UNDERSTANDING CULTURE, SOCIETY and POLITICS

LESSON 2: Human evolution and Culture

Name: ______________________________________

Trace the biological and cultural evolution of early to modern humans.

Cultural Beginnings
Culture is defined as that complex whole which encompasses beliefs, practices, values, attitudes, laws, norms,
artifacts, symbols, knowledge and everything that a person learns and shares as a member of society. (Tylor,2010)
To understand culture, you need to know the following:
1. Biological capacity of humans for culture
2. Place of humans in the animal kingdom
3. How humans came to develop early forms of culture

Biological Capacity for Culture

The need to scrutinize human anatomy to understand culture is indispensable. Physical and cultural anthropologists
argue that we could trace how culture became possible by understanding our biological make-up.

1. Our thinking capacity

The primary biological component of humans that allowed for culture is the developed brain. It has the
necessary parts for facilitating pertinent skills such as speaking, touching, feeling, seeing, and smelling.
The Human Brain and its parts compare with other primates, humans have a large brain, weighing 1.4kg. Chimpanzee
have a brain weighing only 420g, and those of gorillas weigh 500 g. Due to the size of their brain and the complexity of its
parts, humans were able to create survival skills that helped them adapt to their environment and outlive their less
adaptive relatives.

2. Our speaking capacity

As the brain is the primary source of humans‘ capacity to comprehend sound and provide meaning to it, the vocal tract
acts as the mechanism by which sounds are produced and reproduced to transmit ideas and values. Notice in figure 2.3
that the vocal tract of a human is longer than that of a chimpanzee. A longer vocal tract means that there is a longer
vibration surface, allowing humans to produce a wider array of sounds than chimpanzees. The tongue of humans is also
more flexible than that of a chimpanzee, allowing for more control in making sounds.

3. Our gripping capacity

Look at your hands. Notice how your thumb relates with your other fingers. This capacity to directly oppose your thumb
with your other fingers is an exclusive trait of humans. It allowed us to have a finer grip. Thus, we have the capacity to
craft materials with precision.
The hand of a human has digits (fingers) that are straight, as compared with the curved ones of the other primates.
These characteristics of the human hand allowed for two types of grip: power and precision. Power grip enabled humans
to wrap the thumb and fingers on an object; it became the cornerstone of our capacity to hold tools firmly for hunting
and other activities. Precision grip enabled humans to hold and pick objects steadily using their fingers. This capacity was
crucial for tool-making activities.

4. Our walking/standing capacity Primates have two forms of locomotion: bipedalism and quadropedalism.
Bipedalism is the capacity to walk and stand on two feet, whereas quadropedalism uses all four limbs, Although apes
are semi-bipedal, humans are the only fully bipedal primates. Being bipedal, humans gained more capacity to move while
carrying objects with their free hands. This is an important trait, as it gave humans more productivity with their hands.
Apart from this, humans gained a more efficient form of locomotion suitable for hunting and foraging.
Big Idea: The development of culture is directly linked to the physical development of humans

Processes of Cultural and Sociopolitical Evolution

 In reference to cultural formation, the Paleolithic stage has provided the bases for the development of complex human
groups through the establishment of culture. At this period, we must situate the early humans in terms of their physical
environment. This way, we understand the succeeding adaptation that they made which revolutionized the entire way
that the human species have existed in this planet.
By the end of the Paleolithic period, Earth was getting warmer as the Ice Age was already at its last stages. This implies
that Earth‘s surface was changing. The sea level was rising again as the polar caps were melting. Land surface decreased
as some parts were submerged in water. The warm climate allowed for the blossoming of new plants and the extinction
of others. The same phenomenon was seen among animals.
The early humans have always been dependent on their environment, which made foraging (hunting and gathering) the
primary mode of subsistence. With the drastic changes in geography and food sources, the early humans were once again
faced with the need to adapt new strategies to survive. It was in this setting that the ―Neolithic Revolution (childe, 1936)
spread throughout the planet.

