Climatology

आओ यारों कुछ बातें करते हैं

# अगर आप खुदको हैंडल नह ीं कर सकते तो दनु नया को क्या हैंडल करें गे । दनु नया को हैंडल करने से पहले
खुद को हैंडल करना सीखना परता है और उसका सबसे आसान तर का है उसको बोलते हैं
"The Art of Letting Go" , "जाने दो " ।
ये आज के ज़माने में अट्रै क्शन को प्यार समझने वाले लोगों के ललए:-
"तारूफ रोग बन जाए तो उसको भूलना बेहतर,
ताल्लुक बोझ बन जाए तो उसको तोड़ना अच्छा,
वो अफसाना जजसे अींजाम तक लाना न हो मम
ु ककन,
उसे एक खूबसूरत मोड़ दे कर छोड़ना अच्छा "

# एक ररश्ते की बहुत बड़ी बुननयाद होती है भरोसा और इज्जज़त, अगर आपको उस इींसान पे भरोसा है तो वो
ररश्ता चलेगा, अगर आप उसकी इज़्जज़त करते है तो वो ररश्ता चलेगा , अगर आप उस इींसान की इज़्जज़त ह
नह ीं कर रहें उसकी बातें सुन ह नह ीं रहें , उसे समझ ह नह ीं रहें हैं
तो वो ररश्ता कहाीं तक चलेगा ?
अगर आपके पास कोई अपनी समस्या लेके आता है न तो लोग उसको सलाह दे ते हैं कक तुमने ये गलत
ककया था तुमको ये करना चाहहए था।
उसको सलाह की जरूरत नह ीं थी, उसे साथ की जरूरत थी ।
वो ररश्ता वहाीं खत्म हो जाता है जब आप उसको गलत ठहराने लग जाते हो , बजाय उसे समझने के।
जरूरत समझाने की नह ीं समझने की थीीं।
 UNIT – 1
Nature and scope
1.1 Introduction
➢ The study of the environment and weather patterns
through time is known as climatology. This branch of
science is concerned with observing and evaluating
weather patterns worldwide, as well as the atmospheric
factors that cause them.
➢ It’s easy to mix it up with meteorology, the science
of weather and predictions. On the other hand,
Climatology is primarily concerned with the natural and
man-made causes that affect long-term weather trends.
Climatologists are scientists who specialise in this field.
➢ Although the first study of climate may be linked
back to old Greece, climate science as we know it today
did not exist until the nineteenth century, with the onset of the industrial age.
As scientists became more interested in weather patterns, the study of
Climatology grew.
➢ Climate scientists have recently concentrated their efforts on the changes in
the Earth’s climate since the industrial revolution. As human activity has
expanded and emitted more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, the Earth has
become warmer.
➢ Climate scientists are particularly interested in this impact, known as global
warming. Climatologists can better comprehend and forecast the long-term
effects of a human-caused change in climate by analysing global warming.

Scientists :- Climatology is a sub – branch of Physical geography

Meanwhile , Physical
Geography :-
1.2 Nature and scope

1. DESCRIPTIVE NATURE:

• In ancient period, Greeks geographers study and describe nature of atmosphere

and its influence on human health and culture.
• Hippocrates (BC 400), in his written document "Air, Water and Place" where he
descried the influence of climate on health.
• Theophrastus described different aspects of wind
• Ancient Greek described three temperature zone based on latitude... i) tropical
zone, ii) temperate zone, iii) frigid zone
• Arab Contribution: Monsoon and Regional Climate
• The knowledge of weather and climate up to 16th century was descriptive
because qualitatively observed data and description by non-professional
individual.
 2. AGE OF DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION: (15ΤΗ ΤΟ 16TH) DYNAMIC
• Discovery and exploration of new areas and there features of weather and
climate.

• Study of weather and climate out side the Europe.

3. SCIENTIFIC NATURE: (PERIOD SCIENTIFIC ANALYSIS)

• Climatology as science blossomed in 17th century when few instrument invented to
measure climatic variable.
• Measurement and recording of temperature started with invention of thermometer......
by Galileo In 1593 and by Santorre in 1612.
• Measurement of Pressure started with invention of barometer by Torricelli in 1643.
• Availability of data on temperature and pressure leads to formulation of few laws about
atmospheric condition.
• Francis Bacon's treatise on wind in 1662, Boyle' law about the air pressure and
atmospheric gases.
• Hadley's cell model on tropical circulation in 1735 know as Hadley Cell.

4. PERIOD OF REGIONAL DESCRIPTION: (18TH AND 19TH)

• This period is characterized by study of weather phenomenon at regional and global

levels
• Efforts were made to prepare maps of the countries, continents, and globe. - Depicting
climatic variables like... insolation, temperature, air pressure, and wind,atmospheric
disturbances, precipitation etc..
• Description of all variable of climate and weather of different regions of world.
• Luke Howard, 1803, presented well documented on classification of clouds.
• IMC: (International Meteorological Committee) in 1895.
• WMO: World Meteorological Organization- published international Clouds atlas.
• Alexander Von Humboldt in 1817 prepared World map of mean annual temperature using
isotherms.
5. INTERDISCIPLINARY- APPLIED AND COMPLEX:

• Modern nature: Period of Modern Climatology (20th century):

• Climatology reached to study upper circulation and weather phenomena, information
obtained through advanced techniques.

Period was marked by:

i. Advancement in techniques to obtained detailed regular climatic data.←

ii. Concentration on classification of world climate.

iii. Concerned about the climatic changes.

iv. Weather forecasting.

v. International Cooperations to tackle the future problems of climatic changes at local,

regional and global levels caused mainly by anthropogenic factors.
 Based on
real
incidents :-

1.3 Conclusion
In conclusion, climatology is a critical scientific field that studies the long-term patterns and
changes in weather conditions over a specific region. It encompasses the analysis of
atmospheric data, historical records, computer modelling, and various other techniques to
understand the dynamics of climate and its relationship with the environment. The nature and
scope of climatology are broad and interdisciplinary, encompassing fields such as geology,
physics, chemistry, biology, and mathematics, as well as overlapping disciplines such as
meteorology, oceanography, and ecology.
 UNIT – 2
Atmospheric Moisture

2.1 Introduction
➢ Moisture in the atmosphere, in the form of water vapor, liquid water, and ice, controls
most aspects of our weather and climate. Atmospheric moisture is expressed as clouds,
precipitation, storms, weather fronts, and other phenomena.
➢ Humidity of the air refers to the content of water vapour present in the air at a
particular time and place.
➢ On the other hand, water vapour is the gaseous form of water.
➢ Water vapour represents 2 % of the total composition of the atmosphere but this
percentage varies both spatially and temporally as it ranges from zero to 5 %.
➢ Nearly 50 per cent of the total atmospheric vapour is concentrated in the lower
atmosphere upto the height of 2000 meters.
➢ It may be mentioned that water occurs in three states like as solid (e.g. ice, snow and
frost), as liquid (e.g. water), as gaseous from (e.g. vapour).
➢ The presence of water vapour in the atmosphere is a vital factor for weather
conditions of a particular region.
➢ The nature and amount of a precipitation, the amount of loss of heat through radiation
from the earth surface, surface temperature, latent heat of the atmosphere, stability
and instability of air masses etc. depend on the amount of water vapour present in the
atmosphere.
➢ The atmospheric water is derived through evaporation of water from oceans and seas,
terrestrial lakes, land water bodies, river etc.
2.2 Humidity

Average Indian student :- yaar garmi bahut hai soch rahan hu A.C. lagwa lu .

Meanwhile , Humidity :-

➢ It is the quantity of water present in the form of vapour throughout the air. Water vapour
is a gaseous form, and is not typically visible to the naked eye. Humidity is a sign of the
presence of rain, dew, or fog. Humidity is influenced by the pressure and temperature of
the system of interest.
➢ The same amount of water vapour can result in higher relative humidity in cooler air than in
warm air. A similar parameter can be that of the dew point.
➢ The quantity of water vapour that is required to reach saturation is increased when the
temperature rises. When the temperature of the weather decreases, it will eventually
reach saturation without losing or adding the water mass to it.
➢ The quantity of water vapour in the air will vary greatly. For instance, a parcel of air in the
vicinity of saturation could have 28 g of water for every cubic meter of air at 30℃ and
only 8 grams of water for every cubic metre of air at
8℃.

❖ Effects of Humidity

Animals and Plant Life

Whether an animal or a plant can thrive in a particular environment is determined by its
humidity. What causes humidity? When the moisture levels of the air are high, perspiration is
hindered. High humidity makes our skin feel hot and sticky. In such situations, the
temperature of the body depends on increased blood circulation, excessive sweating, and
respiration.
Electronics
Electronic devices are made to function under a particular humidity level. When the humidity
is high, it may increase the conductivity in permeable insulators, causing them to malfunction.
If the humidity is too low, the materials may become brittle. Regardless of the stated
humidity range, condensation is another significant factor leading to damage to electronic
devices. If an electronic device is moved from a cold temperature area to a high-temperature
area, its circuit boards and other insulating materials undergo condensation. This results in a
short circuit. Low humidity also causes the build-up of static electricity, causing the
computers to shut down with discharge.
Industry
If the humidity is high, the capacity of chemical plants is affected adversely as furnaces are
used during certain processes in these plants.

❖ Types of Humidity

There are mainly three types of humidity which are: absolute, relative, and specific.

• Relative Humidity

The relative humidity is the ratio of the water vapour present in the atmosphere. Although
it is ratio but it is expressed in per cent. It is dependent on the temperature of
the atmosphere. Its S.I. unit is gram per kilogram also written as g/kg. It is also denoted as
RH or by the greek alphabet Φ. The formula of
relative humidity is given as follows:

The term “relative humidity” is typically

expressed in terms of percentage and a greater percentage indicates that the air-water
mix will be more humid. When humidity is 100% it is said that the atmosphere is saturated.
The relative humidity is a crucial measurement employed in forecasts of weather and
reports as it indicates the probability of precipitation or dew or fog. In summer the
increase in relative humidity raises the temperature that is visible to human beings and also
to other mammals due to the inability of the body to evaporate sweat that is absorbed by
the skin.
 • Absolute Humidity

Absolute humidity refers to the total volume of water vapour that is present in a specific
amount or volume of air. It doesn’t consider temperature. The absolute humidity of the
atmosphere is a range of near-zero to about thirty grams per cubic meter of air saturation
is 0 to 30℃. It is also denoted by AH. Absolute humidity is the ratio of the mass of water
vapour to the mixture of air and water
vapour. The formula for absolute humidity
is given as follows:
Its S.I. unit is gram per cubic
metre also written as g/m3𝑔/𝑚3.
Absolute humidity fluctuates when the air
temperatures, as well as the pressure,
alter if the volume isn’t stable.

• Specific Humidity

The specific humidity also known as the moisture content is the ratio of the water vapour to the
volume of air in the atmosphere. It is almost equal to the mixing ratio value of the water present in
the air. It is dependent on the temperature of the atmosphere. It is also denoted by SH. As
temperatures drops the volume of water vapour that is required to reach saturation decreases as
well.

humidity
2.3 Evapotranspiration
Evapotranspiration is defined as: "The combined processes through which water is transferred to
the atmosphere from open water and ice surfaces, bare soil and vegetation that make up the
Earth’s surface."

