Q). What is Ballast? What is requirement for good ballast.

**BALLAST: Ballast is a layer of broken stone grave, morum, any other gritty material placed and packed below and
around sleepers for distributing the load from the sleepers to the formation and for providing drainage as well as
giving lateral and longitudinal stability to the track.
**Requirements of Good Ballast:
1. It should be hard without getting crushed under the moving loads. 2. It should be cubical having sharp edges.
3. It should be non-porous and non-absorbent of water. 4. It should resist corrosion.
5. It should be durable and should not get pulverized under the weather conditions.
6. It should provide good drainage of water. 7. It should be cheap and economical in service.
8. It should be touch and wear resistant.
Q). Enlist different types of sleepers? Explain any three.
1. Wooden sleepers 2. Concrete sleepers 3. Steel sleepers 4. Cast iron sleepers 5. Composite sleepers
1. Wooden sleepers: These are sleepers made of wood. Wooden sleepers are used since olden days. These are still
widely using in some western countries. Either hardwood or softwood can be used to make wooden sleepers.
However, hardwood sleepers made of oak, jarrah, teakwood are more famous.
4. Steel Sleepers: Steel sleepers are more often used because of stronger than wood and economical than
concrete. They also have good life span. They are molded in trough shape and placed on ballast in inversed trough
shape. 3. Cast Iron Sleepers: Cast iron sleepers are widely used in the world especially in Indian railways. They
are available in 2 types, pot type sleepers and plate type sleepers. Pot type sleepers are not suitable for curves
sharper than 4 degrees.
4. Composite Sleepers: Composite sleepers are modern type sleepers which are made from waste plastic and
rubber. Hence, it is also called as plastic sleepers. They have many combined properties of all other types.
Q). Explain the necessity of geometric design of a railway track.
NECESSITY OF GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF A RAILWAY TRACK
1. Speed and weight of trains: The track layout must be designed to accommodate the maximum operating speed
and weight of the trains that will use it. This helps to minimize the risk of accidents and ensure smooth and efficient
train movement.
2. Terrain characteristics: The physical characteristics of the terrain, such as slope, elevation, and soil conditions,
must be considered when designing the track layout. This helps to ensure stability, safety and efficient operation of
trains. 3. Visibility: The geometric design must take into account visibility requirements, such as providing clear
sightlines at intersections, to ensure the safety of both train operators and the general public.
4. Drainage: Proper drainage must be considered to ensure that water does not accumulate on the track, which
can cause damage to the track and increase the risk of accidents.
5. Maintenance: The track layout must be designed to minimize maintenance requirements and costs, while
ensuring the safety and efficiency of train operations.
6. Compliance with regulations: The geometric design must comply with industry standards and regulations to
ensure the safety of both the train operators and the general public.
Q). Describe in brief the concept of permanent way.
>>>It consists of two parallel rails having specified distance in between and fastened to sleepers, which are
embedded in a layer of ballast of specified thickness spread over the formation.
>>>The rails are joined each other by fish-plates and bolts in case of fish-plated tracks) or by welding (in case of
SWR LWA and C W. R. as discussed later) and these are fastened to sleepers by various fittings like keys and spikes
etc.
>>>The sleepers are spaced at a specified distance and are held in position by embedding in ballast. Each
component of the track has a basic function to perform.
>>>The rails act as girders to transmit the wheel loads of trains to the sleepers. The sleepers hold the rails in proper
position and provide a correct gauge and transfer the loads to the ballast The ballast is placed on level ground
known as formation
>>>The sleepers are embedded in ballast, which gives uniform level surface, provide drainage and transfer the load
to a larger area of formation. >>>The formation gives a level surface where the ballast rests and the total load of
the track and trains moving on it. The description of above components of track.
Q). Illustrate the term permanent way and Explain the Components of a
permanent way.
****(concept of permanent way page 1 pe hai...here only components of permanent way)***
1. Rails: These are the steel bars that the trains run on. They are typically made of steel and are fastened to the
ties with spikes or other fasteners.
2. Ties: Also called sleepers, ties are the wooden or concrete blocks that the rails are fastened to. They help
distribute the weight of the trains evenly and keep the rails in the correct position.
