Three Cell Circulations

This model represents average circulation of the atmosphere. Its used to describe atmospheric
transport of energy. It considers the effect of coriolis force. With rotating earth, the winds are
subject to both the pressure gradient and Coriolis force.
Winds moving from areas of high pressure to those of low pressure are deflected to the right of
their path in the northern hemisphere and to the left of their path in the southern hemisphere. For
a rotating earth, the pressure distribution patterns are more cellular than zonally owing to the
differential heating of land and water surface. If we impose the varied topography of the earth’s
surface on this, the pattern of wind system will be more complex. In this model, the northern and
southern hemispheres are divided into 3 cells of circulation, each spanning 30˚ of latitudes 0˚,
30˚North and South, 60˚ North and South and 90˚).

The Hadley Cell

Gorge Hadley (1735) propounded the Hadley cell. It is the strongest of the 3 cells. It is formed as
warm air rises at the equator and flows northwards. The rising air cools, condenses and forms
precipitation. This area is called inter-tropical convergence zone(ITCZ). The ITCZ moves north
and south following the sun during the year. The rising air reaches the tropopause and move
polewards. By the time it reaches 30 dgr north and south it becomes westerlies moving to the
east due to coriolis force. Because of conservation of angular momentum, the pole ward moving
air increases speed. This increased speed and coriolis force are responsible for subtropical jet
streams. The poleward moving air lead to formation of semi-permanent high pressure belt at the
surface that result from the sinking air at 30˚.
Once sinking air reaches the ground some flow steadily to the equator turning west due to
coriolis force and some flow northwards.

The Polar Cell

It is the northern cell of circulation (60˚ to 90˚) At poles cold air descends causing high pressure.
Since coriolis is strongest, at the poles, the southward moving air deflected to the right. This
wind is called surfaces polar easterlies. Near 60˚, the south easterly moving air which moves
along the surface collides with north westerly surfaces flow spreading from 30˚ N and S. This
collision creates low pressure near 60˚.

Ferrel Cell
This is the mid latitude circulation cell between polar cell and Hadley cell. Westerly flow
dominates the Ferrel cell at surface. The cell is forced phenomenon induced by interaction
between the other cells. The stronger downward vertical motion and surface convergence at 30˚
North and south coupled with surface convergence and ne upward vertical motion at 60˚ North
and South induces the circulation of Ferrel cell.

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Relief can influence the wind systems in various ways. First they can pose a barrier to airflow;
secondly, they can have a channelling effect on air flow. Relief also reduces wind speed at low
levels through frictional drag on airflow.
The global pattern of general circulations is thus influenced by a change in any of the factors
discussed above. The global wind systems discussed above are for the surface level only. Other
wind systems like the Ross by waves, easterly waves and jet streams are also encountered at the
middle and upper levels of the atmosphere.

Earth Surface Temperature and the Controlling Factors

Is how hot or cold (degree of heat) the atmosphere is, how many degrees it is above or below
freezing. Temperature is a very important factor in determining the weather, because it
influences or controls other elements of the weather, such as precipitation, humidity, clouds and
atmospheric pressure.

Factors affecting temperature on the surface of the earth

(a) Altitude: Temperature decreases with increasing altitude at the rate of 0.6°C for every 100 m
of ascent as the atmosphere gets heated by terrestrial radiation. The lower layers of atmosphere
are dense and have water vapor and dust particles which absorb heat, which is not prevalent in
the higher altitude. Missouri is cooler than Delhi.

(b) Distance from the sea: Places located on the coast have moderate temperature as they are
affected by land and sea breezes. Places away from the coast have extremely high of

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temperature. Madras on the coast has moderate temperature and Delhi has extremes of
temperature.

(c) Prevailing winds: Places which are affected by prevailing on-shore winds have moderate
temperature as compared to places which are affected by off-shore (land) winds.

(d) Ocean currents: Warm currents raise the temperature of the places, and places affected by
cold currents have lower temperature. Winds blowing over the warm current also bring heavy
rainfall in the region. Whereas winds blowing over cold current absorb less moisture hence the
rainfall is less, e.g., North eastern Canada is affected by the cold Labrador Current hence it
remains frozen in winters, whereas Northwestern Europe in the same latitude is affected by the
warm North Atlantic drift and has ice-free ports in winters.

(f) Other factors affecting the temperature of a place are: direction of mountains, slope of the
land and vegetation, soil.

