many different ecosystems: rain forests and tundra, coral reefs and ponds, grasslands and deserts. Climate differences from place to place largely determine the types of ecosystems we see. How terrestrial ecosystems appear to us is influenced mainly by the dominant vegetation. The word "biome" is used to describe a major vegetation type such as tropical rain forest, grassland, tundra, etc., extending over a large geographic area (Figure 3). It is never used for aquatic systems, such as ponds or coral reefs. It always refers to a vegetation category that is dominant over a very large geographic scale, and so is somewhat broader than an ecosystem.

Figure 3: The distribution of biomes.

We can draw upon previous lectures to remember that temperature and rainfall patterns for a region are distinctive. Every place on earth gets the same total number of hours of sunlight each year, but not the same amount of heat. The sun's rays strike low latitudes directly but high latitudes obliquely. This uneven distribution of heat sets up not just temperature differences, but global wind and ocean currents that in turn have a great deal to do with where rainfall occurs. Add in the cooling effects of elevation and the effects of land masses on temperature and rainfall, and we get a complicated global pattern of climate. A schematic view of the earth shows that, complicated though climate may be, many aspects are predictable (Figure 4). High solar energy striking near the equator ensures nearly constant high temperatures and high rates of evaporation and plant transpiration. Warm air rises, cools, and sheds its moisture, creating just the conditions for a tropical rain forest. Contrast the stable temperature but varying rainfall of a site in Panama with the relatively constant precipitation but seasonally changing temperature of a site in New York State. Every location has a rainfall- temperature graph that is typical of a broader region.

Figure 4. Climate patterns affect biome distributions. We can draw upon plant physiology to know that certain plants are distinctive of certain climates, creating the vegetation appearance that we call biomes. Note how well the distribution of biomes plots on the distribution of climates (Figure 5). Note also that some climates are impossible, at least on our planet. High precipitation is not possible at low temperatures -- there is not enough solar energy to power the water cycle, and most water

is frozen and thus biologically unavailable throughout the year. The high tundra is as much a desert as is the Sahara.

Figure 5. The distribution of biomes related to temperature and precipitation.

Summary
Ecosystems are made up of abiotic (non-living, environmental) and biotic components, and these basic components are important to nearly all types of ecosystems. Ecosystem Ecology looks at energy transformations and biogeochemical cycling within ecosystems. Energy is continually input into an ecosystem in the form of light energy, and some energy is lost with each transfer to a higher trophic level. Nutrients, on the other hand, are recycled within an ecosystem, and their supply normally limits biological activity. So, "energy flows, elements cycle". Energy is moved through an ecosystem via a food web, which is made up of interlocking food chains. Energy is first captured by photosynthesis (primary production). The amount of primary production determines the amount of energy available to higher trophic levels. The study of how chemical elements cycle through an ecosystem is termed biogeochemistry. A biogeochemical cycle can be expressed as a set of stores (pools) and transfers, and can be studied using the concepts of "stoichiometry", "mass balance", and "residence time". Ecosystem function is controlled mainly by two processes, "top-down" and "bottomup" controls. A biome is a major vegetation type extending over a large area. Biome distributions are determined largely by temperature and precipitation patterns on the Earth's surface.

What is a Biome? A biome is a large area with similar flora, fauna, and microorganisms. Most of us are familiar with the tropical rainforests, tundra in the arctic regions, and the evergreen trees in the coniferous forests. Each of these large communities contain species that are adapted to its varying conditions of water, heat, and soil. For instance, polar bears thrive in the arctic while cactus plants have a thick skin to help preserve water in the hot desert. To learn more about each of the major biomes, click on the appropriate heading to the right. What is an Ecosystem? Most of us are confused when it comes to the words ecosystem and biome. What's the difference? There is a slight difference between the two words. An ecosystem is much smaller than a biome. Conversely, a biome can be thought of many similar ecosystems throughout the world grouped together. An ecosystem can be as large as the Sahara Desert, or as small as a puddle or vernal pool. Ecosystems are dynamic interactions between plants, animals, and microorganisms and their environment working together as a functional unit. Ecosystems will fail if they do not remain in balance. No community can carry more organisms than its food, water, and shelter can accomodate. Food and territory are often balanced by natural phenomena such as fire, disease, and the number of predators. Each organism has its own niche, or role, to play.