Evapotranspiration is a combination of evaporation and transpiration, measured in order to better

understand crop water requirements, irrigation scheduling, and watershed management. The two
key components of evapotranspiration are:

• Evaporation: the movement of water directly to the air from sources such as the soil
and water bodies. It can be affected by factors including heat, humidity, solar radiation
and wind speed.
• Transpiration: the movement of water from root systems, through a plant, and exit into
the air as water vapor. This exit occurs through stomata in the plant. Rate of
transpiration can be influenced by factors including plant type, soil type, weather
conditions and water content, and also cultivation practices.
Evapotranspiration is typically measured in millimeters of water (i.e. volume of water moved per
unit area of the Earth's surface) in a set unit of time. Globally, it is estimated that on average
between three-fifths and three-quarters of land precipitation is returned to the atmosphere via
evapotranspiration.

Evapotranspiration does not, in general, account for other mechanisms which are involved in
returning water to the atmosphere, though some of these, such as snow and ice sublimation in
regions of high elevation or high latitude, can make a large contribution to atmospheric moisture
even under standard conditions.

❖ Influencing factors
▪ Primary factors
Levels of evapotranspiration in a given area are primarily controlled by three factors:

Firstly, the amount of water present. Secondly, the amount of energy present in the air and
soil (e.g. heat, measured by the global surface temperature); and thirdly the ability of the
atmosphere to take up water (humidity).

Regarding the second factor (energy and heat): climate change has increased global
temperatures (see instrumental temperature record). This global warming has increased
evapotranspiration over land. The increased evapotranspiration is one of the effects of
climate change on the water cycle.
 ▪ Secondary factors
✓ Vegetation type

Vegetation type impacts levels of evapotranspiration.[12] For example, herbaceous plants generally
transpire less than woody plants, because they usually have less extensive foliage. Also, plants with
deep reaching roots can transpire water more constantly, because those roots can pull more water
into the plant and leaves. Another example is that conifer forests tend to have higher rates of
evapotranspiration than deciduous broadleaf forests, particularly in the dormant winter and early
spring seasons, because they are evergreen.

✓ Vegetation coverage

Transpiration is a larger component of evapotranspiration (relative to evaporation) in vegetation-

abundant areas. As a result, denser vegetation, like forests, may increase evapotranspiration and
reduce water yield.

Two exceptions to this are cloud forests and rainforests. In cloud forests, trees collect the liquid
water in fog or low clouds onto their surface, which eventually drips down to the ground. These
trees still contribute to evapotranspiration, but often collect more water than they evaporate or
transpire. In rainforests, water yield is increased (compared to cleared, unforested land in the
same climatic zone) as evapotranspiration increases humidity within the forest (a portion of which
condenses and returns quickly as precipitation experienced at ground level as rain). The density of
the vegetation blocks sunlight and reduces temperatures at ground level (thereby reducing losses
due to surface evaporation), and reduces wind speeds (thereby reducing the loss of airborne
moisture). The combined effect results in increased surface stream flows and a higher
ground water table whilst the rainforest is preserved. Clearing of rainforests frequently leads
to desertification as ground level temperatures and wind speeds increase, vegetation cover is lost
or intentionally destroyed by clearing and burning, soil moisture is reduced by wind, and soils are
easily eroded by high wind and rainfall events.

✓ Soil and irrigation

In areas that are not irrigated, actual evapotranspiration is

usually no greater than precipitation, with some buffer and
variations in time depending on the soil's ability to hold water.

It will usually be less because some water will be lost due

to percolation or surface runoff. An exception is areas with
high water tables, where capillary action can cause water from
the groundwater to rise through the soil matrix back to the
surface. If potential evapotranspiration is greater than the
actual precipitation, then soil will dry out until conditions
stabilize, unless irrigation is used.
2.4 Condensation
➢ Condensation changes the state of matter from gaseous to liquid, often accompanied by a
decrease in volume. It occurs when a vapour (gas) comes into contact with a surface that
transfers heat to it and causes the vapour to cool and become denser. This process results
in liquid droplets containing small amounts of dissolved materials.

➢ Condensation is often confused with evaporation, which is the opposite of changing from a
liquid to a gas by gaining heat. However, condensation and evaporation are part of the same
phase change.
➢ Condensation can occur on any surface with a temperature difference between that surface
and its surroundings.
➢ Condensation examples include:
▪ The walls in your home are often cooler than the surrounding air during the winter months,
which leads to condensation forming on those walls when someone takes a hot shower or
bath. This is why you may see drops of water on your bathroom mirror after taking a
shower or bath during the cold winter months.
▪ A cold glass placed inside a warm room will condense moisture from its surroundings onto its
outer surface as it cools down; this is why dew forms on leaves overnight as they release
heat.
 ❖ Process of Condensation

• As per the condensation definition, it is when water vapour in the air cools, condenses, and
forms droplets, often visible as fog or mist. The resulting water is known as condensate.
• Here is a general condensation reaction:
• △Hvap=−△Hcond
• Note: Here, △Hvap denotes enthalpy of vaporisation and △Hcond denotes enthalpy of
condensation.
• The evaporation and condensation of water are responsible for the movement of soil
particles into different layers of earth. This process also helps in weathering rocks.
• Here is the chemical reaction for condensation of water:

H2O(l)→H2O(g)

• The condensation process is a major component of cloud formation. Condensation nuclei are
usually small solid or liquid particles that act as sites where condensation can occur. There
are two types of condensation nuclei:

Homogeneous Nuclei

These are composed of pure condensed materials such as ice, liquid water droplets, or ice crystals.
They form homogeneous nuclei when the surrounding temperature is below 0°C (32°F).

Heterogeneous Nuclei

These are made up of heterogeneous materials such as dust particles and soot. They form
heterogeneous nuclei when the surrounding temperature exceeds 0°C (32°F).

❖ Condensation in Water Cycle

• The water cycle is the continuous circulation of water on, above, and below the surface of
the Earth. It includes evaporation from the Earth’s surface, condensation, precipitation,
runoff and sublimation, ice melting, and groundwater recharge.
• The water cycle involves energy exchange, which leads to temperature changes. When
water evaporates, it takes up energy from its surroundings and cools the atmosphere. When
it condenses, it releases energy and warms the atmosphere.
• The sun’s heat energy warms the earth’s surface through conduction and convection.
Conduction and convection are modes of heat transfer that are unable to operate between
bodies separated by a vacuum. The heated surface air becomes less dense than cooler air
above it, causing it to rise (convection). As it rises, it cools by expansion in volume.
 • The air then becomes denser than the surrounding air; this causes it to sink back to the
surface (condensation). As air sinks back down onto the earth’s surface, its heat is released
into its surroundings as infrared radiation (thermodynamics). This process repeats itself
repeatedly until all of the radiant heat energy has been released into space.
• The condensation water cycle is a natural process that circulates water within Earth’s
hydrosphere (about 98.5% of which is water).
• The Sun, which drives evaporation in the atmosphere, also heats land and ocean surfaces,
causing them to release water vapour into the atmosphere, where it cools and condenses
back into small droplets or ice crystals depending on the temperature and atmospheric
pressure. These droplets coalesce into larger droplets that fall as precipitation, like rain or
snow.

CR of other dept. :- I like you kya tum mujhse friendship karogi?

Meanwhile , Geography department girls :-
[A] Clouds

A.1 Introduction

✓ Clouds are formed due to the condensation of water

vapour in the atmosphere. They are visible
aggregations of tiny water droplets or ice crystals
suspended in the air.
✓ The process of condensation occurs when warm, moist air rises, cools, and reaches a
point where it can no longer hold the moisture, causing it to condense into these visible
cloud formations.

A.2 Cloud formation

✓ Cloud formation is indeed a fascinating process involving the transformation of

invisible water vapour into visible water droplets or ice crystals.
✓ Water vapour and aerosol particles, such as salt and dust, are constantly present in
the air, frequently colliding with each other.
✓ When the air cools, the water vapour condenses, sticking to these aerosol particles.
✓ This condensation process continues as larger water droplets gradually form around
the aerosol particles.
✓ As more water droplets join together, clouds begin to develop.
✓ This cloud formation typically happens when the air reaches a state of saturation,
unable to hold any more water vapour.
✓ This saturation leading to condensation can occur in two ways: either an increase in
the water content in the air, such as through evaporation or when the air is cooled
to its dew point, the temperature at which condensation initiates.
✓ The warmer the air, the more water vapour it can hold.
✓ However, as the air rises and subsequently cools, its capacity to retain water vapour
decreases, leading to condensation and the creation of clouds.
✓ The altitude at which the dew point is reached and clouds form is termed the
condensation level.
A.3 Factors affecting cloud formation
Cloud formation can be attributed to various factors and processes. Here are five significant
mechanisms contributing to the creation of clouds:
▪ Surface Heating: The sun’s heating of the Earth’s surface warms the air in direct
contact with it, causing it to rise. These rising air columns, often known as thermals,
lead to the development of cumulus clouds.
▪ Topography or Orographic Forcing: The landscape’s features, like mountains or hills,
can influence cloud formation. When air is compelled to ascend over topographical
barriers, it cools as it rises, generating layered clouds.
▪ Frontal Systems: Clouds form as a result of warm air ascending over a mass of cold,
dense air along frontal boundaries. These fronts delineate the boundary between warm,
moist air and cooler, drier air, leading to various cloud formations.
▪ Convergence: Airstreams flowing from diverse directions converge, compelling the air
to ascend where they meet. This convergence can give rise to cumulus clouds and
showery weather conditions.
▪ Turbulence: Sudden changes in wind speed at different altitudes can create turbulent
eddies in the air, also influencing cloud development.

A.4 Types of cloud formation

CLOUDS

Based on Based on
Height Shape

1. High 1. Cirrus
2. Middle 2. Cumulus
3. Low 3. Stratus
4. Great vertical extent 4. Nimbus
 ❖ Classification of clouds based on height:

Classification of clouds based on their shape or appearance:

 ❖ Classification of clouds based on their shape or appearance:

▪ Cirrus Clouds

1. Cirrus Clouds are found at high altitudes, typically 6000 metres or 20,000 feet above the
surface of the Earth. They are white, filament-like and thin.

2. They appear mostly as delicate white patches or narrow bands.

3. Cirrus clouds may also appear fibrous and silky like hair strands. Ice-crystals are always the
main composition of Cirrus Clouds.

4. Depending on the density of formation of these ice-crystals, the transparency of Cirrus

clouds varies. You will commonly find Cirrus clouds appearing bright yellow before sunrise
and red after sunset.

5. Cirrus clouds are formed due to the freezing of supercooled water droplets forming ice
crystals.

▪ Cumulus Clouds

The conventional picture that first comes to your mind when speaking of clouds is
Cumulus Clouds.