The atmosphere is heated through three ways:

a. Radiation – long wave(outgoing) and short wave(incoming)

b. Conduction – air and ground
c. Convection –convectional movement of air

Precipitation
Is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that falls under gravity.
The main forms of precipitation include dew, rain, mist and fog, snow and hail.
Precipitation occurs when a portion of the atmosphere becomes saturated with water vapor, so
that the water condenses. Thus, fog and mist are not precipitation but suspensions, because the
water vapor does not condense sufficiently to precipitate.
Two processes, possibly acting together, can lead to air becoming saturated: cooling the air or
adding water vapor to the air.
Precipitation is a major component of the water cycle, and is responsible for depositing the fresh
water on the planet.

Atmospheric pressure
Atmospheric pressure, sometimes also called barometric pressure, is the pressure exerted by
the weight of air in the atmosphere of Earth (or that of another planet). In most circumstances
atmospheric pressure is closely approximated by the hydrostatic pressure caused by the weight of
air above the measurement point.
Low-pressure areas have less atmospheric mass above their location, whereas high-pressure
areas have more atmospheric mass above their location. Likewise, as elevation increases, there is
less overlying atmospheric mass, so that atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing
elevation
Factors influencing air pressure
Altitude: Pressure decrease with increasing altitude.
Air pressure increase when air descend because it is compressed reducing its volume

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Temperature: When air is heated it expands spreading its molecules outwards over a large area.
This causes pressure to drop.
When air is cooled, it contracts spreading over a small area hence causing high pressure.
These changes lead to development of pressure cells.
A pressure cell is an area of low or high pressure concentration.
Pressure is low in areas of high temperature and high in areas of low temperature.
At sea level in the tropics, high temperature produce low pressure and low temperature areas
have high pressure.
Pressure gradient is the difference in pressure between high and low pressure zones. This cause
air to moves from high to low pressure zones.
Earth rotation: Due rotation of the earth, the air masses are displaced towards the equator where
it expands because of wider space hence causing reduction in pressure.
Also, at the equator there is intense heating. Air rises and spread towards poles. It contracts and
pressure rises at latitudes 30N and 30S.
It descends because it is dense and heavy building high pressure at 30N and 30S to form
Subtropical high pressure zone.
On the surface it spreads to different directions i.e. equatorial and temperate low pressure zones
of 60N and 60S.

World Distribution of Pressure Zones

1) The Equatorial Low pressure Zone (ITCZ)

 It is found between 23 ½ ◦N and 23 ◦S
 It experiences high temperatures.
 It is a zone of low pressure and doldrums (light and intermediate winds).
 It is a zone where S.E and N.E Trade Winds converge to form ITCZ.
 It is associated with convectional rain and thunderstorms.
 It migrates to the N and with the apparent movement of the overhead sun.

2) The Sub-tropical High Pressure Zone

 It is found at 30◦N and 30◦S latitudes.
 It is a zone of high pressure.
 It is a region of calm descending air.

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 It is a source of Trade Winds and Westerlies.
 It is a zone of divergence of T. Winds and Westerlies.

3) The Temperate Low Pressure Zone

 It found within 60˚N and 60˚S.
 It is a low pressure zone.
 It is a zone of convergence of westerlies and polar easterlies.

4.) The Polar High Pressure Zone

 It is found over the poles 90˚N and 90˚S.
 It is a high pressure Zone.
 It’s a zone of descending calm air of low temperature.
 It is source of polar easterlies.

N/B
When the sun shifts to Northern hemisphere, the ITCZ also shifts northwards.
The sun shifts to South hemisphere, the sun also shifts southwards.

Air Masses
-They are distinct large parcels of air moving in one direction
-They originate from areas of uniform weather and topography from where they derive their
characteristics e.g. flat areas, forests, deserts, and snow covered areas.

Characteristics of Air Masses

 They are large volume of air.
 They cover extensive areas.
 They have uniform temperature and humidity.
 They retain its characteristics when it moves away.

Types of air Masses

a.)Equatorial Air Mass
 Originate from equatorial oceans.
 It’s hot and unstable.

b.)Sub-tropical Air Mass

 Forms near sub-tropical high pressure belt.
c.)Polar Air Mass
 Forms near the poles or temperate low pressure zone.
 It’s cool.

d.)Arctic and Antarctic air Masses

 Forms over the ice sheets of Greenland and Antarctica respectively.