Eco System
What does Ecosystem stand for? Ecological system or ecosystem is an open space built by physical and biological components of an environment. Ecosystem is result of an active interaction between living and non-living components. Ecosystem is where community of plants, animals and their environment function as a whole, and relationship between organism and environment thrives blissfully.

Ecosystem
immense ecosystem.

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Likewise

its
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types
be an

Ecosystems differ in their size and types. Earth itself is an ecosystem in a sea, forest, river and even in a small pond, as ecosystem is where organism and environment meets together. Categorised by their nature, there are mainly four types of ecosystem.

Aquatic Ecosystem: located in water area, aquatic ecosystem can be of two types: marine ecosystem and freshwater ecosystem. Marine ecosystem contains 97% of all water of the earth,

while freshwater ecosystem has more than 40% of all species of fishes. Some very important functions which Aquatic ecosystem disposes are purifying water, sheltering wild animals and recharging ground water.

Arctic Tundra: Arctic Tundra has the coldest ecosystem on the earth. The treeless plain, Arctic Tundra are desert like plains and dotted with ponds. Located far in the north of Alaska, Greenland, Russia, Canada and Europe, Arctic Tundra is inhabited by mammals like, Arctic foxes, Arctic hares, Polar bears, Musk oxen and porcupine; birds like Snowy owls, Falcons, Snow geese, Snow buntings, Tundra swans and Gulls and fishes like cod and salmon. Boreal Forest: Located between between the Arctic Tundra in the north and steppes and hardwood forests in the south, Boreal forests are vegetation zone surrounding northern hemisphere. Conifers like pine, larch, spruce and fir dominate the whole region inhabited by faunal species like bears, foxes, raccoons, owls, eagles, wolves and lynxes.

Urban ecosystem: urban ecosystem consists of people along with living and non-living things, and the space constructed by them. In an urban system, ecological factors like plants, soil, animals, etc are affected by human. Likewise human decisions are affected by various ecological factors, for example where parks, schools and buildings the have whole to be made.

Ecological

imbalance:

imperiling

Ecosystem

With the increased industrialisation and scientific approach to our life, the natural resources and rich natural heritage which were being preserved for centuries have begun dwindling greatly. Any kind of imbalance in nature results into severe danger to our ecosystem.

Its treatment with nature has posed today many serious challenges and problems like climate change, vector-borne disease, decay in wildlife and its resources and food and water shortage. Exploitation of natural resources prevalent all over the world has erupted into severe ecological degradation, which is definitely the biggest threat to proper functioning of our ecosystem. Need to restore and conserve the ecosystem

Restoring the ecosystem by establishing the finer balance between organism and environment is the best way that being a responsible human we can do. Until and unless, the steps to preserve the decaying charm of our ecosystem are not initiated, our ecosystem is not going to support us having a better and healthy environment.

There is stark need today to assist nature by not disturbing its integrity, and help it gaining its lost delicacy. By protecting our native natural resources like wildlife, rivers, forests, etc, one can contribute greatly in preservation of our ecosystem. The radical changes have to be born in our thoughts to save and accumulate the natural resources the very root of our life.