3. Ballast: This is the crushed stone or gravel that is placed between the ties and under the rails. It helps to
provide drainage and stability for the track.
4. Subgrade: This is the layer of soil or other material that the ballast and ties are placed on. It provides a stable
foundation for the track.
5. Turnouts: These are sections of track that allow trains to switch from one track to another. They consist of a set
of movable rails that can be adjusted to direct trains onto different tracks.
Q). Write a short note on Fixture and Fastening.
Fixtures: >1. The arrangement required for connecting the rail end together and for fixing rails to sleepers in a
track is called as fixtures and fastening.
>2. They are typically used in construction and manufacturing to hold materials or workpieces in place while they
are being worked on.
>3. Examples of fixtures include clamping devices, jigs, and templates. Clamping devices are used to hold an object
in place while it is being worked on, jigs are special tools that are used to guide and position the workpiece, and
templates are used to guide the cutting or shaping of a workpiece.
>4. Fixtures are essential for ensuring that the workpiece is held securely and in the correct position, which is
important for achieving precise results and minimizing errors.
**Fastening: >1. The railway track is made permanently fix with sleepers. The rail which are fix permanently with
each other and the fitting required for this is known as fixtures.
>2. In construction, fastening is used to secure materials or components together to form a structure.
>3. Examples of fastening methods include welding, bolting, nailing, and adhesives.
>4. Welding involves joining two metal parts together by heating them until they melt and then fusing them
together. Bolting is a method of joining two parts together using a bolt and a nut. Nailing is a method of joining
two parts together using a nail. Adhesives are substances that can be used to glue two parts together.
C) State necessity for geometric design of railway track.
The need for proper geometric design of a track arises because of the following considerations:
1. Proper alignment ensures smooth and safe movement of trains, reducing wear and tear on the track and
equipment.
2. Proper grade design ensures safe ascent and descent of hills without losing speed or causing excessive wear and
tear on the track and equipment.
3. Proper curve design ensures safe navigation of turns without causing excessive wear and tear on the track and
equipment or derailing.
4. Superelevation helps to balance the centrifugal force on a train as it travels through a curve and keep the train
on the track.
5. The design of railway structures such as bridges and tunnels must also be taken into consideration for safety
and operational efficiency.
6. To ensure the smooth and safe running of trains. (7) To achieve maximum speeds (8) To carry heavy axle loads
9. To avoid accidents and derailments due to a defective permanent way (10) To ensure that the track requires
least maintenance (11) For good aesthetics (12) meeting the safely and economic requirements.
A) Define the following terms: a) Coning of wheel b).Adzing of sleeper c) Tilting of Rails
d)Station Yard
a) Coning of wheel: >The distance between the inside edges of the wheel flanges is generally kept less than the
gauge. So, there is a gap between the inside edge of flange and the running face of the rail nearly equal to 10 mm
on either side.
>>The thread of the wheels of a railway vehicle are not made flat, but sloped like a cone in order to enable these
vehicles to move smoothly on curves as well as on straight track. (Coning of wheels). The wheels generally, remain
central on a straight and level surface and the circumferences of the threads of both the vehicles are equal
b). Adzing of sleeper: Due to the coning of wheels, the pressure from the wheels is always towards the inner edge
of the rail. This tends to the wear of rails quickly. To reduce this wear of rails, the foot of the rail is also tilted to the
same slope. For this purpose, the wooden sleeper is cut at top under the rail seat. The cutting of the top of the
sleeper in order to receive the rail foot and provide the tilting of the rail is known as adzing of sleepers.
c) Tilting of Rails: To reduce of coning of wheel demerits, i.e. wear and tear and lateral stresses, the rails are tilted
at a slope of 1 in 20, which is also the slope of the wheel cone. This is called "Tilting of Rails." This tilting of rail is
provided by adzing the wooden sleeper or by providing canted bearing plates as in Fig. 1.6 This is called "Adzing of
Sleeper."
d)Station Yard: a station yard refers to the area surrounding a railway station where trains are stationed, loaded,
and unloaded. It typically includes tracks, platforms, and other infrastructure such as signal systems and
maintenance facilities. The station yard can also include parking areas, ticket offices, and passenger waiting areas.