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Effect of air masses on Weather
 When warm moist air mass and cool air mass meet cyclonic rainfall is formed e.g.
tropical maritime and polar maritime.
 Cool air masses take cooling effect to the areas they move to e.g. polar continental.
 If they are warm they take warming influence to the area they move to e.g. tropical
continental.

Pressure Systems in the World

1.) Cyclone

Characteristics
 It’s a low pressure system characterised by low pressure at the centre and increases outwards.
 It develops at the front.
 Air moves in to take place of the rising warm air.
 The movement of wind is anticlockwise in the N. hemisphere and clockwise in the S.
hemisphere.
 Cyclones cause rainy stormy weather.
 It’s of two types
a.) Depressions
It develops at the polar fronts i.e. in temperate low pressure belts 60N and 60S
It attracts polar dry easterlies and moist westerlies.
Examples hurricanes, typhoons and Willy willies
b.)Tropical Cyclones
It develop at intertropical front where North Easterly and South Easterly trade winds
converge
It’s a system of extreme low pressure at the centre forming an “eye”.

Anticyclone
 It is a high pressure system characterized by high pressure at the centre and decreases
outwards.
 Pressure is high at the centre and decrease outwards hence winds spiral around and out from
the centre.
 It forms where air descend from atmosphere onto ground

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 Air blows outward on the ground and are deflected to the right in the Northern hemisphere
and left in the Southern hemisphere
 Weather brought about by anticyclones is dry and clear.

 It starts in areas where air is descending from the atmosphere onto the ground and then blows
outwards on the ground.
 The movement of wind is clockwise in the N. hemisphere and anticlockwise in the S.
hemisphere.

The Worlds Prevailing Winds

These are the major winds blowing over the earth frequently and consistently and which
influence the world weather:- Planetary winds and Local winds

1. Planetary winds

In the Northern Hemisphere

a.)North Easterly Trade Winds
 They blow from 30N sub-tropical high pressure zone and blow to the equatorial low pressure
belt.
 They converge at ITCZ (low pressure zone)
 They are deflected to the right in the Northern hemisphere.
b.)South Westerlies

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 They originate from sub-tropical high pressure zone and blow to the 60˚N temperate low
pressure belt.
 They are deflected to the right to become South westerlies.
c.)The Polar Easterlies
 They originate from polar high pressure zone and blow to 60˚N temperate low pressure zone.
 They are irregular in the Northern hemisphere because of prescsnce of land masses
 They are deflected to the right

In the Southern Hemisphere

a.)South Easterly Trade winds
 They blow from 30˚S to equator
 They converge at the ITCZ
 They are deflected to the left in the Southern hemisphere

b.)North Westerlies
 They blow from 30˚S to 60˚S(low pressure temperate zone)
 They are deflected to the left

c.)Polar Easterlies
 They flow from poles to 60˚S
 They are regular in the Southern hemisphere because of vast water bodies
 They are deflected to the left

2) Local Winds
 They are seasonal winds which reverse in the direction of flow.
 Which occur regularly for a short period of time affecting a limited area.
 They blow towards the land during summer (onshore) and from the land during winter (off
shore).
 They bring heavy rains when onshore which can cause severe flooding.
 Well developed in the Indian Sun-continent, china, Japan and S.E Asia.
 Modify the weather of the area they blow to.

Types of Local Winds

1) Sea Breeze
It is a light and gentle wind which blows from the sea to the adjacent land.

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How it Forms
 During the day land is heated faster than the sea.
 Air over the land is warmed and rises creating low pressure.
 Air from the sea moves to the land to replace the rising warm air.
 The rising air from the land cools and descends over the sea at high altitude.
 Circulation continues until the pressure difference is reversed at night.

Effects on weather
It takes cooling effect on land on a hot afternoon.
2. Land Breeze
-A light and gentle wind which blows from land to the sea during the night.

How it Forms

 At night land loses heat faster than the sea.

 Air over the sea remains warm and rises up.
 Air from the land (cold air) moves to the sea to replace the rising warm air.
 Rising air from the sea descends over land at high altitude.
 Circulation continues until pressure difference is reversed during the day.

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Effects on weather
It causes early morning showers through moisture brought towards land at high altitude

3.) Anabatic winds (Valley Breeze)

-Cool local winds which blow from the valley to the hill tops during summer.