History of the Ecosystem Concept

The term "ecosystem" was first coined by Roy Clapham in 1930, but it was ecologist Arthur Tansley who fully defined the ecosystem concept. In his classic article of 1935, Tansley defined ecosystems as "The whole system, including not only the organism-complex, but also the whole complex of physical factors forming what we call the environment". The ecosystem concept marked a critical advance in the science of ecology, as Tansely specifically used the term to replace the "superorganism" concept, which implied that communities of organisms formed something akin to a higher-level, more complex organisma mistaken conception that formed a theoretical barrier to scientific research in ecology. Though Tansely and other ecologists also used the ecosystem concept in conjunction with the now defunct concept of the ecological "climax" (a "final", or "equilibrium" type of community or ecosystem arising under specific environmental conditions), the concept of ecosystem dynamics has now replaced this. Eugene Odum, a major figure in advancing the science of ecology, deployed the ecosystem concept in a central role in his seminal textbook on ecology, defining ecosystems as: "Any unit that includes all of the organisms (ie: the "community") in a given area interacting with the physical environment so that a flow of energy leads to clearly defined trophic structure, biotic diversity, andmaterial cycles (ie: exchange of materials between living and nonliving parts) within the system is an ecosystem." Ecosystem Structure and Function
Ecosystem components (structure)

Illustration of the flow of matter and energy in ecosystems. (Credit: Erle Ellis)

Ecosystems may be observed in many possible ways, so there is no one set of components that make up ecosystems. However, all ecosystems must include both biotic and abiotic components, their interactions, and some source of energy.

The simplest (and least representative) of ecosystems might therefore contain just a single living plant (biotic component) within a small terrarium exposed to light to which a watersolution containing essential nutrients for plant growth has been added (abiotic environment). The other extreme would be the biosphere, which comprises the totality of Earth's organisms and their interactions with each other and the earth systems (abiotic environment). And of course, most ecosystems fall somewhere in between these extremes of complexity. At a basic functional level, ecosystems generally contain primary producers capable of harvesting energy from the sun by photosynthesis and of using this energy to convert carbon dioxide and other inorganic chemicals into theorganic building blocks of life. Consumers feed on this captured energy, and decomposers not only feed on this energy, but also break organic matter back into its inorganic constituents, which can be used again by producers. These interactions among producers and the organisms that consume and decompose them are calledtrophic interactions, and are composed of trophic levels in an energy pyramid, with most energy and mass in the primary producers at the base, and higher levels of feeding on top of this, starting with primary consumers feeding on primary producers, secondary consumers feeding on these, and so on. Trophic interactions are also described in more detailed form as a food chain, which organizes specific organisms by their trophic distance from primary producers, and by food webs, which detail the feeding interactions among all organisms in an ecosystem. Together, these processes of energy transfer and matter cycling are essential in determining ecosystem structure and function and in defining the types of interactions between organisms and their environment. It must also be noted that most ecosystems contain a wide diversity of species, and that this diversity should be considered part of ecosystem structure.
Ecosystem processes (function)

By definition, ecosystems use energy and cycle matter, and these processes also define the basic ecosystem functions. Energetic processes in ecosystems are usually described in terms of trophic levels, which define the role of organisms based on their level of feeding relative to the original energy captured by primary producers. As always, energy does not cycle, so ecosystems require a continuous flow of high-quality energy to maintain their structure and function. For this reason, all ecosystems are "open systems" requiring a net flow of energy to persist over timewithout the sun, the biosphere would soon run out of energy! Energy input to ecosystems drives the flow of matter between organisms and the environment in a process known asbiogeochemical cycling. The biosphere provides a good example of this, as it interacts with and exchanges matter with thelithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere, driving the global biogeochemical cycles of carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur and other elements. Ecosystem processes are dynamic, undergoing strong seasonal cycles in response to changes in solar irradiation, causing fluctuations in primary productivity and varying the influx of energy from photosynthesis and the fixation of carbon dioxide into organic

materials over the year, driving remarkable annual variability in the carbon cyclethe largest of the global biogeochemical cycles. Fixed organic carbon in plants then becomes food for consumers and decomposers, who degrade the carbon to forms with lower energy, and ultimately releasing the carbon fixed by photosynthesis back into carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, producing the global carbon cycle. The biogeochemical cycling of nitrogen also uses energy, as bacteria fix nitrogen gas from the atmosphere into reactive forms useful for living organisms using energy obtained from organic materials and ultimately from plants and the sun. Ecosystems also cycle phosphorus, sulfur and other elements. As biogeochemical cycles are defined by the exchange of matter between organisms and their environment, they are classic examples of ecosystem-level proceses. Ecosystem Research

Prairie ecosystem and Prairie dog (Zapus trinotatus). (Source: USDA Forest Service)

Scientists who study entire ecosystems are generally called systems ecologists. However, most ecologists use the ecosystem concept and make measurements on ecosystem properties even if their work focuses on a single species or population.