Q). Draw layout for simple turnout and explain the components of Turnout.

**Components of turnout:
1. Heel block: The heel block is the stationary part of the turnout that the point connects to. It is also known as the
switch stand.
2. Throw bar: The bar that connect the point and heel block, and move the point.
3. Wing rails: The wing rails are located between the stock rails and the guard rails, and are used by trains
diverging from the main track.
4. Shoulder: The area between the stock rail and the guard rail where the tie plates are located.
Q). What are different methods determining flood discharge?
1. Direct measurement: This involves measuring the flow rate of the floodwater using a current meter or other
flow measuring device.
2. Indirect measurement: This involves using mathematical equations to estimate the discharge based on factors
such as water depth, velocity, and channel geometry.
3. Stage-discharge methods: This involves using a rating curve or rating table to relate water level (stage) to
discharge.
4. Remote sensing: This involves using satellite or aerial imagery to estimate flood discharge.
5. Hydrological model: This involves using mathematical models to estimate flood discharge based on
precipitation, land use, and other factors.
Q). Describe the full face method of Tunneling in hard rock, with neat sketch.
Full face method:
>>The full-face method is normally selected for small tunnels whose dimensions do not exceed 3 m.
>>In this method, the full face or the entire facade of the tunnel is tackled at the same time.
>>Vertical columns are erected at the face of the tunnel and a large number of drills mounted or fixed on these
columns at a suitable height. >>>A series of holes measuring 10 mm to 40 mm in diameter with about 1200 mm
centre-to-centre distance are then drilled into the rock, preferably in two rows. >>These holes are charged
with explosives and ignited. Next the muck is removed before repeating the process of drilling holes.

Q). Enlist types of station and explain in details.

1. Survey stations: These are reference points that are established on a construction site to provide a fixed
location for surveying and mapping activities.
2. Control stations: These are established points used to control the position and orientation of a construction
project. They are typically established at the beginning of a project and are used to ensure that all elements of the
project are aligned correctly.
3. Benchmark stations: These are fixed points that are used as reference points for elevation measurements. They
are typically established on stable, permanent structures and are used to determine elevations of other points on
the construction site.
4. Monitoring stations: These are established points used to monitor the performance of a structure or system
over time. For example, monitoring stations may be used to measure the settlement of a foundation or the
movement of a retaining wall.
5. Transit stations: These are established points used for public transportation, such as buses and trains. They
typically include platforms for passengers to wait and board, as well as facilities for ticketing and baggage handling.
6. Weather Stations: These are established points used to collect data on weather conditions such as temperature,
humidity, wind direction and speed, barometric pressure and precipitation.
Q). Sketch the various types of tunnels cross-section. State under what conditions each
is adopted. OR Q). Explain various types of tunnel.

1. Egg shaped: Egg-shaped tunnels are used in underground construction because they are more stable and
resistant to stress than circular or rectangular tunnels. The shape distributes pressure more evenly and can better
withstand the forces of the surrounding soil.
2. Horse shoe section: A horseshoe-shaped section is typically adopted for tunnels that are cut through soft soil or
other materials with low bearing capacity. It allows for more space for utility lines and infrastructure, and can be
suitable for tunnels near existing structures or underground utilities.
3. D shaped tunnel: A D-shaped section is typically adopted for tunnels that are cut through soil or other softer
materials. The D-shape provides a greater surface area for the tunnel walls to support the surrounding soil or rock,
which helps to prevent the tunnel from collapsing.
4. Circular Shape: A circular tunnel is typically adopted for tunnels that are cut through solid rock, as the circular
shape provides the greatest stability and strength. The circular shape also allows for a more efficient use of space,
as there are no corners or edges that could potentially weaken the structure.
Q). Explain any for types of explosives used in tunnel construction.
1. Anfo (Ammonium Nitrate Fuel Oil): It is a widely used explosive in tunnel construction. It is a mixture of
ammonium nitrate and fuel oil, which is relatively stable and easy to handle.
2. Emulsion explosives: They are a mixture of water, fuel, and ammonium nitrate. They are more stable and safer
to handle than other types of explosives and are often used in underground mining and tunnel construction.