How it Forms
 During the day hill tops are heated more than valley bottoms.
 Air over the hill tops is warmed and rises creating low pressure.
 Cool air from the valley move up to the hill top to replace the rising air.

Effect on weather
-It causes afternoon showers on hilly grounds.

4.) Katabatic/Descending Winds

-Cold local winds which blow from hill tops to the valley during the night.
 During the night hill tops lose heat faster than the valley.
 Air over the valley is warmed and rises.
 Cool air over the hill tops move to the valley by gravity to replace the rising air.

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Effect on Weather
-It takes chilly conditions on valley bottoms.
5.)Harmattan Winds
-N.E winds which originate from Sahara and blow across W. Africa between November and
March taking dry conditions there.
-They are dry and dusty because they originate and blow over the desert

6.) Monsoon winds

They are seasonal winds which show reversal in direction of flow according to seasons.

Monsoons are caused by the following factors:

 Extreme heating and cooling of large land masses in relation to the surrounding sea,
which impacts on pressure and winds.
 The Himalayas that is high enough interfere with general atmospheric circulation.

a) Summer monsoon

The ITCZ shifts northwards as the sun is overhead at the Tropic of Cancer. Insolation over
Northern India increases, causing air to rise and creating low pressure.

Equatorial maritime (Em) and Tropical maritime (Am) air is drawn north and diverted northeast
due to the Coriolis force. The humid unstable air results in rainfall. Amounts are increased as air
is forced aloft over the Himalayas and Western Ghats. The rainfall is vital for the cultivation of
rice.

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b) Winter monsoon

Low temperatures over central Asia create areas of high pressure, at the same time, the sub-
tropical jet and ITCZ shift south. Low pressure develop near Australia and high pressure in
central Asia. Winds flow from Asia to Australia in month of January

Air moving out from the area of high pressure is very dry and becomes drier as it crosses over
the Himalayas, causing clear skies and sunny weather over most of India from November to
May.

Factors influencing Wind Flow (Speed and direction)

1. Pressure Gradient
If the pressure difference between high and low pressure areas is high the winds blow at high
speed (strong) but if it’s low they blow at high speed (are gentle).
2. distance between Places of High and Low Pressure areas
If the high and low pressure areas are near each other winds blow at high speed but if distant
from each other winds blow at low speed.

3. Rotation of the earth

Rotation of the earth deflects winds to the right in the N. hemisphere and to the left in the S.
hemisphere.
4. Frictional Force
If the surface of the earth is rugged or has obstacles such as hills, mountains, valleys or
vegetation the wind is blocked causing speed reduction and its direction of flow is also changed.
5.) Coriolis force
It is the deflective force which result from rotation of the earth
It is strong at poles resulting in polar easterlies.
6.) Centrifugal force
In anticyclones, air move along the curved course. In the Northern hemisphere air move n
clockwise direction and in Cyclones it moves in anticlockwise direction.

GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION OF CLIMATES

CLIMATE
Is commonly defined as the weather averaged over a long period. The standard averaging period
is 30 years, but other periods may be used depending on the purpose. Climate also includes
statistics other than the average, such as the magnitudes of day-to-day or year-to-year variations.

Climate is the averaged statistics of weather. It is measured by assessing the patterns of variation
in temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, precipitation, atmospheric particle count
and other meteorological variables in a given region over a long periods of time.

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Factors Affecting Climate

There are many different factors that affect climate around the world. It is the varying influence
of these factors that lead to different parts of the Earth experiencing differing climates. The most
important natural factors are:

1. Distance from the sea (Continentality)

Coastal areas are cooler and wetter than inland areas. Clouds form when warm air from inland
areas meets cool air from the sea. The centre of continents are subject to a large range of
temperatures. In the summer, temperatures can be very hot and dry as moisture from the sea
evaporates before it reaches the centre of the land mass.

2. Ocean currents
Ocean currents can increase or reduce temperatures.

Warm ocean currents warm area where they are found while cold ocean currents bring cold
conditions. When a cold ocean current and a warm ocean current meet, the temperatures are
moderated.