1. Cumulus clouds are the mid-altitude clouds that look like floating pieces of fluffy cotton.

2. They are usually bright white.

3. They appear at altitudes of only 1000 metres or 3300 feet above the Earth’s Surface.

4. The top of the Cumulus cloud always has rounded, dome-like edges.

5. Cauliflower serves as the best object to understand the shape and appearance of a Cumulus
cloud.

6. All cumulus clouds are formed due to convection. As the air gets heated at the surface, it
rises above and eventually cools down. After this, the moisture or water vapour undergoes
condensation and forms the cloud.
 ▪ Stratus Clouds

1. The Stratus Clouds look like a huge grey or dull coloured blanket hanging low in the sky.

2. They appear at low altitudes.

3. They often resemble fog and are composed of a uniform layer.

4. When Stratus Clouds warm up, they indicate rain, and if they cool down, it means snowfall
might happen.

5. Only when the layer of Stratus cloud breaks open, the blue sky becomes visible.

6. Stratus clouds are formed in stable conditions when calm and gentle breezes rise up and
cool down on reaching over colder land or ocean surfaces.

▪ Nimbus Clouds

1. All the clouds that bear rain are usually termed Nimbus Clouds.

2. These clouds lack any features and have little characterisation.

3. Nimbus clouds appear to cover most areas of the sky.

4. They are often associated with moderate and continuous rain or snowfall.

5. These clouds are present from the lower to the middle layers of the troposphere,
responsible for rainfall.

*Nimbus *Cirrus *Cumulus *Stratus

[B] Fog

▪ Fog is a cloud that touches the

ground. It can be thin or thick.
▪ Formation of fog: Fog forms
when water vapour condenses.
▪ The presence of moisture and a
fall in the temperature are key
factors for the formation of
fog.
▪ With the land surface cooling
down at night, the air close to the surface also cools down.
▪ Since cooler air cannot hold as much moisture as warm air, the water vapour in the air
condenses to form fog.
▪ Conditions: Fog begins to form in the early hours of the morning, when the temperature
is at its lowest.
▪ Areas near water bodies, for instance, may see denser fog because of the higher
humidity .

❖ Types of Fog
1. Radiation Fog: It forms in the evening when heat absorbed by the Earth’s surface
during the day is radiated into the air.
• As heat is transferred from the ground to the air, water droplets form.
• Fog that is said to “burn off” in the morning sun is radiation fog.
• According to SAFAR forecasting system, fog episode in Delhi is categorised as
“radiation fog”.

2. Advection Fog: It forms when warm, moist air passes over a cool surface.
• When the moist, warm air makes contact with the cooler surface air, water vapor
condenses to create fog.
• Advection fog shows up mostly in places where warm, tropical air meets cooler ocean
water.

3. Valley Fog: It forms in mountain valleys, usually during winter.

• It develops when mountains prevent the dense air from escaping. The fog is trapped in
the bowl of the valley.

4. Freezing Fog: It happens when the liquid fog droplets freeze to solid surfaces.
• Mountain tops that are covered by clouds are often covered in freezing fog.
• As the freezing fog lifts, the ground, the trees, and even objects like spider webs, are
blanketed by a layer of frost.
 ❖ Fog Episode in North-Western India
▪ Prevalence of Cold Wave: Cold wave conditions, in which the minimum temperature is
significantly lower than normal, have been recorded recently over Punjab, Haryana, and
parts of Rajasthan.
▪ Western Disturbances (WD): It can result in increased moisture levels over the region.
▪ WD’s are the storms that originate in the Mediterranean Sea and bring moisture-bearing
winds to northwest India.
▪ However, WD’s has not yet brought much moisture and did not lead to any significant fog
formation until December 19.
▪ Other Sources: Local moisture sources like water vapour from rivers and soil moisture can
also cause fog.
▪ Pollution levels and Fog: Delhi being more polluted, records more fog days compared to
others.
▪ As temperature declines, local wind speed falls. The inversion layer comes down and
vertical mixing reduces.
▪ This result in fog formation and particulate matter hangs on the boundary layer, increasing
pollution levels.
▪ Once the temperature increases during the day, the fog dissipates.

❖ IMD Categorisation of Fog

▪ Fog is categorised as very dense when visibility is between 0 to 50 metres.
▪ Visibility between 51 and 200 metres identifies fog as dense.
▪ Moderate fog is identified with a visibility of 201 to 500.
▪ Whereas, 501 metres to 1,000 metres of visibility is present in shallow fog conditions
and 1,000 shallow.

❖ Delhi Fog Characteristics

▪ According to the India Meteorological Department (IMD), fall in temperature along
with moisture and light winds over the Indo Gangetic Plain has resulted in dense fog
over the region.
▪ Indo Gangetic Plain is most vulnerable to fog occurrences, with major, weeks-long spells
of dense fog in the months of December and January.
▪ These foggy spells are linked to wind and temperature patterns.
▪ Its intensity can depend on factors like humidity, wind, and temperature,
Variability: According to IMD, fog episodes over Delhi are highly variable.

It shows very high variability with extreme fog of 25 to 35 days (200 to 285 hours) of dense
fog” like in 2017-18. While, on the other hand, in December 2021 — Delhi hardly sees any
dense fog events.

Intensity: Highest number of dense fog (when visibility is less than 200 m) and very
dense fog (visibility less than 50 m) days are usually seen in January in Delhi.

Going by a 31-year average till 2021, Delhi records around 25.3 hours of “very dense” fog in
December, and 38.3 such hours in January .
2.5 Precipitation
➢ Precipitation occurs when tiny droplets of
water, ice or frozen water vapor join
together into masses too big to be held above
the earth. They then fall to ground as
precipitation.
➢ The term precipitation denotes all forms of
water that reach the earth from the
atmosphere. Usual forms are rainfall,
snowfall, hail, frost and dew. Of all these, only
the first two contribute significant amounts of water. Magnitude of precipitation varies
with time and space.

Conditions for precipitation to form:

• The atmosphere must have moisture.

• There must be sufficient nuclei present to aid condensation.
• Weather conditions must be good for condensation of water vapour to take place.
• The products of condensation must reach the earth.

❖ Process of precipitation

• Precipitation is water in liquid or solid forms, falling to the earth.

• It always precedes condensation or sublimation or a combination of the two and is
primarily associated with raising air.
• In the same way that isotherms and isobars are used to show temperature and
pressure distribution respectively, isohyets indicate rainfall distribution.
• An isohyet is a line connecting points with equal values of rainfall.
• Change of state from water vapour to liquid water is
• When moist air comes in contact with cool surfaces, it may be cooled to the point
where its capacity to hold water vapour is exceeded by the actual amount in the
air.
• Part of the water vapour then condenses into liquid form on the cool surface,
produce dew.
• When this happens, the latent heat of vaporisation, in this process, called the
latent heat of condensation is released.
• At temperatures below freezing, water may bypass the liquid form in its change
of state.
• When dry air with a temperature well below freezing comes in contact with ice,
molecules of ice (H 2O) pass directly into the vapour state by the processes of
sublimation.
• Under proper weather conditions, water vapour condenses over nuclei to form
tiny water droplets of sizes less than 0.1 mm in dia.
• The nuclei are usually salt particles or products of combustion and are normally
available in plenty.
• Wind speed facilitates movement of clouds while its turbulence retains water
droplets in suspension.
• Precipitation results when water droplets come together and coalesce to form
larger drops that can drop down.
• Considerable part of this precipitation gets evaporated back to the atmosphere.

❖ Different forms of Precipitation

Rain

• Rain is any liquid that drops from the clouds in the sky.
• Rain is described as water droplets of 0.5 mm or larger.
• Droplets less than half a millimeter are defined as a drizzle.
• Raindrops frequently fall when small cloud particles strike and bind together,
creating bigger drops.
• As this process continues, the drops get bigger and bigger to an extent where
they become too heavy to suspend on the air.
• As a result, the gravity pulls then down to the earth.
• When high in the air, the raindrops start falling as ice crystals or snow but melt
when as they proceed down the earth through the warmer air.
• Rainfall rates vary from time to time, for example, light rain ranges from rates
of 0.01 to 0.1 inches per hour, moderate rain from 0.1 to .3 inches per hour, and
heavy rain above 0.3 inches per hour.
• Rain is the most common component of the water cycleand replenishes most of
the freshwater on the earth.
 Snow

• Snow occurs almost every time there is rain.

• However, snow often melts before it reaches the earth’s surface.
• It is precipitation in the form of virga or flakes of ice water falling from the
clouds.
• Snow is normally seen together with high, thin, and weak cirrus clouds.
• Snow can at times fall when the atmospheric temperatures are above freezing,
but it mostly occurs in sub-freezing air.
• When the temperatures are above freezing, the snowflakes can partially melt but
because of relatively warm temperatures, the evaporation of the particles occurs
almost immediately.
• This evaporation leads to cooling just around the snowflake and makes it to reach
to the ground as snow.
• Snow has a fluffy, white, and soft structure and its formation is in different
shapes and ways, namely flat plates, and thin needles.
• Each type of snow forms under specific combinations of atmospheric humidity
and temperatures. The process of snow precipitation is called

Sleet (Ice Pellets)

• Sleet takes place in freezing atmospheric conditions.

• Sleet, also known as ice pellets, form when snow falls into a warm layer then
melts into the rain and then the rain droplets fall into a freezing layer of air
that is cold enough to refreeze the raindrops into ice pellets.
• Hence, sleet is defined as a form of precipitation composed of small and semi
transparent balls of ice.
• They should not be confused with hailstones as they are smaller in size.
• Sleet is often experienced during thunderstorms and is normally accompanied by
frosty ice crystals that form white deposits and a mixture of semisolid rain and
slushy snow.
• Ice pellets (sleet) bounce when they hit the ground or any other solid objects
and fall with a hard striking sound.
• Sleet don does not freeze into a solid mass except when it combines with
freezing rain.
 Freezing Rain

• Freezing rain happens when rain falls during below freezing

conditions/temperatures. This normally results in the solidification of rain
droplets.
• The raindrops are super-cooled while passing through the sub-freezing layer in
the atmosphere and freezes by the time it reaches the ground.
• During freezing rains, it is common to witness an even coating of ice on cars,
streets, trees, and power lines.
• The resulting coating of ice is called glaze and it can build up to a thickness of
several centimeters.
• Freezing rains pose a huge threat to normal operations of roadway
transportation, aircraft, and power lines.

Hail

• Hailstones are big balls and irregular lumps of ice that fall from large
thunderstorms.
• Hail is purely solid precipitation.
• As opposed to sleets that can form in any weather when there are
thunderstorms, hailstones are predominately experienced in the winter or cold
weather.
• Hailstones are mostly made up of water ice and measure between 0.2 inches

(5 millimeters) and 6 inches (15 centimeters) in diameter.

• This ranges in size of a pea’s diameter to that larger than a grapefruit.

• For this reason, they are highly damaging to crops, tearing leaves apart and
reducing their value.
• Violent thunderstorms with very strong updrafts usually have the capability to
hold ice against the gravitational pull, which brings about the hailstones when
they eventually escape and fall to the ground.
• So, hailstones are formed from super-cooled droplets that slowly freeze and
result in a sheet of clear ice.
 Drizzle

• Drizzle is very light rain. It is stronger than mist but less than a shower.
• Mist is a thin fog with condensation near the ground.
• Fog is made up of ice crystals or cloud water droplets suspended in the air near
or at the earth’s surface.
• Drizzle droplets are smaller than 0.5 millimeters (0.02 inches) in diameter.
• They arise from low stratocumulus clouds.
• They sometimes evaporate even before reaching the ground due to their minute
size.
• Drizzle can be persistent is cold atmospheric temperatures.