3. Slurries: They are mixtures of water, ammonium nitrate and a heavy fuel oil, which are pumpable and can be
used for wet holes, under water and in ground with high water table.
4. Detonating cord: It is a thin, flexible plastic cord filled with a small amount of explosive material. It is used to
initiate other, more powerful explosives, in a controlled manner. It is often used in tunnel construction, mining
and other applications where precise timing of explosions is critical.
Q). State factors affecting on site selection for docks and harbour.
For any kind of project site selecting is most important to establish project work and success of the project
The following factors should be considered while selecting a site for a harbour
1. Availability of cheap Land 2. Easy availability of construction material at low cost
3. Harbour should be naturally protected from waves and wind
4. The sea bed, subsoil, and foundation conditions
5. Availability of electrical energy and freshwater 6). Traffic potentiality of the harbor
7. Availability of labors 8). Favorable marine conditions 9). Defense and strategic aspects
10 Transportation and communication facilities 11). Industrial development of the locality
12 Traffic potentiality of the harbor
Q). Write a short note on inland water transport in India.
Inland waterways have been used for transportation purposes. It is one of the most important components of the
transportation system. Waterways include some linear water features such as streams, rivers, canals and also
water areas such as lakes, reservoirs. Also, the cheapest mode of transport is waterways.
Advantages of Inland Waterways:
1) It consumes low energy and also the energy which is considered by Inland waterways is less than road
transportation and also with that of rail transport.
2) A massive amount of goods and products can be transported through inland waterways.
3) It causes minimum pollution as compared to other means of transportation.
4) It has a great amount of labor productivity.
Types of Inland waterways:
1). The first type of waterway is a canalized river whose flow is governed by engineering works to a great extent.
2). The second type of waterway is a river or part of the river whose flow is not changed. So, this type of Inland
waterway is completely natural.
3). The third type of inland waterway is a canal that is constructed by the diverging river.
Q). What are the different stages of bridge planning.
1. Feasibility study: This stage involves identifying the need for a bridge, selecting a location, and determining the
feasibility of the project in terms of cost, environmental impact, and other factors.
2. Design development: In this stage, engineers and architects work together to develop a detailed design for the
bridge, including its structural layout, materials, and aesthetics.
3. Environmental impact assessment: This stage involves assessing the potential impact of the bridge on the
surrounding environment and developing measures to mitigate any negative effects.
4. Permitting and approvals: In this stage, the project team obtains any necessary permits and approvals from
local, state, and federal agencies.
5. Construction: The final stage is the actual construction of the bridge, which typically involves multiple phases
such as excavation, foundation work, and superstructure construction.
6. Maintenance and Inspection: Once the bridge is open to the public, regular maintenance and inspections are
necessary to ensure its longevity and safety.
Q). Write note on standard specifications on bridge.
1. The General Specifications for Bridges, as the name implies, is applicable to all bridge types irrespective of the
structural system, material and geometrics.
2. However, certain provisions may require further consideration for bridges with span in excess of 200 m.
3. The specifications, particularly the provisions covering the loads applicable in the design and construction of
bridges, have been prepared with reference to the Indian, Japanese and American codes and other relevant
standard literatures on the subject.
4. Appropriate modifications have been made to suit the conditions and context in Bhutan.
5. The draft of the document was presented and discussed in the Departmental Coordination Committee (DCC) of
DoR and the document was subsequently approved by the DCC.
6. Standard specifications ensure safety and structural integrity of bridges.
7. Guidelines for materials, load-bearing capacity and foundation design.
Q). What is Airport and explain the charactristics of Air craft.
Airport:>>An airport is an aerodrome with extended facilities, mostly for commercial air transport. Airports often
have facilities to store and maintain aircraft, and a control tower.
>>An airport consists of a landing area, which comprises an aerially accessible open space including at least one
operationally active surface such as a runway for a plane to take off or a helipad, and often includes adjacent
utility buildings such as control towers, hangars and terminals.