3. Direction of prevailing winds

Winds that blow from the sea to the land often bring rain to the coast and dry weather to inland
areas. Winds that blow to Britain from warm inland areas such as Africa will be warm and
dry. Winds that blow to Britain from inland areas such as central Europe will be cold and dry in
winter. Britain's prevailing (i.e. most frequently experienced) winds come from a south westerly
direction over the Atlantic. These winds are cool in the summer, mild in the winter and tend to
bring wet weather.

4. The shape of the land ('relief')

Climate can be affected by mountains. Mountains receive more rainfall than low lying areas
because as air is forced over the higher ground it cools, causing moist air to condense and fall out
as rainfall.

The higher the place is above sea level the colder it will be. This happens because as altitude
increases, air becomes thinner and is less able to absorb and retain heat. That is why you may see
snow on the top of mountains all year round.

5. Distance from the equator

The distance from the equator affects the climate of a place. At the poles, energy from the sun
reaches the Earth's surface at lower angles and passes through a thicker layer of atmosphere than
at the equator. This means the climate is cooler further from the Equator. The poles also
experience the greatest difference between summer and winter day lengths: in the summer there
is a period when the sun does not set at the poles; conversely the poles also experience a period
of total darkness during winter. In contrast, daylength varies little at the equator.

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 6. Human influence
The factors above affect the climate naturally. However, we cannot forget the influence of
humans on our climate. Early on in human history our effect on the climate would have been
quite small. However, as populations increased and trees were cut down in large numbers, so
our influence on the climate increased. Trees take in carbon dioxide and produce oxygen. A
reduction in trees will therefore have increased the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

The Industrial Revolution, starting at the end of the 19th Century, has had a huge effect on
climate. The invention of the motor engine and the increased burning of fossil fuels have
increased the amount of carbon dioxide (a greenhouse gas - more on that later) in the
atmosphere. The number of trees being cut down has also increased, reducing the amount of
carbon dioxide that is taken up by forests.

CLASSIFICATION OF CLIMATES

It is difficult to classify climates into distinct climatic zones because of transition zones.

Miller’s classification
In this classification, temperature is used to identify major areas while precipitation for the sub-
divisions.

According to Miller, the world climatic classification can be grouped into:-

 Hot climates
 Warm temperate
 Cool temperate
 Arctic/tundra
 Mountain

a) HOT CLIMATES
Found approximately 200 N&S of equator.
They include:-
 Equatorial climate
 Tropical monsoon
 Savannah continental interior
 Tropical deserts

Equatorial climates
Found within 50 N & S of the equator but can extent to 100 N & S
Found in the following regions
 Amazon Basin, Along the West coast of Africa, Congo basin, South east Asia

Characteristics
a. High temp of about 270C
b. Small annual temp ranges of between 00C to 350C coz of more or less equal day length
c. High rainfall between 1500-2000mm pa coz of ITCZ

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 d. Double maxima rainfall regime when the sun is overhead the equator.
e. Low diurnal temp range approx 60C
f. High humidity due to high rainfall
g. Major winds are South east and North east trade winds
h. Thick cloud cover all year round
i. Low pressure
j. Rainfall mainly convectional

Tropical monsoon climates

Experienced in the tropical and temperate latitudes
Found in:-
Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, China, Philippines, North coast of Australia, Guinea Bissau, Sierra
Leone

Characteristics
a. Temp ranges between 150C in the cool season to 320C in in hot seaon
b. Experiences a moderate temperature ranges of between 90C and 180C
c. High rainfall during summer
d. Dry season during winter
e. Low pressure during summer hence wind begin to blow onshore bringing heavy rainfall
f. High pressure in winter hence winds blow offshore
g. Cloudy skies in summer and clear skies in winter
h. Annual rainfall varies greatly depending on relief and onshore winds

Tropical maritime
Stretches between 100C to 250C N & S of equator
Found in
Southern Mexico, Nicaragua, Guatemala, Venezuela, Cuba Haiti, Jamaica, Kenya, Tanzania,
Mozambique, Malagasy

Characteristics
a. Summer temp are very high
b. Winters are cool
c. Rainfall high during summer because of onshore winds
d. Annual temp range is about 80C
e. Winds blow offshore in winter hence winters are dry
f. Pressure is low in summer and high in winter
g. Humidity is high in summer but low in winter
h. Orographic and convectional rainfall are common

Tropical continental climate/savannah/Sudan type

Stretches between 50 to 100 N & S of equator
Found in
South east cost of Amazon, Senegal, Eastern Africa, N part of Sudan, South Africa, and Interior
Australia