Sun Shower

• Sun shower is a precipitation event that is registered when rain falls while the
sun shines.
• It occurs when the winds bearing rain together with rainstorms are blown several
miles away, thus giving rise to raindrops into an area without clouds.
• Consequently, a sun shower is formed when a single rain cloud passes above the
earth’s surface and the sun’s rays penetrate through the raindrops.
• Most of the time, it is accompanied by the appearance of a rainbow.

Snow Grains

• Snow grains are very small white and opaque grains of ice.
• Snow grains are fairly flat and have a diameter generally less than 1mm.
• They are almost equivalent to the size of drizzle.

Diamond Dust

• Diamond dust is extremely small ice crystals usually formed at low levels and at
temperatures below -30 °C.
• Diamond dust got its name from the sparkling effect which is created when light
reflects on the ice crystals in the air.
❖ Types of precipitation
1. Convectional rainfall
• The, air on being heated,
becomes light and rises up in
convection currents. As it
rises, it expands and loses
heat and consequently,
condensation takes place and
cumulous clouds are formed.
This process releases latent
heat of condensation which
further heats the air and
forces the air to go further
up.
• Convectional precipitation is heavy but of short duration, highly localised and is
associated with minimum amount of cloudiness. It occurs mainly during summer
and is common over equatorial doldrums in the Congo basin, the Amazon basin and
the islands of south-east Asia.

2. Orographic rainfall

• When the saturated air mass comes across a mountain, it is forced to ascend and
as it rises, it expands (because of fall in pressure); the temperature falls, and
the moisture is condensed.
• This type of precipitation occurs when warm, humid air strikes an orographic
barrier (a mountain range)
head on. Because of the initial
momentum, the air is forced
to rise. As the moisture laden
air gains height, condensation
sets in, and soon saturation is
reached. The surplus
moisture falls down as
orographic precipitation along
the windward slopes.
• The chief characteristic of
this sort of rain is that
the windward slopes receive greater rainfall. After giving rain on the windward
side, when these winds reach the other slope, they descend, and their
temperature rises. Then their capacity to take in moisture increases and hence,
 these leeward slopes remain rainless and dry. The area situated on the leeward
side, which gets less rainfall is known as the rain-shadow area (Some arid and
semi-arid regions are a direct consequence of rain -shadow effect.
Example: Patagonian desert in Argentina, Eastern slopes of Western Ghats ).
It is also known as the relief rain.
• Example: Mahabaleshwar, situated on the Western Ghats, receives more than
600 cm of rainfall, whereas Pune, lying in the rain shadow area, has only about 70
cm.
• The Wind Descending on the Leeward Side is heated adiabatically and is
called Katabatic Wind.

3. Frontal rainfall

• This type of rainfall

occurs along the zone
of contact between a
warm and cool air
mass.
• When two large air
masses of different
temperature meet,
the warmer and hence
lighter air is lifted
above the cooler air.
• Warm air then rises, cools and condenses to form rain.
• The boundary that separates cold air and warm air is called a front.

*Convectional *Frontal
❖ Distribution of Rainfall

• Different places on the earth’s surface receive different amounts of rainfall in a

year and that too in different seasons. In general, as we proceed from the
equator towards the poles, rainfall goes on decreasing steadily.
• The coastal areas of the world receive greater amounts of rainfall than the
interior of the continents. The rainfall is more over the oceans than on the
landmasses of the world because of being great sources of water.
• Between the latitudes 35° and 40° N and S of the equator, the rain is heavier on
the eastern coasts and goes on decreasing towards the west. But, between 45°
and 65° N and S of equator, due to the westerlies, the rainfall is first received
on the western margins of the continents and it goes on decreasing towards the
east.
• Wherever mountains run parallel to the coast, the rain is greater on the coastal
plain, on the windward side and it decreases towards the leeward side.

• On the basis of the total amount of annual precipitation, major precipitation

regimes of the world are identified as follows.
• The equatorial belt, the windward slopes of the mountains along the western
coasts in the cool temperate zone and the coastal areas of the monsoon land
receive heavy rainfall of over 200 cm per annum.
 • Interior continental areas receive moderate rainfall varying from 100 – 200 cm
per annum. The coastal areas of the continents receive moderate amount of
rainfall.
• The central parts of the tropical land and the eastern and interior parts of the
temperate lands receive rainfall varying between 50 – 100 cm per annum.
• Areas lying in the rain shadow zone of the interior of the continents and high
latitudes receive very low rainfall – less than 50 cm per annum.
• Seasonal distribution of rainfall provides an important aspect to judge its
effectiveness. In some regions rainfall is distributed evenly throughout the year
such as in the equatorial belt and in the western parts of cool temperate regions.

Ankit :- yaar meri GF har hafte shopping karne chali jaati jaati uska saara bill mujhe bharna parta hai
mai kya karun ? kuch solution hai iska ?

Meanwhile , Ayush :-
2.6 Atmospheric stability and Instability
▪ Atmospheric Stability

An atmosphere is considered stable when

changes in temperature, pressure, and
wind occur gradually with height. When
air parcels are displaced slightly upwards
or downwards, they tend to return to
their initial position. In stable
atmospheres, convection and strong
vertical air movements are limited. When
the air in the atmosphere is stable, it
resists vertical movement. It leads to
calm and predictable weather conditions.

❖ Types of Atmospheric Stability

There are three main types of atmospheric stability:

1. Absolutely Stable
In this scenario, the environmental lapse rate is smaller than both the dry and moist
adiabatic rates. This results in no vertical movement of air parcels. This leads to clear
skies and little chance of convective activity.

2. Absolutely Unstable
This is when the environmental lapse rate exceeds both the dry and moist adiabatic
rates. Here, the atmosphere becomes absolutely unstable. This condition encourages
significant vertical motion, cloud formation, and the likelihood of thunderstorms.

3. Conditionally Unstable
Here, the environmental lapse rate falls between the dry and moist adiabatic rates. The
atmosphere is conditionally unstable. This means it can become unstable if moist air is
lifted to its condensation level.
 ❖ Factors Affecting Atmospheric Stability
Several factors influence the stability of the atmosphere:

i. Temperature
How quickly temperature decreases with height determines stability. A slower lapse
rate results in a stable atmosphere. A faster lapse rate makes the atmosphere
unstable.

ii. Wind Speed and Direction

Winds that change quickly with height cause unstable conditions. Strong vertical wind
shear also promotes instability.

iii. Moisture
Higher moisture levels in the lower atmosphere promote instability by enabling
convection. Dry air stabilizes the atmosphere.

iv. Altitude
The atmosphere is generally more stable at higher altitudes. This is due to reduced
convection and mixing. The boundary layer near the surface is often unstable.
 v. Environmental Lapse Rate
This refers to the actual rate at which the temperature changes with altitude in the
atmosphere. When the environmental lapse rate is steeper than the adiabatic rate,
instability is likely to occur.

vi. Air Mass Characteristics

The properties of the air mass, such as its temperature and moisture content, influence
atmospheric stability. For instance, a warm and moist air mass is more prone to
instability than a cool and dry one.

❖ Determining Atmospheric Stability

Atmospheric stability is primarily determined by the vertical temperature profile. It is
the variation in temperature with altitude. In a stable atmosphere, the temperature
decreases with increasing altitude, forming a positive temperature gradient. This means
an air parcel cooler than its surroundings will be denser. It will tend to sink back down
to its original position. Conversely, an air parcel that is warmer than its surroundings
will be less dense and tend to rise.

There are two main methods for determining atmospheric stability:

a) Comparing environmental and parcel temperatures
This method involves comparing the temperature of an air parcel to the temperature of
the surrounding air at the same altitude. If the parcel is cooler than the surrounding
air, it is considered denser and will tend to sink. If the parcel is warmer than the
surrounding air, it is considered less dense and will tend to rise.

b) Comparing potential and environmental lapse rates

This method involves comparing the potential and environmental lapse rates. The
potential lapse rate is the rate at which an unsaturated air parcel cools as it rises. The
environmental lapse rate is the actual rate at which the temperature decreases with
altitude. If the environmental lapse rate is less than the potential lapse rate, the
atmosphere is considered stable. If the environmental lapse rate is greater than the
potential lapse rate, the atmosphere is considered unstable.
 ❖ Local Indicators of Atmospheric Stability
There are several local indicators that can be used to assess atmospheric stability:

i. Smoke plume behaviour

In a stable atmosphere, smoke plumes tend to rise slowly and then remain horizontal,
forming a "stack" or "flag" pattern. In an unstable atmosphere, smoke plumes tend to
rise quickly and disperse rapidly. They form a "mushroom" or "convective" pattern.

ii. Cloud formation

In a stable atmosphere, clouds tend to be low-lying and stratiform, such as stratus or

fog. In an unstable atmosphere, clouds tend to be more vertical and cumuliform, such as
cumulus or cumulonimbus.

iii. Wind speed and direction

In a stable atmosphere, wind speeds tend to be light and variable. In an unstable

atmosphere, wind speeds tend to be stronger and more consistent, particularly at
higher altitudes.

iv. Haze and visibility

In a stable atmosphere, haze and visibility tend to be poor due to the accumulation of
pollutants and moisture near the ground. In an unstable atmosphere, haze and visibility
tend to be better due to the mixing and dispersion of pollutants and moisture
throughout the atmosphere.

❖ Effect of Stable Atmosphere

A stable atmosphere refers to a condition in which the Earth's atmosphere discourages
vertical motion. Here are some notable effects of a stable atmosphere:

1. Drizzle: In a stable air mass, drizzle can occur. It is often associated with low-
level clouds and misty conditions. The stable nature of the atmosphere prevents
the development of larger raindrops.

2. Fog: Stable conditions are conducive to the formation of fog. Fog occurs when
the air near the surface becomes saturated with moisture. This leads to the
condensation of water vapor into tiny water droplets. Stable air prevents
vertical mixing, allowing fog to persist for extended periods.
3. Air Pollution Trapping: Stable atmospheric conditions can lead to the trapping
of air pollutants near the surface. Without vertical mixing, pollutants emitted
from various sources can accumulate and linger in the lower levels of the
atmosphere. This can result in poor air quality and health concerns.

4. Lack of Turbulence: In a stable atmosphere, the absence of significant vertical

motion leads to a lack of turbulence. Without turbulence, the air remains
relatively calm and stable.

