Recent Developments in Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunch

JOURNAL OF NATURAL FIBERS
2024, VOL. 21, NO. 1, 2309915

https://doi.org/10.1080/15440478.2024.2309915
Recent Developments in Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunch (OPEFB) Fiber

Composite
Melbi Mahardikaa,b, Aminatuz Zakiyahc, Siti Mariyah Ulfac,d, Rushdan Ahmad Ilyase,f,
Mohamad Zaki Hassang, Devita Ameliae, Victor Feizal Knighth, and Mohd Nor Faiz Norrrahimh
a
Research Center for Biomass and Bioproducts, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), Cibinong, Indonesia;
b
Research Collaboration Center for Nanocellulose, BRIN and Andalas University, Padang, Indonesia; cDepartment of
Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, Brawijaya University, Malang, Indonesia; dSynthesis and Catalysis of Natural Product
Research Group, Faculty of Science, Brawijaya University, Malang, Indonesia; eFaculty of Chemical and Energy
Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia UTM, Johor Bahru, Malaysia; fCentre for Advanced Composite Materials,
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia UTM, Johor Bahru, Malaysia; gRazak Faculty of Technology and Informatics, Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; hDefence Research Institute, Universiti Pertahanan Nasional Malaysia,
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
The materials sector has grown significantly over the last few decades. One Oil palm empty fruit bunch
from the community worldwide has embraced using natural fibers and fiber; polymer composite;
biopolymers in many products due to significant problems with petroleum surface modification;
thermoplastic; thermoset
supplies and concerns about using synthetic plastics as biomaterials. The
availability of lignocellulosic fiber polymer composites worldwide, in addi 关键词
tion to their low carbon emissions and biodegradability, has caught the 油棕空果包纤维; 聚合物
enthusiasm of scientists and engineers. One of the main crops grown in 复合材料; 表面改性; 热塑
Indonesia is oil palm, which has the potential to provide lignocellulosic fibers 性塑料; thermoset热固性的
for composites. The increase in fiber increased the mechanical properties of
the composite. The compatibility of OPEFB with other materials in the
composite is essential to ensure specific applications. There is still a little
detailed examination of the mechanical properties of OPEFB biocomposite
and factors, including polymer type and fiber size, that can impact mechan
ical performance. However, according to various articles, OPEFB is a potential
raw material for reinforcing material in composites without being continu
ously developed, so research innovations on OPEFB composites are needed.
摘要
在过去的几十年里，材料行业有了显著的增长. 由于石油供应方面的重大
问题以及对使用合成塑料作为生物材料的担忧，来自世界各地的一位社区
人士已经接受在许多产品中使用天然纤维和生物聚合物. 木质纤维素纤维
聚合物复合材料除了具有低碳排放和生物降解性外，在全球范围内的可用
性也引起了科学家和工程师的热情. 印尼种植的主要作物之一是油棕，它
有潜力为复合材料提供木质纤维素纤维. 纤维的增加增加了复合材料的机
械性能. OPEFB与复合材料中其他材料的兼容性对于确保特定应用至关重
要. 对OPEFB生物复合材料的机械性能以及影响机械性能的因素，包括聚
合物类型和纤维尺寸，仍有一些详细的研究. 然而，根据各种文章，
OPEFB是一种潜在的复合材料增强材料原材料，尚未得到持续开发，因此
需要对OPEFB复合材料进行研究创新.
CONTACT Melbi Mahardika [email protected] Research Center for Biomass and Bioproducts, National Research
and Innovation Agency (BRIN), Cibinong 16911, Indonesia; Mohd Nor Faiz Norrrahim [email protected] Universiti
Pertahanan Nasional Malaysia Research Centre for Chemical Defence Kem Perdana Sungai Besi 57000, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
© 2024 The Author(s). Published with license by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/),
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. The terms on which this
article has been published allow the posting of the Accepted Manuscript in a repository by the author(s) or with their consent.
2 M. MAHARDIKA ET AL.
Introduction
Indonesia is one of the leading producers of palm oil worldwide. Empty fruit bunches from oil palms
are one of the solid wastes produced by the palm oil industry. According to estimations, Indonesia can
generate 7 million tonnes of Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunch (OPEFB) yearly (Anita et al. 2020).
Production OPEFB is either 5.29 million tons of dry OPEFB or 17.64 million tons of wet OPEFB
(Fatriasari et al. 2021). However, until now, a sizable amount of waste from empty fruit bunches from
oil palms has been produced, endangering the environment in many countries, particularly Indonesia.
As a result, a study on the efficient use of OPEFB waste is required (Hermawan et al. 2022). The
OPEFB fiber structure of the solid residue contains 37.26–63% of cellulose, 14.6–37% of hemicellulose,
and 17–31.7% of lignin (Indriati, Elyani, and Dina 2020). OPEFB fiber composition makes it a
desirable feedstock for a biorefinery process based on lignocellulosic chemicals (Taylor 2008).
Biological examples of fiber-reinforced composites held together by an amorphous lignin matrix
and helically coiled cellulose microfibrils include plant fibers like OPEFB fiber. The mechanical
properties of fibers are affected by cellulose composition, as collagen controls the tensile and ligament
strengths in animals and the mechanical properties of connective tissue (Goh, Chen, and Liao 2014).
The study of natural fibers instead of synthetic ones as reinforcing components in polymer
composites has significantly increased recently. The benefits of natural fibers are their low density,
low cost, non-toxicity, and environmental friendliness. They are also renewable and readily available
in large quantities. Additionally, they are easy to process and produce minor equipment abrasion.
Banana, oil palm, kenaf, jute, hemp, coir, bamboo, and wood are cellulose fibers utilized as composite
reinforcement material (Asyraf, Ishak, et al. 2021; R. A. Ilyas, Zuhri, et al. 2022; R. A. Ilyas et al. 2021).
OPEFB-based composites can be applied in the fields of automotive, biology, military, adsorbents,
floor panels, furniture, and household appliances (Asyraf, Ishak, et al. 2021; Nurazzi, Asyraf, Khalina,
et al. 2021).
In recent years, OPEFB’s hydrophilicity has been reduced by physical, chemical, or chemical and
physical treatment methods (Essabir et al. 2016; Shinoj, Visvanathan, Panigrahi, and Kochubabu
2011). Due to their efficacy, chemical treatments are frequently utilized in developed composite
materials (Norrrahim et al. 2021). The general perspective of OPEFB and its composites has been
the subject of numerous academic discussions, especially by (Shinoj, Visvanathan, Panigrahi, and
Kochubabu 2011). Specific OPEFB used as reinforcing elements in polymer composites have received
much attention in reviews (Mahjoub, Yatim, and Sam 2013). Additionally, the majority of analyses of
OPEFB fiber biocomposites have applications that emphasize energy absorption (Faizi et al. 2016),
structural (Mahjoub, Yatim, and Sam 2013), and furniture design (Suhaily et al. 2012).
Since OPEFB fibers are biodegradable materials, they have been used extensively to reinforce
thermoplastics and thermosets and improve their properties. Fabricating microperforated panels,
particleboard, medium-density fiberboard, and thermal insulation panels uses OPEFB fibers and
polymer composites (Ramlee, Naveen, and Jawaid 2021; Sekar et al. 2021).
In this latest review, we have detailed the characteristics of empty bunch fiber, treatment modifica
tions, and their applications. Moreover, the study examined the most recent OPEFB composite
concerns. Researchers working on OPEFB composites will benefit from this innovative publication.
OPEFB fibers
Availability
Most oil produced and consumed worldwide comes from the oil palm plant. The introduction of
OPEFB to Indonesia dates back to 1911, and over the subsequent decades, it has experienced
remarkable growth, evolving into a pivotal commodity by 1970. According to data obtained from
the Ministry of Agriculture of the Republic of Indonesia’s Directorate General of Estate Crops, the year
1970 witnessed exclusive management of oil palm plantations by state-owned and commercial
enterprises. However, a significant development occurred in 1979 with the initiation of small-scale
JOURNAL OF NATURAL FIBERS 3
plant farms, which commenced their operations (Hambali and Rivai 2017). The world’s leading palm
oil producer, including Indonesia, keeps growing their oil palm crops and production. There are 25
provinces in Indonesia where there are oil palm plantations. However, only five provinces South
Sumatera, West Kalimantan, North Sumatera, Riau, and Central Kalimantan are the primary sources
of palm oil due to their highest production capacity (Indriati, Elyani, and Dina 2020). Apart from
producing crude palm oil, palm oil mills produce by-products in the form of waste. The waste consists
of liquid waste from steam and hydro cyclone discharge, solid waste in OPEFB, shells, and sludge, and
waste gas resulting from OPEFB or shell combustion (Zahan and Kano 2018). In 2017, 38 million tons
of CPO, equal to 190 million tons of OPEFB, were produced in Indonesia. OPEFB might be available
for more than 47 million tons annually because OPEFB yielded 20% CPO (Santi, Kalbuadi, and
Goenadi 2019). Then in 2019, the total production was 14% more than in 2018, and the entire show
was 34.7 million tons of palm oil (Nurazzi, Asyraf, Khalina, et al. 2021). Thus, it can be predicted that
there will be an increase in solid waste production, one of which is OPEFB. If the “waste” OPEFB is not
used and handled correctly, it will be a huge problem in the future.
Fiber composition
Natural fibers are biodegradable, affordable, sustainable, and have good thermal-physical character
istics. Consequently, many researchers have considered the potential use of thermal isolation for
natural fiber processing (Ramlee, Naveen, and Jawaid 2021). The method for processing industrial and
agro-industrial waste into lignocellulosic biomass includes using low concentrations of sulfuric acid
material for hydrolysis to produce a more effective product because this acid has a more significant
number of hydronium ions compared to other strong acids such as hydrochloric acid. Then, the pre-
treatment of the previous lignocellulosic raw materials, namely by boiling first, follows so that
delignification is more effective and minimizes NaOH (Ahmad, Rita, and Noorjannah 2022).
Figure 1. Oil palm biomass and derivatives. Reused with permission from elsevier citing (R. A. Ilyas, Zuhri, et al. 2022).
Table 1. Various studies of fiber composition of OPEFB.