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Characteristics
a. High temps approx 320C in the hot season which coincides with the overhead sun
b. Cool temperatures of about 210C in the cool season
c. Annual temp is about 170C
d. Large diurnal temp range in dry seasons
e. Rainfall is seasonal
f. Convectional rainfall in summer
g. Cool months are dry because of offshore winds
h. Annual rainfall totals approx 765 to 1000mm pa
i. High humidity in rainy season and low humidity in dry season
j. Trade winds common
k. Rainfall decreases away from the equatorial region

Tropical desert climate

Lies between 15 and 350 N & S of equator
Found in :-
Sahara, Kalahari, Namib, Australian desert, Arabian Desert, Atacama deserts, Thar Desert of
Asia

Characteristics

a. Low rainfall approx 250mm

b. Rainfall is unreliable
c. Mean monthly temp very high in dry season approx 290C and very low in cold season
approx 100C
d. Large diurnal temp ranges of about 200C
e. Temp are low at night and ice form due to radiation
f. Solar radiation is high
g. Humidity is low
h. Flash floods and thunderstorms are common
i. Winds are warm and dry hence no rain
j. Skies are always cloudless thus high temp of about 380C
k. No real defined rain season

b) WARM TEMPERATE CLIMATES

Lie in regions with divergence of winds. Eg trade winds blow towards the equator while
westerlies blow towards the poles
 Warm temperate western margin
 Warm temperate interior
 Warm temperate eastern margin
Warm temperate western margin/Mediterranean
Lies between 30-400 N & S of the equator
Found in:-
California cost of N America, southern tip of Africa, around Mediterranean sea, Central Chile,
South West and Southern Australia.

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Characteristics
a) Temp range between 210C in summer and 100C or below in winter
b) Mean annual temp range of about 80C
c) Summers are dry because of offshore winds
d) Cyclonic rain in winter because of onshore winds
e) Moderate rainfall between 500-900mm pa depending on location and altitude
f) The western side of the receives more rainfall but this reduces inland
g) Foggy conditions are experienced in the coastal areas that are washed by cold ocean
currents
h) Has 4 seasons, that is, summer, winter, autumn, and spring
i) Winters are cool
j) Area receive both hot and cool winds
k) There is long sunshine duration of high intensity during summer

Warm temperate interior/warm temperate continental climate

Also known as steppe type of climate
Found between 30 – 500 N & S of the equator
Found in:-
Prairies of S America, pampas of Argentina, Veldt of S Africa and downs of Australia

Characteristics
a) Summers are short and warm with temp between 18 and 210C
b) Temp range between 2- 60C in winter
c) Long and cool winters
d) Experiences extreme temp conditions because of continentality
e) Precipitation throughout the year with most rain in summer and snow in winter
f) Summer rain caused by depression and convection
g) Moderate rain of about 500mm
h) Humid in summer

Warm temperate eastern margin

Also known as China type or humid sub-tropical
Lies between 23-350 N & S
Found in:-
Coastal area of Durban S Africa, C China, Coastal regions of Australia

Characteristics
a) Moderate rainfall of between 760 – 1500 mm pa
b) Summers are hot at 260C and winters at 130C
c) Trade winds are onshore causing heavy rainfall along the coast and highlands
d) Convectional rainfall is common
e) In winter trade winds are offshore
f) Typhoons, hurricanes, tornadoes are common
g) Winter temp are low due to influence of local winds
h) Presence of warm ocean currents has a moderating effect

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 i) Moderate annual temp range of about 130C

c) COOL TEMPERATE CLIMATES

Cool temperate western margin

Also known as temperate west coast, British type or European type
Found in:-
North West Europe: Spain, France, West Germany, British Isles, Denmark and Norway.
North West USA, Tasmania Australia, and South Chile.

