Life process

All living organisms perform various life processes necessary for the organisms to maintain their life. Energy is
required to carry out these activities for their survival. The basic life processes common to all living
organisms’ excretion. Some of these processes are discussed in this chapter are nutrition, respiration,
transportation and

Nutrition

It is a process by which an organism obtains nutrients from food and utilises them to obtain energy, building
and repairing of their tissues. Nutrients are defined as the substances required for proper growth and
maintenance of a living body, i.e. these are materials, which provide energy to an organism.

Mode of Nutrition

It means method food by of procuring food organism. An All living organisms do not obtain food by the same
process. For example, plants and some bacteria have the green pigment chlorophyll to help synthesise food
by the process called photosynthesis. Likewise animals, fungi and other bacteria depend on plants and other
organisms for food. Based on this there are two main modes of nutrition, i.e. autotrophic and heterotrophic.

Autotrophic Nutrition

Some organisms use simple food materials obtained from inorganic sources in the form of carbon dioxide and
water. These organisms are termed as autotrophs. e.g. green plants and some bacteria. This mode of
nutrition is called autotrophic mode of nutrition.

Note: In chemosynthetic mode of nutrition, chemical energy is utilised by the organisms to prepare food.

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Plant Nutrition: Photosynthesis

 It is a complex process by which green parts of the plant synthesise organic food. This food is
prepared by green plants from carbon dioxide and water in the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll.

It involves the following reaction:

 The equation clearly indicates that the raw materials for photosynthesis are carbon dioxide and
water. The end products of photosynthesis is glucose (carbohydrate) and oxygen.

 Carbohydrates are utilised for providing energy to the plant. The remaining carbohydrates, which are
not used immediately are stored in the form of starch. It serves as the internal energy reserve and is
used by the plant whenever required. Glycogen serves as an internal energy reserve to be used when
required in animals.

Events in Photosynthesis:

Major events that occur during the process of photosynthesis are:

(1) Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll.

(2) Conversion of light energy into chemical energy and splitting of water molecules into hydrogen and
oxygen.

(3) Reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrates.

The above steps may or may not take place one after the other immediately, e.g. desert plants take up
carbon dioxide at night and prepare an intermediate compound. This intermediate compound is acted upon
by the energy absorbed during the day by the chlorophyll.

Site of Photosynthesis : Chloroplasts

 Leaves are the major photosynthetic organs of a plant. They have large surface area in the form of
leaves, vascular tissue for food and water supply and apparatus for gaseous exchange. Leaves
contain green coloured cell organelles called chloroplasts.

 Chloroplasts are the site of photosynthesis as they contain chlorophyll pigment.

Cross-Section of Leaf

Internally a leaf contains following main parts:

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(i) Epidermis- It is the outermost one cell thick layer of the leaf and consists of two distinct parts. Upper
epidermis does not contain chloroplasts. It protects the internal leaf tissues by preventing excessive water
loss through evaporation. Lower epidermis contains stomata which help in the gaseous exchange in plant.

(ii) Stomata- These are tiny pores, mostly found in the lower epidermis. They allow gases to enter and exit
the leaf more rapidly between the plant and atmosphere.

(iii) Guard cells- These are bean-shaped cells that frame the stomatal openings. They contain chloroplasts and
have cell wall.

Conditions Necessary for Photosynthesis

Various experiments have shown that the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll are necessary for
photosynthesis.

They are discussed below:

(i) Sunlight Intensity, quality and duration of sunlight affect the rate of photosynthesis.

(ii) Chlorophyll A green coloured photosynthetic pigment found in chloroplast of a plant. It is responsible for
trapping solar energy.

Raw Materials for Photosynthesis

Following raw materials are essential to carry out the process of photosynthesis in plants.

(i)Carbon dioxide it is released into the atmosphere during cellular respiration by organisms and enters the
leaf through stomata. Later are tiny pores present on the surface of leaves through which massive amount of
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gaseous exchange takes place. Apart from this, surface of stems, leaves and roots also contribute in the
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gaseous exchange.
Note: Aquatic plants (eg. Hydrilla, Vallisnaria) use CO₂ dissolved in water for photosynthesis.

(ii) Water It is absorbed by roots from the soil and transported upward through xylem to the leaves and then
to photosynthetic cell. These water molecules split in the presence of sunlight to form hydrogen and oxgyen.
This is called photolysis of water. Hydrogen ions are used to reduce CO2 and O₂ is given off as by product.