Extractive (%) Cellulose (%) Hemicellulose (%) Lignin (%) Ash (%) References
- 45.95 22.84 1.23 0.53 (Ahmad, Rita, and Noorjannah 2022)
1.3–4.2 37.26–63 14.6–37 17–31.7 1.2–6.7 (Indriati, Elyani, and Dina 2020)
7.49 ± 3.27 61.12 ± 2.66 10.56 ± 1.58 19.81 ± 0.09 0.83 ± 0.03 (Anita et al. 2020)
- 44.4 30.9 14.2 - (Fahma et al. 2010)
1.34 37.26 14.62 31.64 6.69 (Sudiyani et al. 2013)
- 47.60 28.10 13.10 - (Baharuddin et al. 2012)
- 59.70 22.10 18.10 - (Abdullah, Sulaiman, and Gerhauser 2011)
1.46 ± 0.09 49.63 ± 0.64 21.32 ± 0.50 19.12 ± 0.42 6.23 ± 0.19 (Almeida et al. 2022)
- 65 - 19 2 (Alonge, Ramli, and Lawalson 2017)
- 48 22 25 - (Hill and Khalil 2000)
- 47.9 17.1 24.9 - (Mohanty, Misra, and Drzal 2005)
4.5 49.8 83.5 20.5 2.4 (A. H. P. S. A. K. Khalil, Alwani, and Omar 2006)
- 29.37 14.40 22.66 - (Puspita et al. 2018)
- 22.5–25.3 24.5–27.8 24.5–27.8 - (Nomanbhay, Hussain, and Palanisamy 2013)
- 42.85 11.70 24.01 - (Rahman et al. 2007)
- 43–43.47 22.93–23.67 21.28–22.10 - (Mardawati et al. 2014)
OPEFB, oil palm trunks, oil palm shells, and oil palm fronds are among the lignocellulosic biomass
wastes produced by the palm oil industry, as shown in Figure 1.
Researchers have emphasized the significance of converting the large OPEFB biomass produced
from oil palm plantations each year into a useful agricultural end product. Moreover, many research
ers have sought to assess oil palm biomass’s potential and adaptability in various industries (Omoniyi
2019). Table 1 displays various studies of fiber composition of OPEFB.
Morphology and single-cell dimensions

The morphology of OPEFB can be observed using the SEM method, as shown in Figure 2a (Lai et al.
2021). The SEM images depict the surface structure of OPEFB fiber at various magnification levels.
The SEM micrograph of an untreated OPEFB fiber shown in Figure 2a was distorted, and the non-
cellulosic materials that served as a protective covering have covered the cellulose microfibrils’ surface
(indicated by the blue arrow) (as marked by red circles). The cellulose surface was smooth, transpar
ent, and has distinctive rod-like microfibrils, as displayed in Figure 2b.
According to research by Padzil et al. (2020), the isolation of nanocellulose from OPEFB using
hydrolysis and continued ultrasonication resulted in a morphological dimension of nanocellulose
synthesized at 17.85 nm. Nanocellulose OPEFB fibers produced from the vibration milling times
Figure 2. SEM image of (a) raw OPEFB and (b) treated OPEFB cellulose. Reproduced under common creative lisence from (Lai et al.
2021).
Figure 3. Schematic of OPEFB fiber structure.
Table 2. Structural properties of OPEFB as reported by various researchers.

Property Range References
Length, fiber 0.89–0.99 mm (Jawaid and Khalil 2011)
Diameter, fiber 150–500 µm (Sreekala and Thomas 2003)
Microfibrillar angle 46 ° (Kalam et al. 2005; R. Rama, Mohan, and Rao 2007; Sreekala and Thomas 2003)
Density 0.7–1.55 g/cm3 (Kalam et al. 2005; A. H. P. S. Khalil et al. 2007; R. Rama, Mohan, and Rao 2007;
Sreekala and Thomas 2003)
method have a size range of 53.72–446.80 nm. The morphology of nanocellulosic fibers has an outer
surface that is uneven, irregular, folded, and uneven.
Structure
Figure 3. shows a schematic of the OPEFB fiber architecture. Plant fibers, such as OPEFB, are
biological examples of fiber-reinforced composites held together by an amorphous lignin matrix.
These composites are composed of helically coiled cellulose microfibrils like collagen that control the
mechanical characteristics of connective tissues (Goh, Chen, and Liao 2014).
Table 2 provides an overview of the structural characteristics of OPEFB fibers. The
composition table for each component uses data on fiber length, diameter, microfibrillar
angle, and density from several sources. Compared to OPEFB fibers, the microfibrils have a
3–4 times smaller diameter, ranging from 10–30 nm, than the OPEFB fibers with 150–500 µm
diameter (Gibson 2012).
Properties
Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA)
To ascertain the decomposition mass and thermal performance of the volatile OPEFB components,
the change in mass at a constant temperature using the TG/DTG test was carried out (Rajisha et al.
Figure 4. Curve thermogravimetric analysis OPEFB. Reproduced under common creative lisence (Ninduangdee et al. 2015).
2011). Based on Figure 4, the TG/DTG test of the OPEFB reported by Ninduangdee et al. (2015) was
conducted at a heating rate of 20°C/min. During the temperature of 160–400°C, the decomposition of
hemicellulose, cellulose, and a small amount of lignin occurred. The OPEFB DTG profile showed a
peak temperature of 295°C, and in TGA, there was a decrease in peak at 340°C, indicating decom
position was taking place. Mass loss at temperatures exceeding 400°C resulted in (i) charcoal from
decomposition decomposing of residual lignin and (ii) more oxidation in the air. The DTG curve stage
linked with lignin decomposition had a 480°C maximum degradation rate for biomass. The ignition
temperature (Tign) and combustion temperature (Tb) based on examining the TG and DTG curves
were 245 and 560°C for OPEFB. At a relatively low temperature of 295 and 340°C, OPEFB has burned
efficiently. Thermal OPEFB degradation occurs in three stages: air content at 100°C, cellulose and
hemicellulose degradation at 195 to 360°C, and oxidation at higher temperatures (Bhat et al. 2011).
Physical and Mechanical properties