Characteristics
a) Warm summer between 13-150C and cool winters between 2-70C
b) Small annual range of temp 3-110C
c) Rainfall well distributed throughout the year between 760 and 2000mm
d) Cyclonic rain in lowlands’ and relief in highland areas
e) High humidity
f) Summer days are long and generally warm with irregular thunderstorms
g) Winds blow onshore during winter hence heavy rainfall
h) Subtropical and polar air masses converge giving rise to depressions and anticyclones
i) Winters are mild although at times falls below freezing point

Cool temperate continental

Sometimes called Siberian type
Extends between 35-600N & S

Found in Canada, Eurasia, Alaska, Sweden, Finland, Poland, Germany, and former USSR

Characteristics
a) Winter temperatures are extremely low
b) Winters are long with long nights
c) Summers are generally short and warm
d) Annual temp range is very high up to 370C
e) Precipitation is mainly in form of snow
f) In summer rainfall may be caused by convection
g) Annual precipitation ranges between 400-500mm
h) Rainfall is slightly higher in European because of influence of westerlies
i) Rainfall decrease tremendously pole wards
j) Relative humidity is high

Cool temperate eastern margin

Also Laurentian climate
Found in North Eastern USA, Southern America, North Korea, North China

Characteristics
a) Winters are very cold with temp ranging from -40 to 00C

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 b) Summers are long about 5 months
c) Annual range of temp is large and varies between 26-300C
d) Humidity is high in summer
e) There is precipitation all year round with maximum being received in summer
f) In winter precipitation is inform of snow
g) Annual precipitation varies between 600-1000mm
h) Cold continental winds blow offshore in winter thus lowering the winter temps
i) In summer, winds are onshore
j) Rainfall is both convectional and cyclonic
k) Typhoons are common in September
l) Convergence of of Cold Labrador and warm Gulf Stream produces fog and mist

POLAR/TUNDRA AND ICE CAP CLIMATES

Northern parts of Alaska, Northern Canada to Greenland, Northern Norway, Finland, and
Northern former USSR

Characteristics
a) Winters are very cold for 8 months ranging between -58 to 00C
b) Summers are cool and short for 3 months
c) Annual temperature range are high up to 730C
d) There is permafrost
e) The area is generally dry with low annual precipitation ranging from 100-250 mm pa
f) During long cold winters polar winds are dominant
g) Snow storms are known as blizzards

MOUNTAIN CLIMATE
Found in Alpine ranges, Himalayas, East African Highlands, Drankensburg, and Adamawa and
Cameroon mountains.

Characteristics
a) Temperature decreases with increase in height
b) Temp range from cool to very cold
c) Some mountain peaks are ice caps
d) Pressure on mountain top is low due to rarefaction of air
e) Rainfall is predominant
f) Relief or orgraphic rainfall common
g) Rainfall intensity is dependent on aspect
h) Local winds like Chinook and fohn are common

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CLIMATE PATTERN
A climate pattern is any recurring characteristic of the climate. Climate patterns can last
tens of thousands of years, like the glacial and interglacial periods within ice ages, or repeat each
year, like monsoons. A climate pattern may come in the form of a regular cycle, like the diurnal
cycle or the seasonal cycle; a quasi periodic event, like El Niño; or a highly irregular event, such
as a volcanic winter.

CLIMATE CHANGE
Climate change is the variation in global or regional climates over time. It reflects changes in
the variability or average state of the atmosphere over time scales ranging from decades to
millions of years. These changes can be caused by processes internal to the Earth, external
forces (e.g. variations in sunlight intensity) or, more recently, human activities. In recent usage,
especially in the context of environmental policy, the term "climate change" often refers only to
changes in modern climate, including the rise in average surface temperature known as global
warming.

Earth has undergone periodic climate shifts in the past, including four major ice ages. These
consisting of glacial periods where conditions are colder than normal, separated by
interglacial periods. The accumulation of snow and ice during a glacial period increases the
surface albedo, reflecting more of the Sun's energy into space and maintaining a lower
atmospheric temperature. Increases in greenhouse gases, such as by volcanic activity, can
increase the global temperature and produce an interglacial.

Causes of Climate Change

Natural Causes
The Earth’s climate can be affected by natural factors that are external to the climate system,
such as changes in volcanic activity, solar output, and the Earth's orbit around the Sun. Of
these, the two factors relevant on timescales of contemporary climate change are changes in
volcanic activity and changes in solar radiation. In terms of the Earth’s energy balance, these
factors primarily influence the amount of incoming energy. Volcanic eruptions are episodic
and have relatively short-term effects on climate. Changes in solar irradiance have contributed
to climate trends over the past century but since the Industrial Revolution, the effect of additions
of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere has been about ten times that of changes in the Sun’s
output

Solar Output
Climate is influenced by natural changes that affect how much solar energy reaches Earth. These
changes include changes within the sun and changes in Earth’s orbit. Changes occurring in
the sun itself can affect the intensity of the sunlight that reaches Earth’s surface.