(iii) Other materials Mineral nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, iron and magnesium are also taken up from
the soil. Nitrogen is an essential element used in the synthesis of proteins and other compounds. It is taken
up in the form of inorganic nitrates (or nitrites) or as organic compounds prepared by symbiotic bacteria like
Rhizobium from atmospheric nitrogen.

Heterotrophic Nutrition

In heterotrophic mode of nutrition, organisms cannot prepare food on their own. Heterotrophs obtain
energy from organic molecules already produced by the autotrophs. For this, such organisms use biocatalysts
called enzyme. The heterotrophic forms of nutrition differ in various organisms depending on the type,
availability and process of obtaining food materials by an organism.

Accordingly, there are herbivores, carnivores, omnivore, saprotrophs and parasites, included in,
heterotrophs. Heterotrophic mode of nutrition can be of following three main types:

(1) Holozoic nutrition: Herbivores (plant-eaters) carnivores (meat-eaters) and omnivores (both plant and
meat-eaters) possess the holozoic mode of nutrition Complex food molecules are taken in and then broken
down into simpler and soluble molecules in this type of nutrition, e.g. Amoeba, cow, goat, dog, cat, human
being etc.

(ii) Saprotrophic nutrition (saprophytic nutrition) : Saprotrophs are the organisms which feed upon dead
organic matter, these breaking down complex material outside the body and absorbing it, e.g. fungi like
bread moulds, mushrooms, yeast and bacteria.
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(iii) Parasitic nutrition : Parasites are the organisms having parasitic nutrition. These organisms live either on
or inside the body of other organism (host) to obtain their nutrition without killing them, e.g. Plasmodium,
ticks, lice, leech, tapeworm, flatworm, plants like Cuscuta (amarbel), yellow rattle etc.

Nutrition in Amoeba

Amoeba is a unicellular, omnivore organism. The mode of nutrition in Amoeba is holozoic. It takes place with
the help of pseudopodia (finger-like extensions). It engulfs the food when it comes in contact with its cell
surface by ingestion. Pseudopodia fuses over the food role particle to form a food vacuole.

Inside the food vacuole, complex food breaks into small- soluble molecules and gets readily absorbed by the
cytoplasm, i.e. absorption. The undigested food material is removed by the cell membrane, which ruptures
suddenly at any place and eliminates out the undigested food, i.e. egestion.

Note: Paramecium is another unicellular organism, which has definite shape. The food is taken in at a specific
spot in it. Food reaches this spot by the movement of cilia, which cover the entire surface of the cell.

Nutrition in Human Beings

In human beings, the process of intake of essential nutrients in the form of food takes place through an entire
system known as digestive system.

Digestion is a catabolic process in which complex and large components of food are broken down into their
respective simpler and smaller forms with the help of various hydrolytic enzymes. These simpler forms are
further taken up by different parts of body and are finally absorbed. The human digestive system constitutes
a long tubular structure called alimentary canal and various digestive glands associated with it. These glands
secrete different digestive enzymes.
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Alimentary Canal

It is a long (about 7-8 m) tube, where the entire process of digestion takes place. The complete process of
ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation and egestion of food material is done within the alimentary
canal itself.

The major portions of alimentary canal are discussed below:

(i) Mouth: It is the first part of the digestive system from where the food enters into the alimentary canal.
Mouth is mainly comprised of two major parts:

• Tongue: It is a highly muscular sensory organ present at floor of buccal cavity. It bears several taste buds
and helps in mixing of food with saliva. Apart from this, it is also helpful in producing speech.

• Teeth:These are hard structures present on the bones of both lower and upper jaw. Teeth are basically
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used for the purpose of grinding, cutting and chewing of food.

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(ii) Pharynx: Small funnel-shaped chamber located behind the oral cavity. It communicates with both
oesophagus and trachea (windpipe).

(iii) Oesophagus: It is a thin, long muscular tube that leads into stomach.

(iv) Stomach: It is the most dilated J-shaped part of the alimentary canal. It is situated between the
oesophagus and the small intestine, below the diaphragm. It serves as a storehouse of food where partial
digestion takes place through the secretion of gastric glands. The muscular walls of stomach helps in mixing
the food properly.