5. Undular Bore Formation: This phenomenon happens when a layer of cold, stable
air is approached by a low-level boundary, such as a cold front. The interaction
between the boundary and the stable air creates wave-like motions known as
undular bores. These appear as bands of clouds across the sky.
 ▪ Atmospheric instability
• An unstable atmosphere is characterized by rapid changes in temperature, pressure,
and wind with height. When air parcels are displaced vertically, they tend to move
further away from their initial position. In unstable atmospheres, strong convection and
vigorous vertical air movements occur.
• Atmospheric instability can trigger the development of clouds, precipitation, and
storms.
• Atmospheric instability often results in the development of severe weather events.
Some of the notable phenomena associated with instability include:
I. Thunderstorms
II. Tornadoes
III. Convective Clouds

❖ Signs of Atmospheric Instability

Several phenomena indicate unstable atmospheric conditions:
✓ Formation of Cumulus clouds due to strong vertical convection.
✓ Cumulonimbus clouds and thunderstorms.
✓ Turbulence encountered by aircraft.
✓ Rapid changes in weather conditions over short time periods.
✓ Higher variability in temperature, pressure, and wind speed.
✓ Formation of fog, haze, and low-level clouds.

❖ Effect of Unstable Atmosphere

An unstable atmosphere refers to a condition in which the Earth's atmosphere is prone to

vertical motion and instability. Here are some effects of an unstable atmosphere:

Thunderstorm Development: Unstable atmospheric conditions are favourable for the

development of thunderstorms. When the air is unstable, air parcels can rise freely, leading to
the formation of towering cumulonimbus clouds.

Tropical Cyclogenesis: Over warm ocean waters, atmospheric instability can contribute to the
formation of tropical cyclones. The convergence of moist, unstable air masses can provide the
energy for the development of these powerful storms.

Turbulence: Unstable atmospheric conditions can result in increased turbulence.

Dust Devils: In dry atmospheres, unstable conditions can give rise to the formation of dust
devils. Dust devils are small whirlwinds characterized by rotating columns of dust or debris.

Convective Available Potential Energy (CAPE): Unstable conditions are often associated with
high values of CAPE. CAPE is a measure of the energy available for convection in the
atmosphere.

❖ Types of Atmospheric instability

1. Conditional Instability: As mentioned earlier, conditional instability occurs when an
air parcel is stable when lifted adiabatically but becomes unstable with the addition of
moisture. This type of instability is often associated with convective weather events
like thunderstorms.

2. Absolute Instability: Absolute instability occurs when an air parcel is inherently

unstable and will rise on its own accord without any external influence. It is more
common in regions with significant temperature differences and high moisture content,
leading to the development of convective clouds and severe weather phenomena.

3. Convective Instability: Convective instability refers to the potential for convective

storms to develop due to atmospheric conditions that promote vertical motion and the
rapid uplift of warm, moist air. This type of instability is crucial for the formation of
thunderstorms and other convective weather events.
 4. Dynamic Instability: Dynamic instability occurs when the atmosphere's vertical
motion is driven by large-scale weather systems or processes, such as fronts, low-
pressure systems, or jet streams. These dynamic factors can contribute to atmospheric
instability and the development of severe weather events.

5. Thermodynamic Instability: Thermodynamic instability refers to the potential for

air parcels to rise or sink due to differences in temperature, pressure, and density
within the atmosphere. This type of instability can lead to the formation of clouds,
precipitation, and severe weather phenomena when combined with other atmospheric
factors.

Pihu :- Ayush tujhe breakup kyu karna hai ? kya mai acchi nhi lagti tumhe? 🥺
Meanwhile Ayush :-
 UNIT – 3
Atmospheric disturbances
3.1 Introduction
➢ Atmospheric disturbance refers to the phenomenon which includes a closed circulation
of air around a low pressure which is created at the centre and a high pressure that is
created at the periphery.
➢ The air rotates anticlockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern
hemisphere. This circulation of air with lower pressure in the centre and higher
pressure in the periphery is called a cyclone.

3.2 Tropical cyclones

➢ Cyclones are rapid inward air circulation around a low-
pressure area. The air circulates in an anticlockwise
direction in the Northern hemisphere and clockwise in
the Southern hemisphere.
➢ Cyclones are usually accompanied by violent storms and
bad weather.
➢ The word Cyclone is derived from the Greek word
Cyclos meaning the coils of a snake. It was coined by
Henry Peddington because the tropical storms in the
Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea appear like coiled
serpents of the sea.

❖ Classification
There are two types of cyclones:

i. Tropical cyclones; and

ii. Extra Tropical cyclones (also called Temperate cyclones or middle latitude cyclones
or Frontal cyclones or Wave Cyclones).

The World Meteorological Organisation uses the term 'Tropical Cyclone’ to cover
weather systems in which winds exceed ‘Gale Force’ (minimum of 63 km per hour).

Tropical cyclones develop in the region between the Tropics of Capricorn and
Cancer. They are large-scale weather systems developing over tropical or
subtropical waters, where they get organized into surface wind circulation.
Extra tropical cyclones occur in temperate zones and high latitude regions, though
they are known to originate in the Polar Regions.
❖ Anticyclones

❖ Characteristics

Tropical cyclones are violent storms that originate over oceans in tropical areas
and move over to the coastal areas bringing about large scale destruction caused
by violent winds, very heavy rainfall and storm surges.

Tropical Cyclones are one of the most devastating natural calamities in the world.

Tropical cyclones originate and intensify over warm tropical oceans. The conditions
favourable for the formation and intensification of tropical storms are:

✓ Large sea surface with temperature higher than 27° C.

✓ Presence of the Coriolis force.

✓ Small variations in the vertical wind speed.

✓ A pre-existing weak low- pressure area or low-level-cyclonic circulation.

✓ Upper divergence above the sea level system.

 ❖ Mechanism / Formation

The development cycle of tropical cyclones may be divided into three stages:

Formation and Initial Development Stage

▪ The formation and initial development of a cyclonic storm depends upon the
transfer of water vapour and heat from the warm ocean to the overlying air,
primarily by evaporation from the sea surface.

▪ It encourages formation of massive vertical cumulus clouds due to convection with

condensation of rising air above the ocean surface.

Mature Stage

▪ When a tropical storm intensifies, the air rises in vigorous thunderstorms and
tends to spread out horizontally at the tropopause level. Once air spreads out, a
positive pressure at high levels is produced, which accelerates the downward
motion of air due to convection.

▪ With the inducement of subsidence, air warms up by compression and a warm ‘Eye’
(Low pressure centre) is generated. The main physical feature of a mature tropical
cyclone in the Indian Ocean is a concentric pattern of highly turbulent giant
cumulus thundercloud bands.

Modification and Decay

▪ A tropical cyclone begins to weaken in terms of its central low pressure, internal
warmth and extremely high speeds, as soon as its source of warm moist air begins
to ebb or is abruptly cut off.

▪ This happens after its landfall or when it passes over cold waters.
 ❖ Structure

1. Eye:
▪ The “eye” is a roughly circular area at the center of a severe tropical cyclone
characterized by mild winds and favourable weather conditions.
▪ In the eye, there is minimal to no precipitation, and occasional sightings of blue sky or
stars are possible.
▪ It has the lowest surface pressure and the warmest temperatures aloft. The eye’s
temperature can be 10°C or more warmer than the surrounding environment at a height
of 12 km, with only 0-2°C warmer temperatures near the surface.
▪ Eyes vary in size, ranging from 8 kilometers to over 200 kilometers, with the majority
falling between 30 and 60 kilometers in diameter.
2. Eyewall:
▪ The “eyewall” is a circular ring of deep convection that surrounds the eye and harbors
the strongest surface winds in the tropical cyclone.
▪ It consists of numerous moderate to powerful updrafts and downdrafts, contributing to
the heated temperatures of the eye.
▪ The eyewall region has the greatest sustained winds, representing the fastest winds in
the cyclone.
▪ Sinking air is prevalent in the eye, while the eyewall experiences a net upward flow.
▪ Soundings within the eye typically reveal a low-level moist layer with an inversion
above.
▪ Sinking in the eye may not reach the ocean surface but extends to a depth of 1-3
kilometers.
3. Spiral Bands:
▪ Eyewall convection plays a role in the formation and maintenance of the eye, and spiral
bands are associated features of tropical cyclones.
▪ Spiral bands are long, thin rain bands that face the same direction as the horizontal
wind and appear to spiral into the storm’s core.
▪ These bands contribute to low-level convergence and upper-level divergence, forming a
direct circulation pattern.
▪ Convergence at the surface, upward motion through the bands, upper-level divergence,
and descending air on both sides create a dynamic circulation pattern.
▪ Adiabatic warming occurs
as the air cools, leading to
a significant pressure drop
across the bands and
strengthening tangential
winds around the cyclone.
4. Vertical Structure:
▪ The vertical structure of a tropical cyclone is
divided into three layers:
▪ Inflow Layer (Up to 3 km): Crucial for storm
generation.
▪ Cyclonic Storm Layer (3 km to 7 km): Main region
for cyclonic activity.
▪ Outflow Layer (Above 7 km): Features anticyclonic
air movement, with the highest outflow observed
at 12 kilometers and above.

❖ Nomenclature

▪ The naming of tropical cyclones is a recent phenomenon. The process of naming

cyclones involves several countries in the region and is done under the aegis of the
World Meteorological Organization (WMO).

▪ For the Indian Ocean region, a formula for naming cyclones was agreed upon in 2004.
Eight countries in the region - Bangladesh, India, Maldives, Myanmar, Oman, Pakistan,
Sri Lanka and Thailand - all contributed a set of names which are assigned sequentially
whenever a cyclonic storm develops.

▪ Hudhud, Titli, Phethai, Fani, Vayu and Amphan are among the names of cyclones in the
Indian Ocean region.

Worldwide Terminology of Tropical Cyclones

▪ They are given many names in different regions of the world – eg.they are known
as Typhoons in the China Sea and Pacific Ocean; Hurricanes in the West Indian
islands in the Caribbean Sea and Atlantic Ocean; Tornados in the Guinea lands of
West Africa and southern USA.; Willy-willies in north-western Australia and Tropical
Cyclones in the Indian Ocean.
❖ Cyclones in India

▪ Tropical cyclones originate over the Bay of Bengal, Arabian Sea and the Indian
ocean. These tropical cyclones have very high wind velocity and heavy rainfall and
hit the Indian Coastal states of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Odisha
and Gujarat (These five states are more vulnerable to cyclone disasters than
others in India).

▪ Most of these cyclones are very destructive due to high wind velocity and
torrential rain that accompanies it.

▪ There are three elements associated with cyclones which cause destruction during
its occurrence. These are-

Strong Winds/Squall: It damages installations, dwellings, communications systems,

trees etc., resulting in loss of life and property.
Torrential rains and inland flooding: Rain is a serious problem for the people who
become shelter less due to the cyclone. Heavy rainfall is usually spread over a wide
area and causes large scale soil erosion and weakening of embankments.
Storm Surge: It is an abnormal rise of sea level near the coast caused by a severe
tropical cyclone. Due to storm surge sea water inundates low lying areas of coastal
regions drowning human beings and livestock, causes eroding beaches and
embankments, destroys vegetation and leads to reduction of soil fertility.
3.3 Temperate / Extratropical cyclones
▪ Extratropical cyclones are referred to as mid-latitude depressions, temperate
cyclones, frontal depressions and wave cyclones.

▪ These are active above the mid-latitudinal region between 35° and 65°
latitude in both the hemispheres. The direction of movement is from west to
east and more pronounced in the winter seasons. It is in these latitude zones the
polar and tropical air masses meet and form fronts.