Almost all of the energy that affects the climate on the Earth originates from the Sun. The energy
emitted by the sun passes through space until it hits the Earth’s atmosphere. Only about 40 per

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cent of the solar energy intercepted at the top of the atmosphere passes through to the
Earth’s surface. The rest is reflected or absorbed by the atmosphere. The energy output of the
sun is not constant, it varies over time and it has an impact on our climate.

The intensity of the sunlight can cause either warming (during periods of stronger solar intensity)
or cooling (during periods of weaker solar intensity). The sun follows a natural 11-year cycle of
small ups and downs in intensity, but the effect on Earth’s climate is small.

Changes in the Earth’s orbit

The Earth’s orbit around the Sun is an ellipse, not a circle but the ellipse changes shape.
Sometimes it is almost circular and the Earth stays approximately the same distance from the
Sun as it progresses around its orbit. At other times the ellipse is more pronounced so that the
Earth moves closer and further away from the sun as it orbits. When the Earth is closer to the sun
our climate is warmer.

Albedo Changes
Changes in reflectivity affect how much energy enters Earth’s system
When sunlight reaches Earth, it can be reflected or absorbed. The amount that is reflected or
absorbed depends on Earth’s surface and atmosphere. Light-colored objects and surfaces, like
snow and clouds, tend to reflect most sunlight, while darker objects and surfaces, like the ocean,
forests, or soil, tend to absorb more sunlight. The term albedo refers to the amount of solar
radiation reflected from an object or surface, often expressed as a percentage. Earth as a whole
has an albedo of about 30%, meaning that 70% of the sunlight that reaches the planet is
absorbed. Absorbed sunlight warms Earth’s land, water, and atmosphere.

Reflectivity is also affected by aerosols. Aerosols are small particles or liquid droplets in the
atmosphere that can absorb or reflect sunlight. Unlike greenhouse gases (GHGs), the climate
effects of aerosols vary depending on what they are made of and where they are emitted. Those
aerosols that reflect sunlight, such as particles from volcanic eruptions or sulfur emissions from
burning coal, have a cooling effect. Those that absorb sunlight, such as black carbon (a part of
soot), have a warming effect.

Volcanic Activity
Volcanoes can impact climate change. During major explosive eruptions huge amounts of
volcanic gas, aerosol droplets, and ash are injected into the stratosphere. Injected ash falls rapidly
from the stratosphere most of it is removed within several days to weeks and has little impact on
climate change. But volcanic gases like sulfur dioxide can cause global cooling, while volcanic
carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, has the potential to promote global warming

Several eruptions during the past century have caused a decline in the average temperature at the
Earth's surface of up to half a degree (Fahrenheit scale) for periods of one to three years. The
climactic eruption of Mount Pinatubo on June 15, 1991, was one of the largest eruptions of the
twentieth century and injected a 20-million ton (metric scale) sulfur dioxide cloud into the
stratosphere at an altitude of more than 20 miles.

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Human Causes
Climate change can also be caused by human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels and
the conversion of land for forestry and agriculture. Since the beginning of the Industrial
Revolution, these human influences on the climate system have increased substantially. In
addition to other environmental impacts, these activities change the land surface and emit various
substances to the atmosphere. These in turn can influence both the amount of incoming energy
and the amount of outgoing energy and can have both warming and cooling effects on the
climate. The dominant product of fossil fuel combustion is carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas.
The overall effect of human activities since the Industrial Revolution has been a warming
effect, driven primarily by emissions of carbon dioxide and enhanced by emissions of other
greenhouse gases.

The build-up of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere has led to an enhancement of the natural
greenhouse effect. It is this human-induced enhancement of the greenhouse effect that is of
concern because ongoing emissions of greenhouse gases have the potential to warm the planet to
levels that have never been experienced in the history of human civilization. Such climate
change could have far-reaching and/or unpredictable environmental, social, and economic
consequences.

Indicators of climate change

1. Increased atmospheric temperature
2. Changes in weather patterns eg precipitation patterns
3. Dissapearing water bodies
4. Changes in land use and land cover
5. Decrease in stream flow and drying of some streams
6. Sea level rise because of melting of ice
7. Heat waves eg in Greece
8. Abnormal growth of plants
9. Extinction and introduction of new species of plants and animals

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