Characteristics of an aircraft include:
1. Wings: to provide lift 2. Engines: to provide thrust
3. Tail: to provide stability and control 4. Fuselage: to carry passengers and cargo
5. Landing gear: to support the aircraft while on the ground
6. Parallel runways are two or more runways that are parallel to each other and are separated by a certain
distance. These runways are used to increase the capacity of an airport and to allow for more efficient use of the
airspace.
Q). Explain parallel runway with sketch.
Parallel Runways: Two or more runways at the same airport whose centerlines are parallel. In addition to runway
number, parallel runways are designated as L (left) and R (right) or, if three parallel runways exist, L (left), C
(center), and R (right).

Q). Write short note

1). Long Welded Rail (LWR): Long Welded Rail is a welded rail, the central part of which does not undergo any
longitudinal movement due to temperature variations. Normally, a length greater than 200 m on B.G. and 300 m
on M.G. should function as LW.R. The maximum length of LW.R. has been prescribed as one km under Indian
Conditions. 2. Short Welded Rails (S.W.R.): Indian Railways, keeping in pace with the advanced railways of
world, have made phenomenal progress in welding of rails in the last few decades. As discussed in article 1.5,
economic considerations coupled with technical advantages that a welded track possess over the fish-plated track
necessitated the development of welded rails. The first stage of development in this direction is the short-welded
rails (S.W.R.).
3. Creep of Rails: >>The longitudinal movement of rails in a track is known as travel or creep of rails.
>>It occurs in almost all railway tracks, but varies in magnitude considerably. In some locations, the creep may be
several centimeters in a month, while in other locations, it may be negligible in that period.
4. Rail type joints: A rail joint is the weakest link in the track. There is a break in the continuity of rail in horizontal
as well as in vertical plane at this location, because of the expansion gap and imperfection in the levels of rail
heads at joint. There is not only discontinuity in the wave motion of the rail caused by the moving loads, but a
severe blow is also experienced at the rail joint because of the wheels negotiating the expansion gap.
>>Types of Rail Joints Following types are normally used in railway track.
1. Supported joint 2. Suspended joint 3. Bridging joint 4. Welded joints.
Q). Explain types of rail joints (ME)
1. Supported Joint: In this joint, the ends of a rail are supported directly on a sleeper. This method was earlier
considered to reduce the wear and tear of the rails as there will be no cantilever action. However, in actual
practice, the rail ends tend to be high due to support and running is normally hard. There is also wear and tear of
the sleeper supporting the joint and its maintenance is quite a problem.
2. Suspended joint: In this type of sleeper the ends of the rail are suspended between the two sleepers and some
portion of the rail is cantilever at the joint. Because of the cantilever action, the packing under the joint gets loose
particularly due to hammering action of moving train loads. Suspended joint is the most common type of joint
being adopted on the railway systems not only in India but in many countries
3. Bridging Joint: In this type, a bridging plate is placed between the rail and joint sleepers. It is similar to the
suspended joint in all other aspects.
4. Welded Rail Joint: Welded rail joint are the best joints and discussed latter. > The rail ends to be welded are
brought together and heat is applied through a burner connected to oxygen and acetylene cylinders by means of
regulators and tubes. A temperature of about 1200 o C is achieved. At this temperature, the metal of the rail ends
melts, resulting in the fusion and welding together of the ends.
Q). Explain various constituents of turnout
Turnout is the simplest combination of points and crossings which enables one track either a branch line or siding,
to take off another track. So, the object of turnout is to provide facilities for safe movement of trains in either
direction on both the tracks.
1. Terminologies for Turnouts Direction of Turnout:
a. direction of turnout. >b. Facing Points of Turnouts. >c. Trailing Points of Turnouts.
d. Right Hand and Left-Hand Turnouts >e. right hand and left hand switches
2. Main Assemblies and their Constituents: >a. A Set of Points or Switches >b. A Crossing >c. Lead Rails
3. Details of Crossing and Important Tems
Q). Explain necessity of track maintenance.
The strength of the track structure goes on reducing due to high speed of trains, heavy axie loads and repetition of
loads. The elastic structure of railway track thus gets disturbed in alignment, gauge and surface level of rails.
1. Regular inspections and maintenance of tracks can prevent potential safety hazards such as derailments.
2. Maintenance tasks include repairing rail, ties, and other track components, as well as removing debris and
maintaining proper drainage.