Various authors have reported different mechanical properties for OPEFB fibers; as listed in Table 3.
This variation by different factors such as the age of the mother plant and fiber after extraction, the
condition of the surface of the fiber, namely exfoliated cells, skin damage, the surface treatment used,
the length of the gauge, and variations in pressure in the test grip (Witayakran et al. 2017).
The tensile strength of OPEFB-based fiber reported by Anuar et al. (2019) was measured following
the ASTM D3822–01 test method. According to the ISO 527–4:1997 standard, tensile strength was
evaluated using a Shimadzu 10 kN universal testing equipment in accordance with the ASTM D638
standard. Furthermore, the flexural strength and modulus at a 2 mm/min crosshead speed followed
the ASTM D790 standards. ASTM D3410-compliant composite panel compression testing.
Moisture absorption
The test of moisture absorption did not regulate the relative humidity at room temperature. The
samples were dried for 24 hours at 50°C in an oven. Before the absorption test, the samples were
Table 3. Physical and mechanical properties of OPEFB fiber.

Young’s
Elongation at Break Modulus Toughness Density (gr/
Tensile Strength MPa % MPa MPa cm3) References
100–400 8–18 1000–9000 - 0.7–1.55 (Dungani et al. 2014)
15.9 30 2900 - 1.5 (Anuar et al. 2019)
100–400 14 1000–9000 - 0.7–0.50 (Adam and Asik 2019)
71 11 1703 - - (M. Y. Zuhri 2009)
248 14 6700 - - (P. R. Rama and Ramakrishna 2021)
weighed to ascertain their original weight. The moisture absorption was calculated using the equation
below:
Moisture absorption (%) = WhWoWo x100%
Where: Wh is the final weight, and Wo is the initial weight of samples (Abral et al. 2020).
The results reported by Babaee et al. (2015) revealed that OPEFB untreated composites showed
lower moisture absorption rates than treated composites. In general, when nanocellulose is under
chemical treatment, the nanocellulose becomes more hydrophobic, resulting in a decreased or
diminished attraction to moisture. However, Samat et al. (2020) showed that OPEFB composites
with fibers longer than 250 µm had a more significant effect on water absorption than other compo
sites. Similar to other lignocellulosic materials, OPEFB contains lignin, hemicellulose, and cellulose.
Hemicellulose and cellulose are hydrophilic and linked to polar OH groups, according to Mokhothu
and John (2015). This experiment did not include OPEFB fibers without chemical treatment. As a
result, the fibers were expected to be longer and contained more hemicellulose and cellulose at a higher
fiber load, increasing the interaction between fiber and moisture.
Hydrophilicity
OPEFB fiber contains hydroxyl groups (OH), which makes it hydrophilic (Firmanda et al. 2022). A
noteworthy feature is the variation in crystalline black and white cross sections in the untreated
material. Untreated specimens have several characteristics with previously reported features. The steps
outlined in the literature by Gunawan et al. (2009) described cleansing using fresh or distilled water.
The hydration impact occurred on various length scales, including the molecule and whole fiber levels
(Kalia et al. 2011).
Figure 5a shows the molecular effect by illustrating a schematic of the molecule interaction with
hydrogen bonding. The small size of the water molecule allowed it to permeate into the space between
the cellulose and lignin groups. After then, hydrogen-bonded linkages formed between the hydrogen
ends of the molecules and the hydroxyl groups in cellulose and the lignin groups in OPEFB fibers.
Figure 5b depicts two potential hydrogen types with OPEFB fibers. The capillary action theory
explains air entering the OPEFB fiber resulted in a hydrating impact throughout the entire fiber.
Additionally, the air carried to the OPEFB depends on the structure’s diameter and gravity
(Sreekala et al. 2001). Due to the OPEFB fiber’s porous cross-section, capillary action occurred
at both ends of the fiber, causing the porous structure on the fiber surface to grow and
develop. As a result, when air entered the porous tubular structure of the OPEFB fiber, to
achieve a force balance between the air pressure and reactive reactivity on the wall, the
philosophy behind the front exerted pressure and forced the tubular construction to stretch
radially. The outcome is a considerable increase in cross-sectional area, weight, and density.
Figure 5. Hydration, a. Interaction between single cellulose chain repeat unit and hydrogen bonding. Reproduced under common
creative lisence from (Khazraji and Robert 2013) b. Diagram of capillary action.
Figure 6. Spectra FTIR raw OPEFB. Reused with permission from elsevier citing (Wong et al. 2020).
Increases in weight and cross-sectional area increase specimen density from a structural
perspective (Sreekala and Thomas 2003).
Ftir
The crude OPEFB showed characteristic bands of lignocellulosic based on Figure 6. The broad band at
3327 cm−1 corresponded to the O-H stretching mechanism of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. In
comparison, some peaks corresponded to the C-H and C=O stretching modes observed at 2918 and
1593 cm−1, respectively. Peaks between 1200–1500 cm−1 represent aromatic lignin’s C – C stretch
(Wong et al. 2020).
Research by Zulkiple, Maskat, and Hassan (2016) reported absorption bandwidth related to the
hydroxyl stretching vibration (O-H) around 3329.89 cm−1 for samples showing exposure to the
cellulose structure. Then another prominent broad band was defined for the cellulose characteristics
at 1051–1025 cm−1, corresponding to the C-O-C pyranose stretching mode (Rayung et al. 2014;
Zulkifli et al. 2015). The peak at 2900 cm−1 with C-H stretching while the small peak at 896 cm−1
was cellulose containing β-glycosidic cellulose between glucose units (Cheng et al. 2014; Fahma et al.
2010; Nasution, Yurnaliza, and Sitompul 2017).
Then, data for absorptions band functional group cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin in other
authors’ works are listed in Table 4. Absorption bands for functional groups.
Modification of OPEFB fibers

Isolation nanocellulose from OPEFB
Alkali pre-treatment
Alkali is a pre-treatment agent transport technique. Cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin are the
chemical components involved in the interaction between lignocellulose and an alkaline solution
(Figure 7). Lignin dissolved and degenerated as a result of the reaction. Alkali pre-treatment can
Figure 7. Schema isolation cellulose from OPEFB.
Table 4. Absorption bands for functional groups.