Methods

Observing ecosystems

Researchers can make direct observations on ecosystems in the field and indirect observations using remote sensing. Direct measurements include sampling and measurement of soils and vegetation, characterization of community structure andbiodiversity, and the use of instruments for observing gas exchange and the fluxes of nutrients and water. As ecosystems can be very challenging to recreate under laboratory conditions, observational studies on existing ecosystems are a core methodology of ecosystem science.
Ecosystem experiments

Though it has historically been difficult, ecosystems are now often studied using the classic experimental methods of science, For example, small- and mesoscale ecosystems containing a significant set of interacting organisms and their environment may be created in the laboratory, or in enclosures in the field. There are also methods for excluding organisms or altering environmental conditions in the field, such as the addition of nutrients and artificially enhancing carbon dioxide concentrations, temperature ormoisture.
Modeling

To better understand how ecosystems function and change, modeling is often used to simulate ecosystem dynamics, including thebiogeochemical cycles of carbon and other elements, the role of specific species or functional groups in controlling ecosystem function, and even dynamic changes in ecosystem structure and function across landscapes and the entire biosphere.
The Future

Ecosystem science is evolving rapidly in both methodology and focus. Human alteration of ecosystems is now so pervasive globally that ecologists are working to integrate humans into ecosystem science at many levelsincluding the study of urban ecology,agroecology and global ecology. New techniques for ecosystem modelling are being developed all the time, as are new methods for observing ecosystems from space by remote sensing and aerial platforms, and even by networks of sensors embedded in soils andplants across ecosystems and on towers that can make observations on ecosystem exchanges with the atmosphere on a continuous basis. Examples of cutting edge ecosystem research are the Carnegie Airborne Observatoryan aerial remote sensing system capably of precisely mapping ecosystem carbon and species diversity, and the development of the National Ecological Observatory Network (NEON), a continental-scale research platform for discovering and understanding the impacts of climate change, land-use change, and invasive species on ecosystems. More About Ecosystems
Biosphere Biome Ecology Biogeochemical cycles Ecological energetics

Biodiversity Millennium Ecosystem Assessment International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme (IGBP)

n of biomes is: 1. Terrestrial (land) biomes. 2. Freshwater biomes. 3. Marine biomes. [edit]Classification

Summer field in Belgium (Hamois). The blue flower is Centaurea cyanus and the red one a Papaver rhoeas.

The High Peaks Wilderness Area in the 6,000,000-acre (2,400,000 ha) Adirondack Park is an example of a diverse ecosystem.

Flora of Baja California Desert, Cataviaregion, Mexico.

Ecosystems have become particularly important politically, since the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) - ratified by 192 countries - defines "the protection of ecosystems, natural habitats and [6] the maintenance of viable populations of species in natural surroundings" as a commitment of ratifying countries. This has created the political necessity to spatially identify ecosystems and somehow distinguish among them. The CBD defines an "ecosystem" as a "dynamic complex of plant, animal and micro-organism communities and their non-living environment interacting as a functional unit". With the need of protecting ecosystems, the political need arose to describe and identify them efficiently. Vreugdenhil et al. argued that this could be achieved most effectively by using a physiognomic-ecological classification system, as ecosystems are easily recognizable in the field as well as on satellite images. They argued that the structure and seasonality of the associatedvegetation, or flora, complemented with ecological data (such as elevation, humidity, and drainage), are each determining modifiers that separate partially distinct sets of species. This is true not only for plant species, but also for species of animals, fungi and bacteria. The degree of ecosystem distinction is subject to the physiognomic modifiers that can be identified on an image and/or in the field. Where necessary, specific fauna elements can be added, such as seasonal concentrations of animals and the distribution of coral reefs. Several physiognomic-ecological classification systems are available: Physiognomic-Ecological Classification of Plant Formations of the Earth: a system based on the 1974 [7] work of Mueller-Dombois and Heinz Ellenberg, and developed by UNESCO. This classification "describes the above-ground or underwater vegetation structures and cover as observed in the field, described as plant life forms. This classification is fundamentally a species-independent physiognomic, hierarchical vegetation classification system which also takes into account ecological factors such as climate, elevation, human influences such as grazing, hydric regimes and survival strategies such as seasonality. The system was expanded with a basic classification for open water [8] formations".