❖ Polar Front Theory

• The origin and development of temperate cyclones is best explained by the Polar
Front theory.
• According to this theory, the warm-humid air masses from the tropics meet the dry-
cold air masses from the poles and thus a polar front is formed.
• The cold air mass is denser and heavier and due to this reason, warm air mass is
pushed up.
• This interaction of cold and warm air masses creates instability and a low pressure is
created at the junction particularly in the center of interactions.
• Thus, a void is created because of lessening of pressure. The surrounding air rushed in
to occupy this void and coupled with the earth’s rotation a cyclone is formed.
• Extratropical cyclones present a contrast to the more violent cyclones or hurricanes
of the tropics, which form in regions of relatively uniform temperatures.

Air Mass

▪ Air Mass is an extremely large body of air whose properties of temperature and
moisture content (humidity), at any given altitude, are fairly similar.

▪ It can cover hundreds of thousands of square miles of area.

▪ It may have only a little horizontal variation in temperature and moisture throughout
the air mass.

▪ When an air mass remains over a homogenous area for a sufficiently longer time, it
acquires the characteristics of the area. The homogenous regions can be the vast
ocean surface or vast plains.
Fronts

▪ When two different air masses (having distinctly different properties) meet, the
boundary zone between them is called a front.

▪ There are four types of fronts:

o Stationary front: When the front remains stationary, it is called a

stationary front.

o Cold front: When the cold air moves towards the warm air mass, its
contact zone is called the cold front,

o Warm front: If the warm air mass moves towards the cold air mass,
the contact zone is a warm front.

o Occluded front: If an air mass is fully lifted above the land surface,
it is called the occluded front.

▪ The fronts occur in middle latitudes and are characterised by steep gradient in
temperature and pressure. They bring abrupt changes in temperature and cause
the air to rise to form clouds and cause precipitation.
❖ Development

• The development of temperate cyclones can be studied in five stages namely

1. Stage I: Stationary/ Beginning

2. Stage II: Beginning of Young Adult
3. Stage III: Mature
4. Stage IV: Occlusion
5. Stage V: Dissipation

Development of Temperate Cyclones

• Warm air blows from the south and cold air from the north of the front in the northern
hemisphere.
• When the pressure drops along the front, warm air goes north and cold air moves south,
causing an anticlockwise cyclonic circulation to form (northern hemisphere). The Coriolis
Force is to blame for this.
• A well-developed extratropical cyclone with a warm front and a cold front results from
the cyclonic circulation.
• Between the forward and rear cold air or cold sectors, there are pockets of warm air
or warm sectors.

• Warm air glides over cold air, causing precipitation as a series of clouds form across
the sky ahead of the warm front.
• The warm air is pushed up by the cold front as it approaches from behind. Cumulus
clouds form along the cold front as a result.
• The cold front advances quicker than the warm front and eventually overtakes it.
• The cyclone evaporates once the warm air is completely pushed up and the front is
occluded (occluded front).
• Wind circulation activities at the surface and aloft are intricately interrelated.
• As a result, the temperate cyclone has a lot of frontogenesis going on, mostly with
occlusion type fronts.
• Individual frontal cyclones usually last 3 to 10 days and move in a west to east path.
• The orientation of the polar jet stream in the upper troposphere controls the precise
movement of this weather phenomenon.

*Stage 4 : Occlusion
❖ Seasonal Occurrence of Temperate Cyclones

• Temperate cyclones are most common in the winter, late autumn, and early spring.
Rainstorms and overcast weather are commonly connected with them.
• During the summer, all temperate cyclone routes travel northwards.
• There are few temperate cyclones over the subtropics and warm temperate zone,
despite a large concentration of storms over the Bering Strait, the United States, and
the Russian Arctic and sub-Arctic zones.

❖ Distribution of Temperate Cyclones

• Temperate cyclones form in the world's mid-latitude regions, as previously stated.

• This region is also referred to as extra-tropical (beyond tropical).
• Temperate cyclones are mostly found between 35and 65 degrees north and south
latitude.
• Their traces have been discovered beyond 65 degrees latitude in both hemispheres.
• The prevalence and distribution of temperate cyclones reveal a well defined zone over
the globe's map.
• Temperate cyclones can be found practically all year round, with some seasonal changes.
• However, they are more common in the winter since there is a higher temperature
disparity.
• As a result, winter is the best time for temperate cyclones to form, and their
frequency is also higher.

Distribution of Temperate Cyclones

 ❖ Structure of Temperate Cyclones

• The cold sector is in the north-west, whereas the warm sector is in the north-east
(Because cold air masses in the north and warm air masses in the south push against
each other and rotate anti-clockwise in the northern hemisphere).

❖ Characteristics of Temperate Cyclones

1. Size and Shape:

• The temperate cyclones are asymmetrical and inverted 'V-shaped.

• They cover a distance of 500 to 600 kilometres.
• They may cover a distance of 2500 kilometres throughout North America (Polar
Vortex).They range in height from 8 to 11 kilometres.

2. Wind Velocity And Strength:

• Winds are stronger in the eastern and southern parts of the country, and in North
America than in Europe.
• The wind speed increases as the storm approaches, but drops as it passes.

3. Orientation And Movement:

• In temperate cyclogenesis, the jet stream is quite important.

• Temperate cyclones are similarly influenced by jet streams.
• These cyclones are orientated east-west because they move with the westerlies (Jet
Streams).
• If the storm front is moving east-west, the centre will travel east quickly.
• The centre moves northwards if the storm front is oriented northwards, but the
pressure difference decreases after two or three days, and the cyclone evaporates.
• If the storm front is directed south, the core of the storm moves fairly far south,
even up to the Mediterranean region .

❖ Associated Weather

• A temperate cyclone's arrival is signalled by a drop in temperature, a drop in mercury

level, wind shifts, a halo around the sun and moon, and a thin layer of cirrus clouds.
• A little drizzle follows, eventually turning into a torrential downpour.
• The approach of the warm front, which halts the fall in mercury levels and raises the
temperature, changes these conditions.
• Rainfall ends and clear weather reigns until an anticyclonic cold front comes, bringing
with it a drop in temperature, cloudiness, and rain with thunder.
• After that, the weather becomes clear once more.
• When temperate cyclones move slowly and there is a significant difference in rainfall
and temperature between the front and back of the cyclone, more rain falls.
• Anticyclones are usually accompanied by these cyclones.
 ❖ Management of Cyclones
There are numerous structural and non-structural methods that can be used to effectively
handle cyclone disasters.

1. Structural Methods: Construction of cyclone shelters, cyclone-resistant buildings, road

links, culverts, bridges, canals, drains, saline embankments, surface water tanks,
communication and power transmission networks, and other structural measures are
among the structural measures.
2. Non-Structural Methods: The measures such as early warning dissemination systems,
coastal zone management, catastrophe risk management, and capacity building of all
players are involved in this type.

Under the National Cyclone Risk Mitigation Project (NCRMP), which is being implemented
with World Bank assistance, these measures are being adopted and addressed on a state-by-
state basis.

❖ Significance of Temperate Cyclones

• Temperate cyclones bring rain to most of North and North-western India, filling the
void left by the South West monsoon.
• Temperate cyclones are extremely important in agriculture.
• Because of the Temperate cyclones, most Rabi crops, especially wheat, in North and
North-western India produce superior results.
• They also play an important role in meeting water demands for human consumption .

❖ Western Disturbance
• Western Disturbance is a common weather phenomena in India. A western
disturbance is an extratropical cyclone originating in the Mediterranean region that
brings sudden winter rain to the northwestern parts of the Indian subcontinent.

• They are the cause of the most winter and pre-monsoon season rainfall across North-
West India (such as Punjab, Haryana, Delhi and western Uttar Pradesh). This
phenomenon is usually associated with cloudy sky, higher night temperatures and
unusual rain.

• This precipitation during the winter season has great importance in agriculture
particularly for rabi crops including wheat. It is estimated that India gets close to

5-10% of its total annual rainfall from western disturbances.

3.4 Conclusion
• Cyclones play a crucial role in transferring heat and energy from tropical to temperate
latitudes.
• This characteristic makes them a vital element in the overall global atmospheric
circulation system.
• Cyclones aid in replenishing aquifers, maintaining balanced ocean temperatures, and
facilitating the transportation of nutrients into the sea by augmenting the flow of
rivers and streams that carry sediment and other material.

Jab koi sundar ladki dikhe Par pata chale ki wo aapke friend ki GF hai
 UNIT – 4
Monsoon

4.1 Introduction
➢ A monsoon is traditionally a seasonal reversing wind accompanied by corresponding
changes in precipitation but is now used to describe seasonal changes
in atmospheric circulation and precipitation associated with annual latitudinal oscillation
of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) between its limits to the north and south
of the equator.
➢ Usually, the term monsoon is used to refer to the rainy phase of a seasonally changing
pattern, although technically there is also a dry phase. The term is also sometimes used
to describe locally heavy but short-term rains.

4.2 Mechanism of Monsoon

The mechanism of the monsoon is a
complex interplay of various factors,
including differential heating, the
presence of the Intertropical
Convergence Zone (ITCZ), the seasonal
shift in pressure systems, and the
influence of large-scale wind patterns.
Here is a simplified explanation of the
mechanism of the monsoon:

1. Differential Heating: One of the primary drivers of the monsoon is the

differential heating between land and ocean. During the summer months, land
surfaces heat up more quickly than oceans due to their lower heat capacity. This
temperature difference creates a pressure gradient between the land and sea,
leading to the formation of low-pressure systems over the warmer landmass.

2. Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ): The Intertropical Convergence Zone is a

region near the equator where trade winds from the Northern and Southern
Hemispheres converge. The ITCZ shifts northward during the Northern
Hemisphere summer and southward during the Southern Hemisphere summer,
following the seasonal migration of the Sun. This movement of the ITCZ influences
the monsoon circulation patterns.
3. Seasonal Shift in Pressure Systems: As the land heats up during the summer
months, a low-pressure system forms over the landmass. This low-pressure area
draws in moist air from the surrounding oceans, leading to the development of
strong winds carrying moisture inland. These winds bring abundant rainfall to the
region, marking the onset of the monsoon season.

4. Large-Scale Wind Patterns: The monsoon circulation is influenced by large-scale

wind patterns, such as the subtropical jet streams and the presence of high-
pressure systems like the Bermuda High and the Tibetan High. These wind patterns
help steer and intensify the monsoon flow, affecting the distribution and intensity
of rainfall across different regions.

5. Feedback Mechanisms: The monsoon system is also influenced by various feedback

mechanisms, such as cloud cover, evapotranspiration, and ocean-atmosphere
interactions. These feedback processes can amplify or dampen the monsoon rainfall,
leading to variations in precipitation patterns from year to year.