Fiber Component Wave number (cm−1) Functional group Compounds
Cellulose 4,000–2,995 OH Acid, methanol
2,890 H-C-H Alkyl, alphatic
1,640 Fiber-OH Adsorbed water
1,270–1,232 C-O-C Aryl-alkyl ether
1,170–1,082 C-O-C Pyranose ring Skeletal
1,108 OH C-OH
Hemicellulose 4,000–2,995 OH Acid, methanol
2,890 H-C-H Alkyl, aliphatic
1,765–1,715 C=O Keton and carbonyl
1,108 OH C-OH
Lignin 4,000–2,995 OH Acid, methanol
2,890 H-C-H Alkyl, aliphatic
1,730–1,700 Aromatic
1,632 C=C Benzene streaching Ring
1,613, 1,450 C=C Aromatic skeletal mode
1,430 O-CH3 Methoxyl-O-CH3
1,270–1,232 C-O-C Aryl-alkyl-ether
1,215 C-O Phenol
1,108 OH C-OH
effectively disrupt ester linkages by crosslinking xylan and lignin by solvation and saponification (Liu
et al. 2018).
Isolation of cellulose from various alkaline methods for isolation OPEFB based Chieng et al. (2017)
formed nanocrystals with 4 wt.% NaOH solution at 80°C for 3 h, then bleached at 80°C for 4 h using
equal parts of acetate buffer of glacial acetic acid, aqueous chlorite, and distilled water. Latip et al.
(2018) used 15% (w/v) of NaOH solution at 130 min then the treatment was repeated using two other
alkali solutions, which were KOH and (Al(OH)3).
Acid hydrolysis
Acid hydrolysis is now the most used process for producing nanocellulose. It is necessary to consider
the kind of acid, its concentration, reaction mechanism, reaction temperature, pace of mixing, and
10
M. MAHARDIKA ET AL.
Table 5. Various pretreatment techniques for cellulose.

Pretreatment method Method Advantage Disadvantage Ref.
Enzymatic/biological A set of oxido reductases can degrade undesirable Environmentally responsible method, Low-cost Slow motion, (Vasco, Ge, and Li
processing of lignocellulosic components like lignin. This system prerequisite, No dangerous chemicals are needed, some components of biomass 2016)
lignification contains peroxidases and laccases with high redox Under benign reaction circumstances, the less such as cellulose and
potential that can directly oxidize the structural energy-intensive process can be completed. hemicelluloses, may be broken
polymer of lignin or attack the lignin structure by down by native or alien
diffusing into the pores of the plant cell wall. microbes.
Chemical Reduces the biomass’s degree of plant cell Under medium pressure and temperature, remove Less economical (Foo et al. 2019;
pretreatment polymerization by using a moderate alkaline or acid the acetyl and the lignin. The cellulose crystallinity inappropriate for bioconversion Zianor et al. 2017)
to remove lignin and a portion of the hemicellulose. index (CI) being raised that doesn’t harm the
environment. High creation
and disposal of chemical waste
Ionic liquid The pretreatment of biomass with [bmimHSO4] (1- High solvating power, highly chemically and The used solvent is reasonably (Elgharbawy et al.
pretreatment butyl-3- methylimidazolium hydrogen sulfate) is thermally stable biomass extracted. pricey. 2016)
carried out under controlled conditions for one hour
at a temperature of about 80 C.
Sono-assisted Using liquid peroxide, biomass can be pretreated Optimize the inputs of materials and energy. By Does not considerably increase (Ofori and Lee 2014)
(Ultrasonic) quickly and at lower temperatures to recover its shortening process times and operating cellulose output.
organosolv/ cellulose. It is commonly combined with 2% temperatures, you can increase energy efficiency.
H2O2 aqueous NaOH and 80% ethanol (1:3 v/v) and placed
pretreatment; in the ultrasonic cleaning bath at 60C for 60 minutes
before being cleaned.
length of the reaction when carrying out the method. The most often utilized acids among these are
hydrochloric and sulfuric (Marakana, Dey, and Saini 2021).
Diverse organic acid and mineral acid-based acid hydrolysis OPEFB are also gaining popularity. Haafiz et
al. (2013) used 2,5 N HCl at 105 ± 2°C for 30 min to synthesize microcrystalline cellulose. Septevani et al.
(2020) used sulfuric acid and phosphoric acid at 50°C for 3–5 hours to obtain nanocellulose.
Surface modification
Pretreatment method for cellulose production as shown in Table 5.
Chemical treatment
Natural fibers, which get their hydrophilic qualities from lignocellulosic materials, can interact poorly
with hydrophobic matrix polymers. Additionally, the hydrophilic nature results in water absorption
and fiber deterioration due to microbial attack (A. Khan et al. 2020). Chemically altering the fiber’s
surface can resolve this issue, replacing part of the hydroxyl groups, which can give the cellulose the
necessary hydrophobicity (Indarti, Marwan, and Wanrosli 2019). Chemical fiber modification can also
improve the interface bond’s compatibility with the fan base matrix reinforcement. To maximize the
availability of active OH groups for interlocking with the polymer, fatty acids, undesirable impurities,
and other contaminants are removed from the fiber surface using chemical processes such as alkali
treatment (A. Khan et al. 2020).
Chemical modification was carried out by Ajazi et al. (2023) using the benzoyl chloride method.
Cellulose was reacted with a sodium hydroxide solution mixture and sonicated, then benzoyl chloride
was added in an alkaline solution with sodium hydroxide solution. The modified cellulose precipitate
was then filtered and dried in an oven.
Mechanical treatment
One of the possible mechanical modifications is superheated steam (SHS) treatment, as done by Warid
et al. (2016) by putting OPEFB in a superheated steam oven. The results obtained can denature OPEFB
by removing hemicellulose and lignin. This treatment also reduced moisture, removed silica bodies
from the surface, and increased the thermal stability of the fibers. Modifying the fiber texture can make
it more compatible with the hydrophobic polymer matrix. SHS treatment will be preferred as a non-
chemical treatment strategy to produce ecologically acceptable products such as composites as it is a
more environmentally friendly procedure.
High-pressure homogenization is the mechanical process of transforming separate cellulose into
nanocellulose. It is a successful and efficient method for biomass refinement due to its simplicity, high
efficiency, and cautious use of organic solvents. Since cellulose frequently jams the valves of the
homogenizer, it must first be processed using a steam explosion, a microfluidizer processor, or some
other technique. Ionic liquids (IL) have recently gained popularity due to the exceptional ability of
cellulose to dissolve at ambient temperature. Additionally, this component uses cryo-crushing with
liquid nitrogen, where the cellulose pulp is frozen using liquid nitrogen and then crushed. To reduce
microsized particles to nanosize, high-speed ball milling is a typical mechanical procedure (Marakana,
Dey, and Saini 2021).
Physical treatment
The composite can be strengthened by making individual filaments, first dividing the fiber
bundles to prevent agglomeration problems. This modification can be done through physical
treatment, namely modifying the fiber to maximize compatibility with composite reinforcement
applications. One way to avoid agglomeration is using ultrasonication, defined as sound with a
frequency above the audible range (above 25 Hz). Longitudinal waves are created in water
molecules due to the complete transmission of sound waves through a liquid bath, generating
smoothing and compression waves. The shock wave is created by the small bubbles created by
the sudden collapse of the compression wave. So, micro-jetting and micro-streaming are two
methods used to clean the fiber surface. When the bubbles and fiber surfaces collide in micro-
flow, intermolecular tearing occurs. Oscillating bubbles rub the fiber’s surface during micro-flow
(A. Khan et al. 2020).
Sulaiman et al. (2022) modified the physical treatment using bleached OPEFB fiber and added
distilled water to the suspension before ultrasonication. Then, the beaker containing the suspension
was placed in an ice bath to minimize overheating of the fiber because fiber samples can burn due to
high-intensity waves. Samples were collected by centrifugation and freeze-dried.
Microwave treatment
Microwave treatment is a promising biomass treatment method because it can effectively break down
the lignocellulosic structure, which causes the cellulose structure to open so that cellulose access
becomes easier during enzymatic hydrolysis. Microwave heating is direct, fast, and uniform. This
technology is considered green because it consumes less energy than conventional heating, reduces
emissions, and helps protect the environment because it does not produce wastewater, exhaust gases,
or other waste products (Gong, Liu, and Huang 2010).
Solihat et al. (2017) modified OPEFB with microwave treatment using OPEFB added with oxalic
acid in a Teflon tube and then placed in a microwave oven at a predetermined temperature and time.
Furthermore, the suspension was removed from the fraction solution with filter paper and washed
until neutral. Then the samples were analyzed.
OPEFB composite
The recent development of the OPEFB composite
Utilizing oil palm wastes has recently become an exciting technique for creating durable polymer
matrix composites. But one of the most critical aspects of how these materials perform over time is
how they absorb water (Almeida et al. 2022). In various industrial sectors over the past ten years, the
usage of natural fibers as reinforcement in polymer matrices has increased. It is essential to prioritize
utilizing agroindustrial wastes as raw materials to build ecologically friendly, highly productive, and
commercially successful composites; it is preferable to prioritize using agroindustrial wastes as raw
materials (Valle et al. 2022).
The three primary categories of polymers, sometimes known as plastics, are thermoplastics, thermo
sets, and elastomers. Thermoplastics have the property of being easily bent and becoming softer as the
temperature rises. Cross chains known as elastomers can grow the number of lateral links until they
transform into thermosets. High crosslinking levels prevent thermosets from softening before break
down occurs (Carmona 2021).
Three critical criteria the matrix, the reinforcement, and the interfacial adhesion are used to
categorize composite materials (understood as connectivity). Because the dispersed phase’s propor
tion, size, form, distribution, and orientation impact the ultimate qualities of a composite, it is crucial
to have it (Dai and Fan 2013). As a result, the properties of the elements added together include those
of the composite.
Oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB) reinforced thermoset composite