Land Cover Classification System (LCCS), developed by the Food and Agriculture [9] Organization (FAO). Forest-Range Environmental Study Ecosystems (FRES) developed by the United States Forest [10] Service for use in the United States.

Several aquatic classification systems are available, and an effort is being made by the United States Geological Survey (USGS) and the Inter-American Biodiversity Information Network(IABIN) to design a complete ecosystem classification system that will cover both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. From a philosophy of science perspective, ecosystems are not discrete units of nature that simply can be [citation needed] identified using the most "correct" type of classification approach. In agreement with the definition by Tansley ("mental isolates"), any attempt to delineate or classify ecosystems should be explicit about the observer/analystinput in the classification including its normative rationale.

Two Giant Sequoias, Sequoia National Park. Note the large fire scar at the base of the right-hand tree; fires do not kill the trees but do remove competing thin-barked species, and aid Giant Sequoia regeneration.

[edit]Ecosystem

services

Main article: Ecosystem services Ecosystem services are fundamental life-support services upon which human civilization depends, and can be direct or indirect. Examples of direct ecosystem services are: pollination, wood and erosion prevention. Indirect services could be considered climate moderation, nutrient cycles and detoxifying natural substances. The services and [11] goods an ecosystem provides are often undervalued as many of them are without market value. Broad examples include: Regulating (climate, floods, nutrient balance, water filtration) Provisioning (food, medicine, fur, minerals) Cultural (science, spiritual, ceremonial, recreation, aesthetic) Supporting (nutrient cycling, photosynthesis, soil formation).
[12] i

[edit]Ecosystem

legal rights

Ecuador's new constitution of 2008 is the first in the world to recognize legally enforceable Rights of [13] Nature, or ecosystem rights.

The borough of Tamaqua, Pennsylvania passed a law giving ecosystems legal rights. The ordinance establishes that the municipal government or any Tamaqua resident can file a lawsuit on behalf of the [14] [15] local ecosystem. Other townships, such as Rush, followed suit and passed their own laws. This is part of a growing body of legal opinion proposing 'wild law'. Wild law, a term coined by Cormac [16][17] Cullinan (a lawyer based in South Africa), would cover birds and animals, rivers and deserts. [edit]Function

and biodiversity

Savanna at Ngorongoro Conservation Area,Tanzania.

See also: Biodiversity From an anthropocentric point of view, some people perceive ecosystems as production units that produce goods and services, such as wood by forest ecosystems and grass for cattle by natural grasslands. Meat from wild animals, often referred to as bush meat in Africa, has proven to be extremely successful under well-controlled management schemes in South Africa and Kenya. Much less successful has been the discovery and commercialization of substances of wild organism for pharmaceutical purposes. Services derived from ecosystems are referred to as ecosystem services. They may include 1. Facilitating the enjoyment of nature, which may generate many forms of income and employment in the tourism sector, often referred to as eco-tourisms, 2. Water retention, thus facilitating a more evenly distributed release of water, 3. Soil protection, open-air laboratory for scientific research, etc.

The side of a tide pool showing sea stars(Dermasterias), sea anemones(Anthopleura) and sea sponges in Santa Cruz, California.