The Neolithic Revolution

This period is characterized by a major shift in economic subsistence of the early humans from foraging to agriculture.
This dramatic shift affected the other aspects of their lifestyle, as foraging made them nomads and agriculture
encouraged permanent settlement. This shift in itself changed the entire array of behaviors, attitudes, beliefs and
corresponding material inventions.

Characteristcs of Paleolithic and Neolithic Societies

Characteristics Paleolithic Neolithic

Tools Small and handy for mobile lifestyle Included a wider array of small and bigger
tools due to sedentary lifestyle
Personal Limited to personal accessories and small Included structure (e.g., houses), decorative
properties tools that could easily be carried around ornaments, large containers
Art Small and limited to personal ornaments, Included the creation of artworks that required
bigger artworks were done but not within a a longer length of time and a greater number
longtime frame (e.g., cave paintings) of people (e.g., Stonehenge
Subsistence Foraging Agriculture
Leadership Not rigid; based on age and knowledge Semirigid; based on legitimacy
(religious beliefs, social status)
Social Social divisions None; communal lifestyle Social divisions None; communal lifestyle Elite vs.
divisions Elite vs. working class working class
Population Small (30-50 people) Large (in thousands)

Early Civilization and the Rise of the State

The earliest civilizations rose by the end of the Neolithic period as the complexities brought about by the shift in food
production demanded a more rigid social structure that would manage the opposing perspectives of various sectors. As
conflicts between groups developed and intensified, the need to create a more cohesive society became definite.
Early civilizations were characterized by the presence of city-states, a system of writing, and a ceremonial center where
public debates and decisions were made. However, it must be noted that not all societies during this period could be
considered as civilizations as not all possessed a political system that could be equated to a state.
A state is a political entity that has four requisite elements: territory, sovereignty, people and government. These
elements will be further discussed in Module 5. As to how states rose,
Four Primary theories.
1. Divine right theory
Rulers ascended to power convinced that their right to rule is based on their filial relationship with supernatural
forces and entities. The concept of the god-king that was upheld in the city of Sumer is an example. People were
made subjects to these monarchs, as the latter were perceived by the former as direct descendants or
representatives of their gods.
 2. Force theory
A groups of forces members of another groups to subject themselves to their rules, this was observed among the
Mayans, as conflict over access to revers resulted in the subjugation of one group by another.
3. Paternalistic theory
The father essentially is the leader of the first political unit, which grew as the number of the members of his
family grew. This is true for highly patriarchal, male-dominated societies.
4. Social contract
The creation of a state was mutual agreement between the ruler and the ruled to ensure order and security from
outside threats.
5. Natural theory
Humans have an innate need to be part of a community. The Greek philosopher Aristotle described humans as
―political animals, as it is in their nature to indulge in politics.
The Role of Museums in Preserving Human Heritage
Museums are the repository of archaeological finds that allow people from the contemporary period to reconstruct
the culture and the environment of their ancestors. Because history is encapsulated in a venue, which is the museum,
ordinary people get to have an access to their ancestors’ lives and environment without traveling to archaeological sites,
which are often highly inaccessible

ESSENTIAL LEARNING
Culture is both a product of humans‘ capacity for it and their determination to survive the elements of their
environments. The tools that early humans created are a testament to their struggle to outlive the pressures from their
environment, whether they be the harsh climatic transition, the elusiveness of their prey, or the threat of their predators.
The shift in stone tool technology informs us of the capacity of humans to continuously alter their behavior to suit their
circumstances. It also leads to the conclusion that humans‘ set of behaviors is constantly changing and adapting to their
perceived needs. As knowledge and skills of earlier human populations are sifted out by time and environment, there still
remain traces of their tangible and intangible accomplishments that we use today as either forms of remembrance of
how far our species has developed or as functional parts of our daily subsistence.