A well-established technique for enhancing thermoset polymers’ toughness and other fundamental
mechanical properties is the introduction of nanoparticles (Marouf et al. 2016). If the nanostructured
particles are evenly disseminated throughout the polymer matrix, their huge specific surface areas can
create a sizable interfacial area (Zamanian, Ghasemi, and Mortezaei 2021). Due to the ability to alter
polymer characteristics in the artificial region, resemblance to molecular form, and nanoscale size of
the filler particles, nanofillers interact more strongly with thermoset polymer matrices (Khostavan et
al. 2019; Zabihi and Mostafavi 2012). Therefore, the comparatively low filler concentration makes a
higher polymer percentage with changed properties possible (Hsissou et al. 2021). In work conducted
concurrently, OPS nanoparticles were impregnated using a vacuum pressure approach with OPT and
phenol formaldehyde (PF). Because there is less water absorption and a lower expansion coefficient,
the resulting composite has a substantially higher anti-swelling efficiency. The flexural, tensile, and
impact strengths were more significant than the control samples. The flexural and tensile modulus
increased from 4.35 to 4.95 GPa and 2.67 to 3.51 GPa, respectively. The elongation at break was
currently nearly steady. OPS nanoparticles were added to the composite; as a result, improving its heat
stability. The most significant developments in terms of thermal, physical, and mechanical qualities
were from composites that were made that contained 5% OPS nanoparticles (Dungani et al. 2014)
Oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB) reinforced thermoplastic composite

Utilizing waste from palm oil production has recently gained popularity for creating sustainable polymer
matrix composites. Valle et al. (2022) noted that OPEFB, which comes in two fiber sizes (605 and 633
µm) was combined with thermoplastic acrylic resin to create a natural fiber-reinforced polymer matrix
composite. A filler content of 42 wt.% was maintained for all formulations while the resin and fiber were
combined at room temperature. Thermomechanical compression molding was applied at four proces
sing temperatures (80, 100, 120, and 140°C) as a composite production method. After that, all
compositions underwent 330 h of salt mist spray aging. Overall, the findings have shown that a simple
process for developing composites based on a water-borne acrylic matrix and OPEFB fibers is feasible.
Teixeira et al. (2009) conducted a study to see how adding nanocellulose affected the properties of
TPS when glycerol and sorbitol were used as plasticizer. The hydrophilicity of the TPS matrix
decreased by adding nanocellulose to it. Fahma et al. (2010) reported that including nanocellulose
up to 3% by weight enhanced the tensile strength and crystallinity of thermoplastic cassava starch
composite films.
Composite manufacturing methods

Various manufacturing methods exist for successfully developing composites, such as an injection
mold for OPEFB fiber-reinforced thermoplastics. The selection of a particular manufacturing process
depends on the type of polymer (thermoplastic or thermoset) used to develop OPEFB composites
(Mazumdar 2002). The manufacture of thermosetting composites is easy because of lower costs, better
fiber wettability, and less heat and pressure required during curing. Thermoplastic composites are very
popular in the aerospace and automotive industries (M. Z. R. K. Khan and Srivastava 2018). Table 6.
shows different manufacturing methods, processing techniques, and composite characteristics.
Table 6. Manufacturing methods for composite development (M. Z. R. K. Khan and Srivastava 2018).
Methods Operation Characteristics
Compression Molding A compressive load is applied through the top of the mold; The Thermoset polymer, high production,
fiber-matrix mixture is placed inside heated closed molds. multiple part development
Injection Molding The required amount of matrix and fiber mixture is injected into High production rates, compability with
the mold cavity of the extruder. both type of resin
Hot Press Stacked thermoplastic dough together between the mold is Can be operated by personal
heated and compressed.
Liquid Transfer The resin is injected into the fiber carrier closed mold with a High fiber volume fraction, heat transfer
Molding Process mold cavity having vacuum pressure. are the major constraints.
Hand Lay-Up Method The fiber-matrix mixture is placed manually into the open mold which is better compatibility with the
using light pressure by the rollers to remove trapped air. thermoset, low cost, size constraintss
Circular economy strategy

The concept of a circular bioeconomic emphasizes ”‘reduce, reuse, and recycle’‘ to eliminate unne
cessary waste, including eliminating the use of raw materials, energy, and overall carbon emissions
production cycle. This concept includes remanufacturing products for use as raw materials or as part
of raw materials and a by-product production to generate income. In other words, it could be wasting
waste. The previous concept of linear economics referred only to the conditions of the ’‘take, make,
use, dispose of’” model, where raw materials are used to make products, sold for consumption, and
disposed of at the end of their life cycle without considering eco-friendly alternatives including reuse,
recycling, and waste valuation. The by-products generated in the palm oil industry are mostly reused
and recycled. Essential moving toward a more strategic approach is how well these practices are
implemented in the industry and how well performance is contributing to sustainability (Cheah et al.
2023).
Properties of OPEFB composite