A greater degree of species or biological diversity - commonly referred to as Biodiversity - of an ecosystem may contribute to greater resilience of an ecosystem, because there are more species present at a location to respond to change and thus "absorb" or reduce its effects. Some theories predict that biodiversity will promote ecosystem integrity in changing climates, because high diversity ensures that [18] functional groups will retain at least one species able to tolerate altered condition." This reduces the effect before the ecosystem's structure is fundamentally changed to a different state. One hypothesis about this is the Rivet Poper Hypothesis. According to Paul and Anne Ehrlich the diversity of life is something like the rivets on an airplane. Each species plays a small but significant role in the working of the whole, and the loss of any rivet weakens the plane by a small but measurable amount. Pop too many [19] rivets and the plane will crash that is, some vital function will collapse." They are saying if too many species die out then some sort of vital function of the ecosystem such as a food web would collapse causing the ecosystem to fail. However rivets come in different sizes and have different critical functions in construction, when thinking about species as rivets the variety and distribution in the overall structure is important. This is not universally the case and there is no proven relationship between the species diversity of an ecosystem and its ability to provide goods and services on a sustainable level: Humid tropical forests produce very few goods and direct services and are extremely vulnerable to change, while many temperate forests readily grow back to their previous state of development within a lifetime after felling or a forest fire. Some grasslands have been sustainably exploited for thousands of years (Mongolia, Africa, European peat and mooreland communities). [edit]The

study of ecosystems

Forest on San Juan Island

Loch Lomond in Scotland forms a relatively isolated ecosystem. The fish community of this lake has remained unchanged over a very long period of time.[20]

[edit]Ecosystem

dynamics

Introduction of new elements, whether biotic or abiotic, into an ecosystem tend to have a disruptive effect. In some cases, this can lead to ecological collapse or "trophic cascading" and the death of many species within the ecosystem. Under this deterministic vision, the abstract notion of ecological health attempts to measure the robustness and recovery capacity for an ecosystem; i.e. how far the ecosystem is away from its steady state. Often, however, ecosystems have the ability to rebound from a disruptive agent. The difference between collapse or a gentle rebound is determined by two factorsthe toxicity of the introduced element and the resiliency of the original ecosystem. Ecosystems are primarily governed by stochastic (chance) events, the reactions these events provoke on non-living materials and the responses by organisms to the conditions surrounding them. Thus, an ecosystem results from the sum of individual responses of organisms to stimuli from elements in the environment.The presence or absence of populations merely depends on reproductive and dispersal success, and population levels fluctuate in response to stochastic events. As the number of species in an ecosystem is higher, the number of stimuli is also higher. Since the beginning of life organisms have survived continuous change through natural selection of successful feeding, reproductive and dispersal behavior. Through natural selection the planet's species have continuously adapted to change through variation in their biological composition and distribution. Mathematically it can be demonstrated that greater numbers of different interacting factors tend to dampen fluctuations in each of the individual factors.

Spiny forest at Ifaty, Madagascar, featuring various Adansonia (baobab) species, Alluaudia procera (Madagascar ocotillo) and other vegetation.

Given the great diversity among organisms on earth, most ecosystems only changed very gradually, as some species would disappear while others would move in. Locally, sub-populations continuously go extinct, to be replaced later through dispersal of other sub-populations. Stochastists do recognize that certain intrinsic regulating mechanisms occur in nature. Feedback and response mechanisms at the species level regulate population levels, most notably through territorial behaviour. Andrewatha and

Birch suggest that territorial behaviour tends to keep populations at levels where food supply is not a limiting factor. Hence, stochastists see territorial behaviour as a regulatory mechanism at the species level but not at the ecosystem level. Thus, in their vision, ecosystems are not regulated by feedback and response mechanisms from the ecosystem itself and there is no such thing as a balance of nature. If ecosystems are governed primarily by stochastic processes, through which its subsequent state would be determined by both predictable and random actions, they may be more resilient to sudden change than each species individually. In the absence of a balance of nature, the species composition of ecosystems would undergo shifts that would depend on the nature of the change, but entire ecological collapse would probably be infrequent events. The theoretical ecologist Robert Ulanowicz has used information theory tools to describe the structure of ecosystems, emphasizing mutual information (correlations) in studied systems. Drawing on this methodology and prior observations of complex ecosystems, Ulanowicz depicts approaches to determining the stress levels on ecosystems and predicting system reactions to defined types of [22] alteration in their settings (such as increased or reduced energy flow, and eutrophication.