Overall, the mechanism of the monsoon involves a complex interaction of atmospheric,

oceanic, and land surface processes that create seasonal changes in rainfall patterns
and weather conditions across affected regions.
4.3 Global teleconnections in relation to monsoon in India
➢ The Northern hemispheric circum global teleconnection (CGT) pattern is thought to be
maintained by two main forcings—viz-diabatic heating associated with the Indian summer
monsoon (ISM) and barotropic instability generation over the jet exit region over the
North Atlantic. The CGT and ISM impacts one another through the circulation responses
over West central Asia (WCA).
➢ In this study we revisit the CGT-ISM interactions focusing on the WCA region and try to
understand whether the downstream impact of CGT on ISM dominates over the ISM
feedback on CGT. Analysis indicates that the Atlantic forced CGT responses play a lead
role in modulating the ISM in the interannual timescale, by modulating the upper-level
anticyclones over WCA and in turn affecting the ISM easterly vertical wind shear.
➢ Atlantic multi-decadal oscillation (AMO) is a major driver of ISM variability in the multi-
decadal time scale and the AMO is associated with an arching wave-train of
teleconnection across Eurasia.
➢ Our analysis indicates significant modulation of WCA anomalies by the AMO in the multi-
decadal time scale, implying that the Atlantic-CGT-WCA-ISM pathway of teleconnection
has a low frequency counterpart.
➢ We further demonstrate that the observed out of phase relationship between AMO and
ISM in the recent decades, may be attributed to the relatively stronger high latitude
warming over the north Atlantic during the recent AMO warm phase.
➢ The equivalent barotropic responses to the extra-tropical north Atlantic sea surface
temperature (SST) anomalies alter the entire downstream teleconnection pattern
producing cyclonic anomalies over WCA and in turn weakening the ISM.

*Indian Monsoon
4.4 ENSO
➢ El Niño and La Niña are opposite phases of what is known as the El Niño-Southern
Oscillation (ENSO) cycle. The ENSO is a recurring climatic pattern involving temperature
changes in the waters of the eastern and central tropical Pacific Ocean, and changes in
the patterns of upper and lower-level winds, sea level pressure, and tropical rainfall
across the Pacific Basin.
➢ El Nino is often called the warm phase and La Nina is called the cold phase of ENSO.
These deviations from the normal surface temperatures can have a large-scale impact on
the global weather conditions and overall climate.

El Nino

▪ El Nino means ‘little boy’ or ‘Christ child’ in Spanish. The phenomenon was thus named
because it was first recognised by South American fishermen in the early part of the
17th century. The events, i.e., warm waters in the Pacific Ocean, tended to occur in
December, hence, the name was chosen.

▪ El Nino refers to the large-scale ocean-atmosphere climate interaction linked to

periodic warming in sea surface temperatures across the central and east-central
Equatorial Pacific. It is associated with high pressure in the western Pacific. El Nino
adversely impacts the Indian monsoons and hence, agriculture in India.

❖ How El Nino affects India

In a normal monsoon year (without El Nino), the pressure distribution is as follows:

1. The coast of Peru in South America has a higher pressure than the region near northern
Australia and South East Asia.
2. The Indian Ocean is warmer than the adjoining oceans and so, has relatively lower pressure.
Hence, moisture-laden winds move from near the western Pacific to the Indian Ocean.
3. The pressure on the landmass of India is lower than on the Indian Ocean, and so, the
moisture-laden winds move further from the ocean to the lands.

If this normal pressure distribution is affected for some reason, the monsoons are
affected.
 ❖ What happens because of El Nino?

The cool surface water off the Peruvian coast goes warm because of El Nino. When
the water is warm, the normal trade winds get lost or reverse their direction. Hence,
the flow of moisture-laden winds is directed towards the coast of Peru from the
western Pacific (the region near northern Australia and South East Asia). This causes
heavy rains in Peru during the El Nino years robbing the Indian subcontinent of its
normal monsoon rains. The larger the temperature and pressure difference, the larger
the rainfall shortage in India.

La Nina

▪ La Nina means ‘little girl’ in Spanish and is also known as El Viejo or ‘cold event’.
Here, the water temperature in the Eastern Pacific gets colder than normal. As
a result of this, there is a strong high pressure over the eastern equatorial
Pacific. Now, there is low pressure in the Western Pacific and off Asia. La Nina
causes drought in Peru and Ecuador, heavy floods in Australia, high
temperatures in Western Pacific, Indian Ocean, off the Somalian coast and good
monsoon rains in India. A La Nina is actually beneficial for the Indian monsoon.

▪ Generally, El Nino and La Nina occur every 4 – 5 years. El Nino is more frequent
than La Nina. Typically, the episodes last for nine to twelve months.

❖ El Nino and La Nina Effects on India

Since 1950, out of the 13 droughts that India faced, 10 have been during El Nino years
and one in a La Nina year. This is because in general, an El Nino means lesser than
average rains for India. Indian agriculture is heavily dependent on the monsoons and
because of this, lesser rainfall during the monsoons generally translates to below-
average crop yields.
4.5 Indian Ocean dipole effect
❖ What is the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)?
IOD or Indian Nino:
• IOD, sometimes referred to as the Indian Nino, is similar to the
El Nino phenomenon, occurring in the relatively smaller area of the Indian Ocean
between the Indonesian and Malaysian coastline in the east and the African coastline
near Somalia in the west.
• The El Nino is the warmer-than-normal phase of the El Nino Southern Oscillation
(ENSO) phenomenon, during which there are generally warmer temperatures and
less rainfall than normal in many regions of the world, including India.
• One side of the ocean, along the equator, gets warmer than the other.
• IOD is said to be positive when the western side of the Indian Ocean, near
the Somalia coast, becomes warmer than the eastern Indian Ocean.
• It is negative when the western Indian Ocean is cooler.

Mechanism:
• Negative IOD:
✓ The air circulation in the Indian Ocean basin moves from west to east, that is from
the African coast towards the Indonesian islands, near the surface, and in the
opposite direction at the upper levels. That means the surface waters in the Indian
Ocean get pushed from west to east.
✓ In a normal year, warmer waters in the western Pacific near Indonesia cross over
into the Indian Ocean and make that part of the Indian Ocean slightly warmer.
That causes the air to rise and helps the prevailing air circulation.
✓ In the years when the air circulation becomes stronger, more warm surface
waters from the African coast are pushed towards the Indonesian islands, making
that region warmer than usual. This causes hotter air to rise, and the cycle
reinforces itself.
✓ This is the state of negative IOD.
 ▪ Positive IOD:

✓ Air circulation becomes slightly weaker than normal. In some rare cases, the air
circulation even reverses direction. The consequence is that the African
coast becomes warmer while the Indonesian coastline gets cooler.
✓ A positive IOD event is often seen developing at times of an El Nino, while a
negative IOD is sometimes associated with La Nina.
✓ During El Nino, the Pacific side of Indonesia is cooler than normal because of which
the Indian Ocean side also gets cooler. That helps the development of a positive
IOD.

❖ Impact of IOD:

• In the Indian Ocean, IOD exhibits an ocean-atmosphere interaction that closely

resembles the fluctuations observed during El Niño events in the Pacific
Ocean. However, the IOD is considerably less powerful compared to El Niño,
resulting in relatively minimal impacts.
• A positive IOD helps rainfall along the African coastline and also over the Indian
sub-continent while suppressing rainfall over Indonesia, southeast Asia and
Australia. The impacts are opposite during a negative IOD event.

❖ Past Events:

• In 2019 the IOD event developed during the late monsoon but was so strong that it
compensated for the deficit rainfall during the first month of the monsoon season
(June had 30% deficiency that year).
• The deficit in June that year was also attributed to a developing El Nino but
that fizzled out later.
4.6 Monsoon in India
➢ Generally, across the world, the monsoons are experienced in the tropical area roughly
between 20° N and 20° S.
➢ The climate of India is described as the ‘monsoon’ type. In Asia, this type of climate is
found mainly in the south and the southeast.
➢ Out of a total of 4 seasonal divisions of India, monsoon occupy 2 divisions, namely.
▪ The southwest monsoon season - Rainfall received from the southwest monsoons is
seasonal in character, which occurs between June and September.
▪ The retreating monsoon season - The months of October and November are known
for retreating monsoons.

❖ Factors Influencing South-West Monsoon Formation

▪ The differential heating and cooling of land and water creates a low pressure on
the landmass of India while the seas around experience comparatively high pressure.
▪ The shift of the position of Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) in summer,
over the Ganga plain (this is the equatorial trough normally positioned about 5°N of
the equator. It is also known as the monsoon-trough during the monsoon season).

Inter Tropical Convergence Zone

The Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ,) is a broad trough of low pressure in
equatorial latitudes. This is where the northeast and the southeast trade winds
converge. This convergence zone lies more or less parallel to the equator but
moves north or south with the apparent movement of the sun.
▪ The presence of the high-pressure area, east of Madagascar, approximately at
20°S over the Indian Ocean. The intensity and position of this high-pressure area
affect the Indian Monsoon.

▪ The Tibetan plateau gets intensely heated during summer, which results in strong
vertical air currents and the formation of low pressure over the plateau at about 9
km above sea level.

▪ The movement of the westerly jet stream to the north of the Himalayas and the
presence of the tropical easterly jet stream over the Indian peninsula during
summer.

▪ Tropical Easterly Jet (African Easterly Jet).

▪ Southern Oscillation (SO): Normally when the tropical eastern south Pacific
Ocean experiences high pressure, the tropical eastern Indian Ocean experiences
low pressure. But in certain years, there is a reversal in the pressure conditions
and the eastern Pacific has lower pressure in comparison to the eastern Indian
Ocean. This periodic change in pressure conditions is known as the SO.
 ❖ Mechanism

Onset of the South-West Monsoon

▪ The location of ITCZ shifts north and south of the equator with the apparent
movement of the Sun.

▪ During the month of June, the sun shines vertically over the Tropic of
Cancer and the ITCZ shifts northwards.

▪ The southeast trade winds of the southern hemisphere cross the equator and
start blowing in southwest to northeast direction under the influence of Coriolis
force.

▪ These winds collect moisture as they travel over the warm Indian Ocean.

▪ In the month of July, the ITCZ shifts to 20°-25° N latitude and is located in
the Indo-Gangetic Plain and the south-west monsoons blow from the Arabian Sea
and the Bay of Bengal. The ITCZ in this position is often called the Monsoon
Trough.

▪ The shift in the position of the ITCZ is also related to the phenomenon of the
withdrawal of the westerly jet stream from its position over the north Indian
plain, south of the Himalayas.

▪ The easterly Jet Stream (Somali Jet) sets in along 15°N latitude only after the
western jet stream has withdrawn itself from the region. This easterly jet stream
is held responsible for the burst of the monsoon in India.

▪ As these winds approach the land, their southwesterly direction is modified by the
relief and thermal low pressure over northwest India. The monsoon approaches
the Indian landmass in two branches:

o The Arabian Sea branch - The monsoon winds originating over the
Arabian Sea.

o The Bay of Bengal branch - The Arakan Hills along the coast of
Myanmar deflect a big portion of this branch towards the Indian
subcontinent. The monsoon, therefore, enters West Bengal and
Bangladesh from south and southeast instead of from the south-
westerly direction.

▪ Another phenomenon associated with the monsoon is its tendency to

have ‘breaks’ in rainfall. The monsoon rains take place only for a few days at a
time. They are interspersed with rainless intervals. These breaks in monsoon are
related to the movement of the monsoon trough.