Compatibility of OPEFB
Both Figures 8 (a) and (b) depict the scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of the biocomposite
films’ tensile fracture surfaces at 2 and 4 wt.%, respectively. The fracture surface of biocomposite films
had low agglomerations and was well dispersed, as demonstrated by the 2 wt.% of OPEFB contents
(Figure 8 (a)). This morphology indicated that the OPEFB particles were present before dissolution
and fragmented throughout the process. Since the biocomposite film was homogeneous, it might be
presumed that the OPEFB fillers have dissolved and reinforced within the OPEFB matrix. However, as
shown in Figure 8 (b), biocomposite films showed a rough surface when the OPEFB content increased.
Compared to OPEFB at 2 wt.%, the morphology of RC biocomposite films containing 4 wt.% OPEFB
was more irregular. The tensile strength of biocomposite films at 2 wt.% OPEFB contents, which was
higher than 4 wt.% OPEFB contents, validated this finding. When compared to Figure 8 (b), the SEM
micrograph in Figure 9 (a) exhibited fewer voids and agglomerations (Zailuddin and Husseinsyah
2016).
The untreated OPEFB fiber in Figure 8 had a relatively smooth surface covered with wax, lignin,
and hemicellulose that stopped the fiber from rupturing. After processing, the surface fiber signifi
cantly changed due to removing particular inter-fiber material (Latip et al. 2018).
Mechanical properties
Thermoplast (TPS)-based plastics must have similar mechanical and barrier qualities as traditional
plastic to compete with it. However, this is particularly challenging due to the hydrophilic rates that
Figure 8. SEM micrograph of composite fiber with different matrix (a, left) matrix epoxy (b, right) matrix PVC. Reproduced under
common creative lisence from (a) Arif et al. (2010) and (b) Hassan et al. (2010).
Figure 9. Curve DSC for thermoplastic and thermoset. Reused with permission from elsevier citing (Ratna 2012).
thermoplastic starch inherited and its high susceptibility to environmental moisture absorption. With
rising humidity, thermoplastic starch’s mechanical characteristics degrade exponentially (Lai et al.
2021). Adding inorganic or organic fillers enhances mechanical strength and barrier qualities (Osman
et al. 2021). The tensile toughness value will increase as the area under the curve increases, indicating
that the polymer exhibits better tensile strength and elongation at the break due to a more effective
energy absorption mechanism (Miles, Ball, and Matthew 2016). Bakar et al. (2005) conducted a study
examining the impact of incorporating OPEFB on the mechanical and thermal characteristics of
unplasticized poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) composites. The inclusion of OPEFB fibers in the PVC-U
matrix resulted in an enhancement of the flexural modulus. This improvement can be attributed to the
restriction of segmental mobility of the polymer chains in close proximity to the fibers. The introduc
tion of OPEFB at a concentration of 10 wt.% within PBS/starch/glycerol led to an increase in flexural
properties, yielding a value of 85 MPa. However, an inverse relationship was observed between the
impact strength of the composites and the OPEFB fiber content. This decline can be attributed to
factors such as fiber agglomeration, inadequate dispersion, and moisture absorption. The effect of
various weight percentages of kenaf and OPEFB hybrid compositions, as well as fiber fractions (wt.%),
on the mechanical and thermal properties of unsaturated polyester (UPE)/epoxidized palm oil (EPO)
composites, was investigated by Mustapha et al. (2022). The study focused on three different kenaf/
OPEFB hybridization compositions: 100/0, 90/10, 70/30, and 50/50 (wt.%), at three different fiber
weight fractions (9, 12, and 15%) reinforced in UPE/EPO resin. The alkali treatment effectively
eliminated a significant portion of the moisture, cellulose, and hemicellulose in both kenaf and
OPEFB fibers. The mechanical analysis demonstrated that a higher proportion of OPEFB in the
kenaf/OPEFB hybrid fiber composition enhanced Young’s modulus, tensile strength, elongation at
break, and impact strength of the resulting composite, particularly at 9 and 12% fiber fractions.
Table 7. Shows the thermoset and thermoplastic polymer mechanical properties.
Thermal properties of OPEFB composites

Figure 9. shows DSC curves illustrating melting, crystallization, and glass transition. The first
derivative of the free energy (enthalpy) versus temperature graphs constantly during melting is a
first-order thermodynamic change. Melting is a characteristic of crystalline materials characterized by
16
Table 7. Thermoset and thermoplastic polymer mechanical properties.

Thermoplastic
Flexural Tensile Impact
Strength Modulus Strength Modulus Strength

M. MAHARDIKA ET AL.
Fiber Type Matrix Treatments (MPa) (GPa) (MPa) (GPa) (kJ/m2) References
Oil palm ILDPE – OPMF/LLDPE was created using the hand lay-up technique. The - - 7.3–9.0 0.2–0.3 97–160 (Olusunmade,
mesocarp 5– mixture was then heat for 20 minutes at 150°C in an aluminum mold Adetan, and
25 wt.% (300 with 295 × 210× 6 mm dimensions. Ogunnigbo 2016)
mesh)
OPEFB 8–25 wt. PBS/starch/glycerol – Using an industrial extruder, the hybrid composites were created at a 55–69 2.8–3.3 - - 7–11 (Bakar, Hassan, and
% (300–600 temperature between 115 and 145°C and an 80 rpm rotating speed. Yusof 2005)
µm) – After melting the compound, it uses a calendaring machine to create
a sheet.
OPEFB 30–49 Unplasticized PVC – A high-speed mixer was used to combine PVC and OPEFB for 10 55–69 2.8–3.3 - - 7–11 (Bakar, Hassan, and
wt.% (75µm) minutes. The two roll mill was used to sheet Yusof 2005)
– The dry-blended PVC material for 10 minutes at 165°C.
– The mill sheet underwent a 5-minute hot pressing process at 180 C
and 120 kg/m2 of pressure.
OPEFB 5 vol.% Epoxy – Hand lay-up techniques were used to create epoxy/OPEFB 40.9 3.2 29.9 1.4 - (M. Y. M. Zuhri et al.
(10–20 mm) composites, which were then pressed to a 3 mm. 2010)
Oil palm shell Unsaturated − 1% methylethylketone peroxide (MKEP) was added to the - - 20 8.5 - (Sahari and Maleque
30% (1.0–2.8 polyester (UPE) compression mold technique used to create OPS-reinforced UPE, 2016)
mm) which was then given 24 hours to cure.
OPEFB 12 wt.% Unsaturated – Blended UPE/EPO made by combining 15% EPO and 85% UPE. On - - 1.3 1.5 1.8 (Mustapha et al.
(2 cm) polyester (UPE)/ the hot plate, the mixture was stirred at a temperature of 55 C. At 1.5 2022)
epoxidized oil phr, benzoyl peroxide (hardener) was added to the mix.
palm (EPO) – 6% NaOH solution was applied to kenaf and OPEFB fiber for 3 hours at
room temperature.
– Mats made of hybridized kenaf/OPEFB fiber were put within an
aluminum mold. UPE/EPO was poured until the resin wholly coated
and drenched the fibers. The composite was allowed to cure for two
hours at 100°C in the oven.
a sharp peak in the DSC, which is the heat flow versus temperature plot. Thermosets can not melt, but
some crystal segments can experience melting, polyurethane being one example. In comparison,
thermoplastic is easy to melt. A steep peak in the DSC, or heat flow versus temperature, indicates
softening, a property of crystalline materials. Although thermosets cannot melt, specific crystal
segments, like polyurethane, can. In contrast, thermoplastic dissolves easily (Ratna 2012).
Application of OPEFB composite

The potential for OPEFB composites as materials for high-performance applications is enormous. The
qualities of OPEFB can be improved with much work, specifically through fiber alterations, hybridiza
tion with other natural fibers in a synergistic way, the use of additives and enhancers in composites,
and the implementation of appropriate manufacturing processes for different purposes. Creating
OPEFB composites for high-performance applications across various industries is possible. Due to
its comparable mechanical properties to synthetic fibers, low manufacturing cost, acceptable thermal
and acoustic characteristics, and environmentally friendly processing, oil palm lignocellulosic fiber is
an attractive replacement material for polymer composite (Asyraf et al. 2022). Figure 10 shows the
application OPEFB composite.
Natural fiber-reinforced polymer composites have been widely used in numerous industries
to produce various items, including biorefinery OPEFB vis-a-vis composites. This progress has
been recorded during the previous few decades (Norizan et al. 2019; Panigrahi 2010) for
biodegradable packaging materials (A. Khalil et al. 2017) and structural and construction
materials. Furthermore, biomass from oil palm is used to make high-performance polymers
for use in ballistic and bulletproof applications (Nurazzi, Asyraf, Khalina, et al. 2021), thermal
Figure 10. Application OPEFB composite.