[21]

Arctic tundra on Wrangel Island, Russia.

In addition, Eric Sanderson has developed the Muir web, based on experience on the Mannahatta project. This graphical schematic shows how different species are connected to each other, not only regarding their position in the food chain, but also regarding other services, i.e. provisioning of shelter, [23][24] ... See also: Relational order theories, as to fundamentals of life organization [edit]Ecosystem

ecology

Ecosystem ecology is the integrated study of biotic and abiotic components of ecosystems and their interactions within an ecosystem framework. This science examines how ecosystems work and relates this to their components such aschemicals, bedrock, soil, plants, and animals. Ecosystem ecology examines physical and biological structure and examines how these ecosystem characteristics interact.

Emerging Entrepreneurial Ecosystem in India

Author: S Ramdorai CEO, TCS Comments(13) Print Forward

It is a myth that entrepreneurship or entrepreneurial skills are limited to those people starting companies. I believe entrepreneurship is an outlook; an outlook which, when combined with entrepreneurial skills, helps people succeed in endeavors across all dimensions. So, you could be with a large enterprise or an NGO and yet be entrepreneurial. I will deal with both this traditional and broader meanings of the term. If we were to look around us, the entrepreneurial mindset is widespread in India, especially in sectors such as retail, we have over 13 million shops in the country, 78 percent of which are family owned. However, the sector is fragmented and has issues of scale, and does not have a supporting ecosystem. The U.S. economy, as we all know, is primarily entrepreneurial; as a matter of interest, VC-backed companies represent 17 percent of their GDP and generate over 10 million jobs. Every year over one million new companies are started in the U.S., almost 50 percent of them fail the very first year and 40 percent just survive for five years. The important point is that failure is accepted as a natural part of the process and is not viewed as a dead end. It is an economic truth that in order to create wealth the economy must create jobs which, in turn, are fuelled by entrepreneurial activity that needs a supportive regulative environment, venture capital activity, and a strong capital market. A recent McKinsey-Nasscom report estimates that India needs at least 8,000 new businesses to achieve its target of building a $87 billion IT sector by 2008. The success of the Silicon Valley Indians - the many millionaires it created - has helped change the Indian mindset towards entrepreneurship. Traditionally a high school education was followed by a university degree and then a job with a large company with whom you stayed till retirement. Only if you were born into a business family were you likely to be an entrepreneur. However today this model has changed. A university degree may well be followed by some practical experience, management training, and a stint at a firm. With this exposure to the world of business we see many Indians now