3. Regular maintenance can extend the lifespan of tracks and prevent the need for costly repairs or replacement
in the future. 4. It ensures smooth operation of trains.
5. It helps in maintaining the speed of the trains and reducing the travel time.
6. It helps in reducing the wear and tear of the tracks.
7. It helps in providing a safe and comfortable journey to the passengers.8. It helps in reducing the chances of
train accidents. 9. It helps in reducing the downtime of the trains.
Q). Explain various types of Crossing
*Types of Crossings:
1. Based on Angle of Intersection of the Gauge Faces, Crossings can be Classified as Follows:
a). An acute angle or V-crossing in which the intersection of the two-gauge faces form an acute angle.
b). An obtuse angle or diamond crossing in which the two
2. Based on Method of Manufacture, Crossings can be Classified as Follows:
a). Built-up Crossing: This is the type of crossing in which two wing rails and "V" which consists of splice and point
rails (or two point rails) are assembled together by means of bolts and distance blocks to form a crossing. This
type of crossing is commonly used on Indian Railways.
b). Cast Steel Crossing: This type is one piece cast crossing and hence needs very little maintenance.
Comparatively, it is more rigid crossing, being one complete mass and its repairs and maintenance pose a number
of problems.
Q). Write short note on Modern trends in railways
Modern trends in railways:
1. Positive train control (PTC) systems use advanced technology to monitor train locations and speeds in real-time,
reducing the risk of human error and accidents.
2. Automation, such as driverless trains, can improve efficiency and reduce labor costs.
3. Sustainability is a growing focus in the railway industry, with an emphasis on reducing emissions and increasing
the use of renewable energy sources.
4. High-speed rail and maglev technology can greatly reduce travel times and improve connectivity.
5. Digitalization of railway operations and maintenance, such as using data analytics and IoT devices to optimize
performance and reduce downtime.
6. Development of intermodal transportation systems, which allow for seamless integration of different modes of
transportation, such as trains and buses.
Q). Write a short note on Modern trends in railways general layout of terminus and
junction
Terminus/Terminal: A station is known as a Terminus/Terminal when the trains can enter and leave the station in
only one direction. In other words, the track ends in the other direction. A train has to leave in the same direction
as it entered. Some examples of Terminus are:
- Bandra Terminus (BDTS) >- Howrah Terminus (HWH)> - Bhavnagar Terminus (BVC) >- Chatrapati Shivaji Terminus
(CST) >- Cochin Harbour Terminus (CHTS) >- Lokmanya Tilak Terminus (LTT) >- Yavatmal Terminus (YTL)
**Junction: If there are at least 3 different routes coming in and going out of a station, then it is called a Junction.
In simpler words, trains entering the station should have at least 2 different routes to leave the station. Some
examples of Junction are:
- Mathura Junction (7 routes) - Salem Junction (6 routes)
- Vijayawada Junction (5 routes) - Bareilly Junction (5 routes)
Q). What are different methods determining flood discharge?
1. Direct measurement: This involves measuring the flow rate of the floodwater using a current meter or other
flow measuring device.
2. Indirect measurement: This involves using mathematical equations to estimate the discharge based on factors
such as water depth, velocity, and channel geometry.
3. Stage-discharge methods: This involves using a rating curve or rating table to relate water level (stage) to
discharge.
4. Remote sensing: This involves using satellite or aerial imagery to estimate flood discharge.
5. Hydrological model: This involves using mathematical models to estimate flood discharge based on
precipitation, land use, and other factors.
Q). Define the following terms A). Waterway B).Afflux C). ECONOMIC SPAN D). Effective
linear waterway E). SCOUR DEPTH ***(jo pucha hai wo liko) (remainin ans pg10)
A). Waterway: >The area through which water flows under a bridge structure is known as waterway.
>While fixing the waterway of a bridge, the following guiding principles must be kept in mind to ensure safety of
the bridge structures:
a). The increased velocity due to obstructed waterway should not exceed the permissible velocity under the
bridge. b). The free board for high level bridges should not be less than 600 mm.
B). AFFLUX: >>>The phenomenon of heading up of water on the upstream site of the bridge is called afflux.