UNDERSTANDING CULTURE, SOCIETY and POLITICS

 LESSON 3: Anthropology and the Study of Culture
Name: _______________________________________

Introduction to Anthropology
Humans studying humans. This is the field of anthropology. Unlike other disciplines of the social sciences,
Anthropology promotes a holistic study of humans. Derived from two Greek words antropos (human) and Logos (study),
anthropology seeks to answer this primary question: What does it mean to be human?
This allows for an extensive and inclusive approach such that anthropology studies humans as biological and social
creatures. Biologically, it inquires on the genetic composition of humans, their relationship with other primates, and their
evolution. Socially, it inquires on human behaviors, attitudes, and belief systems, which range from birth practices to burial
rites.
Anthropology is the scientific study of humans, human behavior and societies in the past and present. Anthropology can
also be defined as ―the study of people- their origins, their development, and contemporary variations, wherever and
whenever they have been found on the face of the earth “(Ember, Ember, and Peregrine,2010)”.

Sub-disciplines of Anthropology
Archeology examines the remains of ancient and historical human populations to promote an understanding of how
humans have adapted to their environment and developed.
Cultural anthropology promotes the study of a society‘s culture through their belief systems, practices and possessions.
Linguistic anthropology examines the language of a group of people and its relation to their culture.
Physical anthropology looks into the biological development of humans and their contemporary variation.
Applied anthropology attempts to solve contemporary problems through the application of theories and approaches of the
discipline.

Culture
You have always heard the word culture being used in conversations. At times, it refers to something ethnic; some
people think of it as an all-encompassing term that separates humans from The rest of the animal kingdom. But what is it
exactly?
Culture is everything that a person learns as a member of a society. The three italicized words are important in
understanding the concept of culture better.
Culture is everything. It is what a person has, does, and thinks as part of society. This implies all of a person‘s belief
system, set of behaviors, and material possessions. As such, it can be said that culture is a powerful agent in shaping the
decisions and actions of humans, given a situation. It consists of the material and non-material.

Two Major Aspects of Culture

Material culture includes all the tangible and visible parts of culture, which include clothes, food and even buildings.
Non-material culture includes all the intangible parts of culture, which consist of values, ideas, and knowledge.

Culture is Learned.
Culture is a set of beliefs, attitudes, and practices that an individual learns through his or her family, school, church, and
other social institutions.
Enculturation, the process of learning your own culture. As you interact with your immediate family and peers, you learn
the values and accepted behaviors in your society.
Acculturation, the transfer of values and customs from one group to another. Music may be one of the most transferred
forms of culture from one society to another. For example, the inclination of some Filipinos toward some elements of
Korean culture has led to the acceptance of Korean pop songs despite their being performed in a foreign language.

Culture is shared.
The set of behaviors, attitudes, and beliefs that a person possesses is part of a greater collection of values and ideas that is
communally owned and practiced by members of a society. This implies that a particular behavior cannot be considered as
a culture if there is only one person practicing it. Culture is shared intergenerationally. Hence, to share a culture, it must be
taught to members of contemporary society who will, in turn, teach the younger generation.
The figure below represents the process by which the culture of an individual is formed. As you can see, the individual
combines the culture that his or her parents teach him or her with the culture that he or she experiences from other societies.
As such, a Filipino living in another country would have a set of knowledge and behaviors that corresponds to the
combined culture of his or her parents and that of the adopted society.

Culture affects biology. Humans are born into cultures that have values on beauty and body. As such, they alter their
bodies to fit into the physiological norms that are dictated by culture. Among the Mursi tribe of Ethiopia in Africa, wearing
lip plates is a sign of beauty. Women are the ones who are expected to wear them to appear desirable to men. One of the
most popular traditions in China is that foot binding among women that ensures their potential for good marriage. These
women are subjected to decades of alteration that involves the restructuring of their feet to achieve ―lotus feet,‘‘ which has
the ideal length of about 7.5 centimeters (3 inches). The process begins at childhood when young females‘ feet are bound
and broken so as to hamper further growth.