(v) Small intestine: It is the longest part of the alimentary canal. It is fitted in a compact space as extensively
coiled structure in our belly. The length of small intestine differs in all organisms depending upon their food
habits, e.g. herbivores have long small intestine to facilitate cellulose digestion. Carnivores have shorter
length of small intestine as meat is easily digestible.

Small intestine is the site of complete digestion of food into different components. Secretions from liver and
pancreas enter the intestine to help the digestion process. The inner lining of the small intestine has
numerous finger-like projections called villi, which increases the surface area for absorption.

(vi) Large intestine: Although shorter, but is called large intestine because it is wider in diameter than small
intestine. Appendix is the part of large intestine.

(vii) Rectum: It is the last and broad chamber-like structure that serves to store faecal ma matter
temporarily.

(viii) Anus: It is the end point of alimentary canal, which helps in exit of waste materials. This process is
regulated by anal sphincter.

Dental Caries (Tooth Decay)

It is a condition, which causes gradual softening of enamel and dentine. It usually begins when bacteria acting
on sugars produce acids and soften or demineralise the enamel. Masses of bacterial cells together with food
particles stick to the teeth to form dental plaque. Due to this, the saliva fails to reach the tooth surface to
neutralise the acid because plaque covers the teeth. Brushing the teeth after eating removes the plaque
before the bacteria produce acids. If untreated, microorganisms may invade the pulp, causing inflammation
and infection.

Digestive Glands

Various glands are associated with alimentary canal serving the process of digestion of food. These are given
below:

(i) Salivary glands These glands are of three types and enzyme called salivary amylase (ptyalin). It converts
starch into sugar at an optimum pH of about 7. It is due to these salivary glands that our mouth waters when
we eat or smell something we like. secrete saliva containing an
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(ii) Gastric glands These are found in the wall of the stomach. The gastric glands release digestive juice
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containing HCl, pepsin, mucus etc.

Hydrochloric acid (HCI) kills the bacteria ingested with food. It creates an acidic medium of pH about 2,
facilitating the action of pepsin enzyme. It acts on proteins present in food.

Due to this highly acidic nature of HCl, the digestion of starch in stomach is prevented. It also prepares the
ingested food for further processing in the small intestine. The mucus protects the lining of the stomach from
the action of the hydrochloric acid produced under normal conditions.

(iii) Liver It is known as the largest gland of the body, which secretes bile juice. These juices act on large fat
molecules to form smaller globules, increasing the efficiency of enzyme action. Gall bladder stores bile juices
for the further use.

(iv) Intestinal glands Walls of small intestine contain numerous glands that secrete intestinal juice containing
amylolytic, proteolytic and lipolytic enzymes.

(v) Pancreas It secretes pancreatic juice, which contains enzymes like amylase, trypsin and lipase. It is
connected to the small intestine through its main duct called pancreatic duct.

Mechanism of Digestion of Food

The food we eat contains various components like carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals etc.

Various steps involved in digestion of these nutrients is given below:

1. Ingestion

It is the process of intake of food by mouth. Food is moistened by saliva, before swallowing, masticated by
teeth into smaller particles.

2. Digestion

The process of breaking down large organic molecules (like carbohydrates) into smaller molecules (like simple
sugars) is called digestion. It is done with the help of enzymes.

It is completed in following main steps:

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3. Absorption

It is the process by which digested food passes from the alimentary canal into the blood. All the digested food
is taken up by the walls of intestine, which has numerous villi and lacteals (small lymph capillary found in the
villi of the small intestine). Villi increase the surface area of absorption.

4. Assimilation

It is the distribution of digested food products to various cells of the body. The villi in small intestine are richly
supplied with blood vessels. It take up the absorbed food to each and every cell of the body. It is then utilised
for obtaining energy, building up new tissues and repairing the older ones.

5. Egestion

The elimination of undigested food formed in the colon of the large intestine through anus is called egestion.
Peristalsis gradually pushes the undigested food from small intestine to large intestine. The remaining
material after reabsorption of water and ions is stored in the rectum for sometime and is ultimately removed
from the body through anus.

Peristalsis

It is the necessary action of digestive process and is essential for moving food in a regulated manner along
the digestive tube. The lining of the alimentary canal has muscles. Which contract rhythmically in order to
push the food forward. These movements are called peristaltic movement. They occur all along the gut. e g. it
occurs in oesophagus when food is moved into stomach.

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