setting up their own ventures which, if unsuccessful, would lead to another venture and hopefully never really retire. Entrepreneurship has earned a newfound respect in our country This is a good sign for us to maintain the nine percent growth we talk about: we must create jobs and while the government can only play facilitator, the education system, especially our universities together with the industry must nurture the required ecosystem. Education needs to adapt its curriculum to encourage entrepreneurial skill sets right from high school onwards. Opportunity evaluation, risk taking, raising and leveraging resources, communications, and sales are survival skills; and these cannot be imbibed through an intensive dose later in life. If students are given opportunities to practice these skills in the relatively safe and risk-free environment of an academic institute, young people, when they do start ventures, will have higher chances of success. TiE- the global entrepreneurial organization, and KPMG in India, conducted a study measuring the Entrepreneurial Confidence Index in 10 states of India. Based purely on the perceptions of the entrepreneurs, rather than any factual analysis of the factors, the study aimed to identify the elements involved and benchmark the development of a conducive entrepreneurial ecosystem across India. The conclusions have thrown up the general confidence in the Indian economy and the belief that things are moving in the right direction. Entrepreneurs are bullish about the ecosystem. Expectations of entrepreneurs from the states, generally considered to be leaders in entrepreneurship, expected more from their ecosystem and thereby held the state to a higher standard. The study reinforced the widely held assumptions that Risk Capital is still not available in the desired amounts; and governance issues and local environment in the ecosystem get failing grades. The changed business climate of India can be judged from the fact that the country is considered to be amongst the three top investment destinations. According to a recent report by Evalueserve research, over 44 U.S. based VC firms are now seeking to invest heavily in startups and early-stage companies in India. The various elements of the ecosystem for commercialization are beginning to come together, from venture capitalists, government schemes and incubators, academia industry linkages, and emerging clusters and support to rural economy. Society for Innovation and Entrepreneurship by IIT Bombay, Foundation for Innovation and Technology Transfer by IIT Delhi, Indian Institute of Sciences Society for Innovation and Development, and Technology Development Board of DST are examples of fund sources that aim to fuel innovation, R&D, and hopefully trigger entrepreneurship. The Stanford India Biodesign Programme signifies a government-to-government level collaboration between the U.S. Science and Technology Ministry and the Ministry of Science in India to boost medical technology innovation in India. While all these initiatives are wonderful in their own way, there is a need to catalyze and scale up and enrich the ecosystem. After all, an ecosystem is nothing but a system of interconnected stakeholders institutions and individuals - whose close linkages enable efficient production, diffusion, and use of new and economically useful knowledge. We need to create more linkages and strengthen the existing

ones, creating a tight mesh. The CSIR labs, for instance, are committed to leadership in science and all of us highly respect them, but can we think of opening them to partner with entrepreneurs? This is just one example of the different mindset. We need to kill the silos and capitalize on the power of collaboration. While I am optimistic about the future, it is not without challenges. We have to improve in many directions. We need a mindset to invest time and money in building Top of Technology Pyramid companies and view entrepreneurs as nation builders. We need to revisit our own attitudes towards failures and view them as learning experiences. We need to encourage the educated class to become entrepreneurs and teach entrepreneurship in schools and colleges. The universities, research labs, and the government need to view themselves as enablers in this ecosystem. The government bodies need to focus on removing the obstacles. We need to fix our legal systems and court big VCs to bring them into India. We need to give a deep thought on how to reach out to the secondary and tertiary towns in India, where young people do not have the access to resources which the young people based in the metros have. It is therefore heartening to see that the learning of the past two decades resulting from the digital revolution triggering heightened activity in social entrepreneurship. By opening up new pathways for the marginalized and disadvantaged, they are unlocking the societys full potential to effect social change. The India of the cities is unfortunately not the India of the villages, today there is a huge opportunity in this country for anyone who comes up with indigenous, innovative solutions that are capable of scaling up, capable of collaborating within the ecosystem and enriching it. This can only happen when we are able to build a strong digital bridge by using the tools now available from the information and communication technology revolution. India can truly be an economic powerhouse if the two Indias within it become one. Social entrepreneurs are the new heroes. It is a signal of changed times that people from the business world are getting involved in social entrepreneurship organizations, perhaps a decade ago this was uncommon for a business leader. Accion, one of the organizations I am associated with, is a pioneer in Microfinance bringing quality financial services to the worlds poor and it reaches out to over three million people across Latin America, Africa, Asia, and the United States. Another interesting model is that of an organization called Endeavor which is inspired by a novel idea: to identify and support high-impact entrepreneurs in emerging markets as a means to sustainable economic growth. Until recently, few saw this focus on high-impact entrepreneurs - those with the potential to create innovative, large-scale companies - as a legitimate tool for development. Endeavor demonstrated that high-impact entrepreneurs in emerging markets, given an international seal of approval and the right support, can create thousands of jobs, generate millions of dollars in wages and revenues, and serve as inspirational role models in their countries. For instance, in India Endeavor is supporting an organization called SELCO that provides rural solar electrification to the below poverty line families. So, the transformation of India is happening, we are doing things right, but for India to take off, we need to add rocket fuel to the mix. It needs all of us to come together in an enriched ecosystem. We

need not just take from this ecosystem but ask ourselves what it is that we can give back or contribute to it.