As culture affects the physical traits of a person, culture can also be defined by the normative physical characteristics of
humans. This can easily be seen in the material culture of a society.
The designs of machines And other forms of material culture are based on the physical traits of a given population. For
example, the trains that are used in our country‘s Metro Rail Transit (MRT) are not completely appropriate for the average
Filipino physique because the hand rails are too high.

Culture is adaptive. Culture is a tool for survival that humans use in response to the pressures of their environment. Both
the material and nonmaterial parts of culture are influenced by the goal of humans to address their needs as dictated by their
environment and their biology. The Inuits of the Arctic region are wellknown for building igloos during fishing and hunting
expeditions. These dome-shaped homes provide temporary shelter for the mobile group. During summer, they use tupiqs,
which are tents made of animal skin, as their temporary homes.

Another adaptive mechanism that is practiced in most cultures is the creation of food taboos. These are socially
constructed and acceptable prohibitions on the consumption of several food items.

Culture is maladaptive. Culture can also cause problems for the people who subscribe to it. These problems arise when
the environment has changed and culture has remained the same. For example, the car culture present in most societies is
getting maladaptive as the environments gets more polluted. In the Philippines, the car industry remains active despite the
economic turmoil it faces as a developing country. This culture is highly maladaptive given the roads that cater to vehicles
are not wide enough. As such, traffic problems are constant in the country.
However, Filipinos appreciate the value of having cars in the performance of their economic and personal functions.
Thus, although considered as somewhat maladaptive, car ownership is still very much popular in the Philippines. ex.
Traffic congestion in EDSA
 Culture changes. The final characteristic of culture is that it is never static. This dynamism of culture is due to the
changing needs of humans as they interpret and survive in their environment. As such, culture is continuously reinvented
by people. From the clothes that we wear. To the food that we eat, culture can be seen as ever changing.

Theories on Culture
Theories are perspective that are essential in shaping an analysis about a particular issue. In the field of anthropology,
one of the key points of discussion is the concept of culture. The following presents seven theoretical orientation in
anthropology and the ideas on culture that they espouse.
Comparison of Theories on Culture
Theory Perspective on Culture
Cultural evolution All cultures undergo the same development stages in the same order. The main classifications
include savagery, barbarism, and civilization.
Diffusionism All societies change as a result of cultural borrowing from one another.
Historicism Each culture is unique and must be studied in its own context.
Psychological Personality is largely seen to be the result of learning culture.
anthropology
Functionalism Society is said to be like a biological organism with all of the parts interconnected. Existing
institutional structures of any society are thought to perform indispensable functions, without
which the society could not continue.
Neo-evolutionism Culture is said to be shaped by environmental and technological conditions. Cultures evolve when
people are able to increase the amount of energy under their control
Materialism Culture is the product of the Material conditions in which a given community of people finds
itself.
Note: Definitions on the perspective on culture for each theory are directly lifted from Ferraro and Andreatta (2010)
Anthropology in the 21st Century
The key strength of anthropology as a discipline of the social science is its holistic approach to the study of humans. It is
holistic in the sense that it studies;
1. Humans, both as biological and social creatures,
2. Human behavior from the time the species existed to the time that it will desist,
3. Human behavior from all regions of the world, and
4. All forms of human actions and beliefs.
Such lens in understanding the human species allows anthropology to provide a comprehensive insight into the nature of
humans and the trajectory of their behaviors.

ESSENTIAL LEARNING This module introduced to you the field of anthropology and its study of culture. It informed
you of the definition of anthropology and its five branches. It led you to an understanding of culture as a complex whole
consisting of attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors of people as member of a given society. It was also discussed that culture has
six characteristics: it is learned, adaptive, maladaptive, and shared, it changes, and is capable of affecting our biology.