18
Table 8. Potential application of OPEFB fibers reinforced composites for building and construction materials.
Title Parametric study Remarks Ref.
Potential of Oil Palm (Elaeisguineensis) Empty Fruit Bunch - Pre-treatment of fibers with - Pre-treatment of fibers enhanced sorption resistance and mechanical (Omoniyi
Fibres Cement Composites for Building Applications water at varying temperatures properties. 2019)
- Chemical additive (NaOH) − NaOH concentration and fiber content influenced composite properties.
concentrations at different
levels
A preliminary study on the oil palm empty fruit bunch- − Reacting EFB and PEG with MDI − Flexural and impact properties influenced by EFB percentage and reinforcing (Rozman et al.
polyurethane (EFB-PU) composites effect 2010)
− Determining OH content by − PU matrix crucial for stress transfer to filler
M. MAHARDIKA ET AL.
reacting EFB with phthalic

anhydride
Empty Fruit Bunches as a Reinforcement in Laminated Bio- - Laminate configuration (Five-ply - Improvement in mechanical, physical, and thermal properties (A. H. P. S.
composites veneer laminated bio- Khalil et al.
composites) 2010)
− Alternately arranging oil palm - better water absorption, thickness swelling, bending strength, bending modulus, screw
trunk veneer and EFB mat withdrawal, and thermal stability
Tensile, physical and morphological properties of oil palm − Effect of hybridized − Hybrid composites show better performance and properties (Ramlee et al.
empty fruit bunch/sugarcane bagasse fiber reinforced 2019)
phenolic hybrid composites − 7OPEFB:3SCB hybrid composites have highest tensile strength and modulus
Characterization of Polymeric Foam Composite Reinforced Effect of nano EFB as a filler in - loading with 15% wt. of EFB showed the best tensile strength. (Adlie et al.
with Empty Fruit Bunch foam composite 2019)
- increased EFB loading, increasing the thermal stability.
Morphology and properties of EVA/empty fruit bunch Effects of the fiber and vinyl - SEM micrographs show fiber pull-outs and voids in EUO18/EFB composites. (Sefadi and
composites acetate (VA) contents of the Luyt 2012)
ethylene vinyl acetate
− No intimate contact between EUO18 and EFB.
Simultaneous effects of coupling agent and flame Effect of coupling agent - Tensile strength and flexural modulus of treated empty fruit bunch fibers- (Beg et al.
retardant on empty fruit bunch fiber/polypropylene composite with malic anhydride grafted polypropylene and flame retardant 2013)
composites increased by 23% and 133% more than the corresponding composite without
these additives.
Effects of Chemical Treatment on Oil Palm Empty Fruit - Effect of chemical treatment − Chemical treatments enhanced tensile strength and modulus (Arif, Yusoff,
Bunch Reinforced High Density Polyethylene such as silane treatment (MTS and Ahmad
Composites and VTS) 2010)
- Composites treated with 3% silane treatment (MTS) showed
highest reduction in water absorption and increase in tensile
strength and modulus.
Oil palm empty fruit bunch filled polypropylene − Effect of fiber loading − Tensile strength of composites increases with increasing EFB (Wirjosentono
composites loading up to 20% in the presence of acrylic acid and dicumyl peroxide. and Ismail
2004)
− Elongation at break shows a decreasing trend with
increasing filler loading.
(Continued)
Table 8. (Continued).
Title Parametric study Remarks Ref.
The Physical Properties of Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunch - Properties of EFB reinforced PE, - Flexural modulus increased for EFB-PE and EFB-PP composites. (Rozman et al.
(EFB) Composites Made from Various Thermoplastics PP, PS and PVC 1999)
- Flexural modulus decreased for EFB-PS and EFB-PVC composites.
Properties of Empty Fruit Bunches Eco-Composite Boards − Effect of density and resin -increased density of fiber board up to 700 kg/m3 increasing the (Wahab, Rasat,
from Elaeis guineesis content of fiber board maximum modulus of rupture and modulus of elasticity and Don
2017)
Mechanical performance of oil palm empty fruit bunches Effect of volume fraction. - loading with 50%wt. of EFB offers a highest tensile strength (22.31 N/mm2). (Adam and
fiber reinforced polyester resin − Water absorption increased with increasing percentage of EFB. Asik 2019)
Preparation and characterization of polyvinyl alcohol/oil Effect of fiber loading − Tensile strength of composite increases with EFB fiber (Ching et al.
palm empty fruit bunch fiber composite 2014)
− filler plays important role in determining mechanical properties
19
insulators, concrete building material, water treatment using carbon activation, and automotive
disk brake pads (Sahari and Maleque 2016). Additionally, oil palm biomass waste has been used
to create a variety of products with additional value, such as pulp and paper production,
nanocomposites, thermoset and thermoplastic composites, oriented strand board, blockboard,
and laminated veneer lumber, as well as particle, polywood, chip, and hardboard (Suhaily et al.
2012).
Table 8. shows the potential applications of OPEFB fibers reinforced composites for automotive.
OPEFB has shown potential as a reinforcing material in polymer composites, opening up various
applications in different industries. Some potential applications of OPEFB-reinforced polymer com
posites include construction and building materials, the automotive industry, packaging materials,
furniture and consumer goods, and the electrical and electronic industries. OPEFB-reinforced poly
mer composites can be used in the construction industry for structural components, wall panels,
roofing sheets, and insulation boards. The enhanced mechanical properties of these composites, such
as improved strength and stiffness, make them suitable for load-bearing applications. Empty fruit
bunch (OPEFB) composites have been studied for their potential use in building materials. Various
studies have shown that EFB fibers can enhance the physical and mechanical properties of composites.
Table 9 shows the potential application of EFB fibers reinforced composites for building and
construction materials. Omoniyi (2019) found that pre-treatment of EFB fibers with water at 60°C
and a NaOH concentration of 8% improved the performance of cement-bonded composites. Rozman
et al. (2010) highlighted the importance of forming a polyurethane matrix in OPEFB-polyurethane
composites for good stress transfer and improved flexural and impact properties. Khalil et al. (2010)
investigated laminated bio-composites reinforced with OPEFB and observed improvements in
mechanical, physical, and thermal properties. Ramlee et al. (2019) studied hybrid composites using
OPEFB and sugarcane bagasse fibers and found that the hybridization improved tensile strength,
water absorption, and thickness swelling. Adlie et al. (2019) explored the use of OPEFB fibers in
polymeric foam composites and observed enhanced tensile strength and thermal stability. These
studies have suggested that OPEFB composites have the potential for use in building materials due
to their enhanced properties.
OPEFB-reinforced polymer composites can find applications in the automotive sector, particularly
in manufacturing interior components, such as door panels, bulletboards, and seat backs. These
composites can provide lightweight alternatives to traditional materials while maintaining sufficient
strength and durability. OPEFB composites have been investigated for automotive applications.
OPEFB fibers have been used to reinforce epoxy resin for bumper beams in cars, replacing epoxy/
glass fiber composites (Witayakran et al. 2017). OPEFB-polyurethane (OPEFB-PU) composites were
also produced, with the flexural and impact properties influenced by the percentage of OH groups in
OPEFB and the reinforcing effect of the filler (Rozman et al. 2010). Composites based on ethylene
vinyl acetate (EVA) copolymers and EFB fibers were prepared, but further details were not provided
(Sefadi and Luyt 2012). Composites have been prepared from recycled polypropylene (RPP), OPEFB,
and/or glass fiber using extrusion and injection molding techniques (Islam et al. 2017). OPEFB fibers
have been treated in sodium hydroxide solution and used in composites with polypropylene, resulting
in improved mechanical properties with the addition of a coupling agent and flame retardant (Beg et
al. 2013). Overall, these studies suggested that OPEFB composites have the potential to be used as
green materials in automotive applications.
Table 9. shows the potential applications of OPEFB fibers reinforced composites for building and
construction materials.
Conclusions and future outlook