Despite an overall unity in the general pattern, there are perceptible regional variations in
climatic conditions within the country.
❖ Retreating Monsoon Season

• The retreating southwest monsoon season is marked by clear skies and rise in
temperature.

• The land is still moist. Owing to the conditions of high temperature and humidity, the
weather becomes rather oppressive. This is commonly known as the ‘October heat’.

• In the second half of October, the mercury begins to fall rapidly, particularly in
northern India.

• The weather in the retreating monsoon is dry in north India but it is associated
with rain in the eastern part of the Peninsula. Here, October and November are the
rainiest months of the year.

• The widespread rain in this season is associated with the passage of cyclonic
depressions which originate over the Andaman Sea and manage to cross the
eastern coast of the southern Peninsula. These tropical cyclones are very
destructive.

• A bulk of the rainfall of the Coromandel Coast is derived from these depressions and
cyclones.

• Unlike the rest of the country, which receives rain in the southwest monsoon season
between June and September, the northeast monsoon is crucial for
farming and water security in the south.

❖ Impact of Monsoons on Life in India

• Positive

▪ About 64% of people in India depend on agriculture for their livelihood and
agriculture itself is based on monsoon.

▪ Agricultural prosperity of India depends very much on timely and adequately

distributed rainfall. If it fails, agriculture is adversely affected particularly in
those regions where means of irrigation are not developed.

▪ Regional variations in monsoon climate help in growing various types of crops.

▪ Regional monsoon variation in India is reflected in the vast variety of food, clothes
and house types.

▪ Monsoon rain helps recharge dams and reservoirs, which is further used for
the generation of hydro-electric power.

▪ Winter rainfall by temperate cyclones in north India is highly beneficial for Rabi
crops.
• Negative

▪ Variability of rainfall brings droughts or floods every year in some parts of the
country.

▪ Sudden monsoon burst creates a problem of soil erosion over large areas in India.

▪ In hilly areas sudden rainfall brings landslide which damages natural and physical
infrastructure subsequently disrupting human life economically as well as socially.

❖ Monsoon Prediction In India

▪ More than a century ago, when there were no computers, IMD’s forecasts
depended only on snow cover. Lesser cover meant a better monsoon.

▪ British physicist Gilbert Walker, who headed the IMD, designed a statistical
weather model – an empirical way of predicting the weather – based on the
relationship between two weather phenomena.

▪ In 2014, the IMD started to use numerical models to supplement statistical

models for long-range forecasting as well.

▪ Now, although the numerical models used by the IMD are state-of-the-art –
developed by the US National Centres for Environmental Prediction – their
forecast capacity is still weak because a longer period of forecast creates more
uncertainty in prediction.

▪ At the moment, the IMD provides district-wise weather data but it’s not
sufficient; because when IMD says there will be scattered rainfall over a
particular district, it means that 26-50% that district (by area) will receive
rainfall.

▪ The IMD collects weather data like temperature, humidity, wind and
precipitation through 679 automatic weather stations, 550 surface observatories,
43 radiosonde or weather balloons, 24 radars and three satellites.

▪ Currently, highly advanced dynamical models need supercomputers. Prediction

models will not run until proper data about current weather conditions is available.
 ❖ Factors Responsible for Inaccurate Monsoon Forecast

▪ The lack of data due to insufficient monitoring stations.

▪ Automatic weather stations are of substandard quality. They need to be

calibrated and cleaned regularly, which does not happen often. That affects data.

▪ Then, there are major data gaps, like those involving dust, aerosols, soil moisture
and maritime conditions are not monitored.

▪ The models that we have brought from the west have been developed by western
scientists to forecast in their region, little progress has been made is the fine-
tuning of weather models to suit Indian conditions.

▪ Lack of competent software professionals and scientists working with the IMD.

❖ Recent Indian Initiatives

It is crucial for farmers (sowing, harvesting, etc.) and policymakers (payment of compensation,
minimum support price, etc.) to know when and for how long the monsoon will remain active over
India. For that, better predictions and timely advisories are needed.

To achieve this following initiatives have been taken:

1. Monsoon Mission of India

This initiative of Ministry of Earth Sciences, launched in 2012, has utilized new
approaches (high resolution, super parameterizations, data assimilation etc.) so that
forecast skill gets quantitatively improved further for forecasting services of India
Meteorological Department (IMD).
For the first time, India Meteorological Department used the Monsoon Mission
dynamical model to prepare operational seasonal forecast of 2017 monsoon rainfall over
India.

Objectives

1. To improve Seasonal and Intra-seasonal Monsoon Forecast

2. To improve Medium Range Forecast.

Me to my friend jo friends pe ek paisa nhi kharch karta lekin apni GF ko 5 star restaurant me khaana
khilaane le jaata hai :-
 2. IMD in collaboration with Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR)
provides district-level agro-meteorological advisories to farmers through 130 agro-
met field units in vernacular languages.
These advisories are used for critical farm operations such as:

1. Management of sowing (delayed onset of rains);

2. Changing crop variety (delay in rainfall);

3. Spraying Pesticides for disease control (occurrence of rainfall);

4. Managing Irrigation (Heavy rainfall Forecast).

3. India Meteorological Department (IMD) provides meteorological support to the

Central Water Commission (CWC) for issuing flood warnings.

4. Indo-US expedition
In 2018, The Indian Ocean Research Vessel, 'Sagar Nidhi', set out from Chennai, as
part of an Indo-US expedition seeking to find answers to the vagaries of the Bay of
Bengal-fed southwest monsoon by collecting various data to improve prediction models.

5. National Supercomputing Mission will fill the necessary gaps in the computing
superpower required to predict timely and accurate monsoon forecasts.

What my friend thinks about his GF:- Actual reality :-

 UNIT – 5
Climatic classification
5.1 Introduction
➢ The climate encompasses a wide array of meteorological conditions spread over vast
geographical regions and diverse topographies, posing challenges in making overarching
generalisations.
➢ It refers to the average weather conditions in a specific area over an extended period,
typically spanning 30 years or more.
➢ Earth exhibits a multitude of distinct climate types, influenced by interconnected
factors such as latitude, longitude, elevation, topography, proximity to water bodies,
and prevailing wind patterns.

Me waiting for my crush’s reply at 2AM during night :- Meanwhile , My parents :-

5.2 KOPPEN’S CLIMATIC CLASSIFICATION
The Köppen Climate Classification System is widely recognized as one of the most extensively
used contemporary methods for categorising climates.

Wladimir Köppen, a Russian-German climatologist, established this system by discerning a

notable correlation between the flora and the climate peculiar to a specific region.
His primary objective was to devise a system employing formulas and symbols that would
delineate climatic boundaries in a way that closely aligned with the existing vegetation.

▪ Köppen examined the vegetation of specific regions and established a linkage between
the region’s vegetation and its climate.
▪ Based on this relationship, he formulated a chart that grouped diverse climates along
with their characteristic features.
▪ He selected specific temperature and precipitation values and linked these to the
distribution of vegetation, utilising these values as the basis for classifying climates.
▪ The global climate was categorised using alphabetic letters in uppercase, such as A, B,
C, D, E, and H.
▪ These categories are further divided into subdivisions and types, denoted by lowercase
letters like a, b, c, d, h, f, m, w, k, and s.
▪ The initial version of the climate classification scheme was introduced in 1918, and
Wladimir Köppen made subsequent adjustments and enhancements until the final
version was published in 1936.
▪ The modified Köppen system delineates five principal climate groups (A, B, C, D, and E),
further segmented into a collective of 14 distinct climate types. Additionally, there is a
special designation for highland (H) climates.
Wladimir Köppen’s classification system delineates five primary climate groups.
▪ Four of these groups are based on temperature, while one is based on precipitation.
▪ The capital letters: A, C, D, and E signify humid climates, while B indicates dry climates.
▪ Each climatic group is further divided into types, represented by small letters, based
on the seasonality of precipitation and temperature characteristics.

Seasons of Dryness: Indicated by the small letters f, m, w, and s:

1. f: No dry season
2. m: Monsoon climate
3. w: Winter dry season
4. s: Summer dry season

Major Climatic Types (subdivided):

▪ a: Hot summer, with the average temperature of the warmest month over 22°C
▪ c: Cool summer, with the average temperature of the warmest month below 22°C
▪ f: No dry season
▪ w: Dry season in winter
▪ s: Dry season in summer
▪ g: Gange’s type of annual march of temperature, where the hottest month precedes the
solstice and the summer rainy season.
▪ h: Average annual temperature under 18°C
▪ m (monsoon): Short dry season
Additionally:

▪ Capital letters S and W designate the two subdivisions of dry climate: semi-arid
or Steppe (S) and arid or Desert (W).
▪ Capital letters T and F are used for the two subdivisions of polar climate: tundra
(T) and icecap (F).
▪ The Köppen Climate Classification System categorises various climatic zones, each
characterised by distinctive temperature and precipitation patterns.

The five primary climate groups are summarised as follows:

1- Tropical Moist Climates (Group A):
These zones lie within approximately 15 to 25 degrees latitude north and south of the
equator.

The temperature remains above 18 degrees Celsius throughout the year. Three subtypes exist
based on the seasonal distribution of rainfall:

▪ Af: Tropical wet climate, with rainfall all year round and low temperature variations.
▪ Am: Tropical monsoon climate, with similar annual precipitation, but the majority occurs
during the warmest months.
▪ Aw: Tropical wet and dry climate, experiencing an extended dry season during the
winter.

2-Dry Climates (Group B):

These areas span 20 to 35 degrees latitude from the equator and experience more evaporation
than precipitation.

▪ BW: Dry arid climate or true deserts, covering about 12% of the Earth’s land area.
▪ BS: Dry semi-arid climate or steppe, receiving more precipitation than the arid regions.
▪ The letters h and k indicate the climate’s location in the subtropics or mid-latitudes,
respectively.

3-Moist Subtropical Mid-latitude Climates (Group C):

Located between 30 to 50 degrees latitude north and south, these zones experience warm,
humid summers and mild winters.

▪ Cfa: Humid subtropical climate with hot, humid summers and mild winters.
▪ Cfb: Marine climates with a humid climate, hot and dry summers, and mild winters.
▪ Cs: Mediterranean climates with rainfall primarily in mild winters and scarce
precipitation in summer.
4-Moist Continental Mid-latitude Climates (Group D):
These regions, situated poleward from moist subtropical mid-latitude climates, experience
warm summers and cold winters. Divisions include Dw, Ds, and Df based on dry winters, dry
summers, or precipitation throughout the year.

5-Polar Climates (Group E):

Polar climates maintain low temperatures throughout the year. Subtypes include ET or Polar
Tundra, where soil remains permanently frozen, and EF or Polar Ice Caps, covered in ice or
snow.

❖ Pros of Köppen Classification:

▪ Quantitative and coincides with vegetation patterns.
▪ Considers effective precipitation.
❖ Cons of Köppen Classification:
▪ Emphasis on average values.
▪ Ignored weather elements such as precipitation intensity and daily temperature
variations.
▪ Did not account for air masses, daily extremes, and causative factors of climate.
▪ Köppen’s system, while comprehensive, has limitations and simplifications that might not
fully represent the intricacies of climate.
I have corrected my old mistakes now
it’s your turn
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