>>>When a bridge is constructed, its components like abutments and piers cause the reduction of the natural
waterway. well-proportioned structure form, blending harmoniously with its surroundings.
>>>Larger the length of a bride, greater is its visual impact. Therefore, specialists in architecture and landscaping
may be engaged for bridges having lengths of 500 m or more. Bridges should complement their surroundings, be
graceful in form and present an appearance of adequate strength.

C). ECONOMIC SPAN: >>>The economic span is the span for which the overall cost of a bridge will be minimum.
>>>The overall cost of a bridge includes the cost of its substructure as well as superstructure. The cost of
superstructure increases and that of substructure decreases with an increase in span length and vice versa.
>>>The derivation for economic span can be established on the basis of the following assumptions:
1. The bridge has equal span lengths.
2. Cost of the supporting system of superstructure varies as the square of the span length.
3. Cost of flooring and parapets varies directly as the span. 4. Cost of one pier and its foundation is constant.
D). Effective linear waterway:
>>It is defined as the total width of the waterway of the bridge at H.F.L. minus the Waterway effective width of
obstruction.
>>As per IRC-5, waterway (W) should be equal to Lacey’s regime waterway (P) given by the equation:
>>P = W = C×Q1/2
Where, P = Wetted perimeter in meters, W = Linear waterway in meters, Qd = Design discharge in m3/sec, C is
constant whose value for the waterway in bridges is taken as 4.8
E). SCOUR DEPTH:
>>Maximum scour depth is the depth of water at the round obstruction to the flow of water when the river
maximum flood discharge.
>>It usually occurs at bends, pier noses and on the under-stream noses of guide banks provided for a bridge.
>>Therefore, for the safety of the bridge foundations it becomes essential to estimate the maximum scour depth
correctly and design the bridge foundations accordingly.
>>As per LP.C. recommendations, the maximum depth of scour may be taken.
Q). Write a short note on bridge aesthetics.
BRIDGE AESTHETICS: >>Bridges have large visual impacts on their surroundings. To achieve aesthetically pleasing
view of bridge and its surroundings.
>>it is essential that attention should be paid to produce a clear, simple, well-proportioned structure form,
blending harmoniously with its surroundings.
>>Larger the length of a bride, greater is its visual impact. Therefore, specialists in architecture and landscaping
may be engaged for bridges having lengths of 500 m or more.
>>Bridges should complement their surroundings, be graceful in form and present an appearance of adequate
strength. Bridge designers must, therefore, consider appearance as an important design consideration.
Q). Components of bridge A) substructure B) Super Structure C) site selection of bridge
D) Types of loading for road bridge (jo pucha hai wo liko)
A). Substructure: >>Abutment of bridge is one of the important and vital structural parts.
>>An abutment is the substructure on which rests one end of the superstructure of the bridge.
>>The abutment has following purposes to serve: Supporting one end of the bridge.
>>Laterally supporting the embankment which serves as an approach to the bridge.
>>Protecting embankment from scour Withstanding lateral pressure of the backfill.
>>The abutments establish the connection between the bridge superstructure and the embankments.
>>They are designed to support the loads due to the superstructure which are transmitted through the bearings
and to the pressures of the soil contained by the abutment.
B). Superstructure:
>>It consists of the deck structure itself, which supports the direct loads due to traffic and all the other permanent
and variable leads to which the structure is subjected.
>>The connection between the substructure and the superstructure is usually bearings; however, rigid
connections between the pier (and sometimes the abutments) may be adopted, particularly in frame bridges with
tall (flexible) piers.
C). SITE SELECTION: The selection of site for a bridge is usually governed by engineering, economic, social and
aesthetic considerations. > A well defined and narrow channel. > A straight reach.
>Good foundation bed at a short depth. Suitable high banks.
> Angle of crossing, the axis of steam at bridge site should be crossing at right angles to the canter line of the
communication route as far as possible.
> Absence of scouring and silting - It should be free from whirls and cross-currents.
>Location of river tributaries. > Minimum obstruction to waterway. > Sound, economical and straight approaches.
> Absence of costly river training work. > Minimum construction work inside water.
Proximity to the alignment of communication route.