Indonesia, the world’s top palm oil producer, has an abundance of palm oil biomass that can be used as
a starting point for creating biocomposite materials. One type of solid waste biomass widely used in
palm oil mills is OPEFB. OPEFB can be manufactured in quantities of 22 to 23 million tons annually.
Table 9. Potential application of OPEFB fibers reinforced composites for automotive.
Title Insights Results Ref.
Development of Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunch Empty fruit bunch (EFB) fibers were used to reinforce epoxy resin - Chemical treatment with 30% NaOH provided (Witayakran et al.
Fiber Reinforced Epoxy Composites for for bumper beam in cars, providing an alternative green material stronger fibers 2017)
Bumper Beam in Automobile for automotive applications. − EFB fiber reinforced epoxy composite is a green
alternative for bumper beam in automobiles.
Characterization of microwave-treated oil palm The paper discusses the preparation of composites using oil palm - The density of composites increased due to (Islam et al. 2017)
empty fruit bunch/glass fibre/polypropylene empty fruit bunch and recycled polypropylene for potential incorporation of fibers.- The Microwave-treated
composites: automotive applications. fiber-based composite showed the maximum
density.
Dry Sliding Wear of Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunch The paper does not mention the use of empty fruit bunch - Mass loss values were higher for the smallest fiber (Salmiah, Anizah, and
(OPEFB) Epoxy Composite composites for automotive applications. size (100Âµm) at 30N load.- Mass loss values Ali 2011)
were relatively close for other fiber sizes.
Effect of polypropylene, ethylene vinyl acetate Empty fruit bunch composites, specifically recycled polypropylene/ − Mechanical properties improved with (Mohsin et al. 2015)
and polyamide-6 on properties of recycled empty fruit bunch (rPP/EFB) composites, can be used in incorporation of PP and
polypropylene/empty fruit bunch automotive applications. PA6.
composites − Thermal properties improved with incorporation
of EVA.
Low velocity impact and compression after The study investigates the impact and compression properties of - Non-irradiated Kevlar/OPEFB has greater impact (Amir et al. 2020)
impact properties on gamma irradiated Kevlar/oil palm empty fruit bunch hybrid composites, but it does resistance.
Kevlar/oil palm empty fruit bunch hybrid not specifically mention their application in the automotive − Gamma radiation improves compressive residual
composites industry. strength.
Empty Fruit Bunches as a Reinforcement in Empty fruit bunches were used as reinforcement in laminated bio- - Improvement in mechanical, physical, and (A. H. P. S. Khalil et al.
Laminated Bio-composites composites, resulting in improved mechanical, physical, and Thermal properties 2010)
thermal properties. - better water absorption, thickness swelling,
bending strength, bending modulus, screw
withdrawal, and Thermal stability
21
But only 10% of it is used; the rest is wasted (Padzil et al. 2020). OPEFB is an excellent raw material to
be extracted into cellulose or modified on its surface. The use of cellulose obtained from OPEFB has
yet to be thoroughly studied, especially in biocomposites. However, nanocellulose has very bright
prospects.
To the best of our knowledge, Almeida-Naranjo et al. (2022) who investigated the water absorption
behavior of OPEFB for fillers in acrylic thermoplastic composites presented their findings on the water
absorption behavior for composites. According to the scientists, the morphology of the composite, the
presence of functional groups, and the reinforcement’s properties all impacted the adsorption capa
city. Identifying polysaccharides, functional groups (mostly carboxyl and hydroxyl), porosity, and
voids in the reinforcement and composites revealed their presence. The morphology/size of the
reinforcement and the production temperature have the most impact on the composite’s ability to
absorb water. Notably, water absorption rises as processing temperature and particle size are reduced.
According to this study, to produce biomaterial composites with high water absorption, paying
attention to these aspects is required while creating composites.
Highlights
● Cellulose content in the OPEFB fibers increases the mechanical properties of the composite.
● OPEFB can potentially be used for thermoplastic and thermoset composites
● OPEFB can be produced for high-performance applications. Given that it has mechanical
properties that are comparable to those of synthetic fibers, acceptable thermal properties, and
processing that is ecologically friendly.
Acknowledgments
Direktorat Jenderal Pendidikan Tinggi, Riset, dan Teknologi, Kementrian Pendidikan, Kebudayaan, Riset, dan
Teknologi, Republic of Indonesia, Research Center for Biomass and Bioproducts, National Research and Innovation
Agency (BRIN), and Brawijaya University supported this work. The authors would like to highly acknowledge financial
support received from Universiti Pertahanan Nasional Malaysia (National Defence University of Malaysia).
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Funding
This work was supported by the Financial support received from Universiti Pertahanan Nasional Malaysia (National
Defence University of Malaysia) [-].
Author contributions
Melbi Mahardika conceived and designed the manuscript review. Aminatuz Zakiyah and Melbi Mahardika wrote the
manuscript. Siti Mariyah Ulfa, Rushdan Ahmad, Mohamad Zaki Hassan, and Devita Amelia approved the manuscript.
Victor Feizal Knight and Mohd Nor Faiz Norrrahim collaborated, institutional support, and responsibility for the
publication fees.
Ethics approval and consent to participate

There is no need for any ethical approval in this study given here in this manuscript.
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JOURNAL OF NATURAL FIBERS

2024, VOL. 21, NO. 1, 2309915

Recent Developments in Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunch (OPEFB) Fiber

Table 1. Various studies of fiber composition of OPEFB.

Morphology and single-cell dimensions

Figure 3. Schematic of OPEFB fiber structure.

Table 2. Structural properties of OPEFB as reported by various researchers.

Physical and Mechanical properties

Table 3. Physical and mechanical properties of OPEFB fiber.

Modification of OPEFB fibers

Figure 7. Schema isolation cellulose from OPEFB.

Table 4. Absorption bands for functional groups.

Table 5. Various pretreatment techniques for cellulose.

Oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB) reinforced thermoset composite

Oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB) reinforced thermoplastic composite

Composite manufacturing methods

Circular economy strategy

Properties of OPEFB composite

Thermal properties of OPEFB composites

Table 7. Thermoset and thermoplastic polymer mechanical properties.

Strength Modulus Strength Modulus Strength

Application of OPEFB composite

Figure 10. Application OPEFB composite.

reacting EFB with phthalic

Conclusions and future outlook

Ethics approval and consent to participate

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