>An ideal bridge site is never possible because some ideal conditions are always lacking. Therefore, a least
objectionable site is always selected.
D). Supporting one end of the bridge: >> For bridges and culverts, the following loads, forces and stresses should
be considered, where applicable. The loads and forces to be considered in designing road bridges and culverts are
listed below. 1. Dead loads 2. Live loads 3. Impact effect of the live loads 4. Wind loads 5. Lateral loads
6. Longitudinal forces 7. Centrifugal forces due to curvature 8. Earthquake forces
>>Additional loads for substructure design:
9. Forces due to water structures/currents 10. Earth pressure 11. Buoyancy
>>In addition to the stress caused by the above loads and forces the following stresses should be taken into
account: 12. Temperature stresses 13. Deformation stresses 14. Secondary stresses 15. Erection stresses
Q). Write and explain the terms A). Piers B). Substructure of Abutments or type
A). Piers for Girder Bridges: >>The piers may be of solid or open type. One type piers are composed of beams,
columns and bracings. Solid piers have a solid section in elevation, plan or end views.
a). Piers for Arch Bridges: The piers or abutment piers for an arch bridge are always solid. In cross-section, at the
top their sides are splayed to receive the arch rings or their bearings normally. Other details are similar to those of
solid piers of girder bridges.
b). Piers for Suspension Bridges: Piers for big suspension bridges are sometimes, called towers. They are either of
masonry or more generally, of steel. If masonry is used, the pier may consist of shafts springing from a solid
common base below the flooring.
c). Piers for Rigid Frame Bridges: Here, a pier is not provided as a separate structural pait, but the intermediate
legs of the frames may be loosely called piers.

B). Types of Abutments:

1. Stub or Straight without Wings: The earth fill flows around the ends of abutment and flow water may wash the
fill away and the banks are damaged.
2. Abutment with Straight Wing Wall: Suitable for a railway bridge over a roadway or a street crossing another
street at a lower level. Not suitable over a water way as water may flow immediately behind the wing wall and
damage the embankment.
3. Abutment with Splayed Wing Walls: The wing walls are straight but splayed at an angle of 45 to 35 with the
face of the abutment.
4. Abutment with Wings Shaped Convex or Concave Facing the Flow of Water: The latter type form eddies; the
former is preferred for the smooth flow of water although the latter is more.
5. Abutment with Wing Walls at Right Angle to it i.e. U Abutment: The wings are tied together by old rails. The
wing walls run back into fill, which flows down in front of the wings; the wings are parallel to the roadway,
suitable where rock slopes make it possible to step up the wing wall footing.
6. T Abutment: The head of T supports the bridge and the stern carries the roadway was widely used in early rail
road construction. The stem carried the railway track and had to be wide enough. The quantity of masonry in its
construction is larger than in any other type.
Q). What is preliminary data of required for investigation of site for bridges
SITE SELECTION:
• The selection of site for a bridge is usually governed by engineering, economic, social and aesthetic
considerations.
• In order to select a least objectionable site, the bridge engineer should consider the following characteristics
of an ideal bridge site: >A well-defined and narrow channel. A straight reach.
>Good foundation bed at a short depth. Suitable high banks.
>Angle of crossing, the axis of steam at bridge site should be crossing at right angles to the centre line of the
communication route as far as possible.
>Absence of scouring and silting - It should be free from whirls and cross-currents.
>Location of river tributaries. Minimum obstruction to waterway.
> Sound, economical and straight approaches. >Absence of costly river training work.
>Minimum construction work inside water. > Proximity to the alignment of communication route.
>Availability of sufficient free board. Availability of labour and construction materials.
>Advent of materials/new materials. Advances in other branches of science.
> Improvements in constructional methods.
•An ideal bridge site is never possible because some ideal conditions are always lacking. Therefore, a least
objectionable site is always selected.
Q). Write a Shot note on bridges & its advantages & disadvantages (page no 13 pe thoda hai)
A). Arch bridge B). Cantilever bridge C). Cable stayed bridge D). Composite bridge E).
Suspension bridge F). Bow string girder type of bridge ** (jo puche wo hi liko)
**A). Arch Bridge: >>An arch bridge is a bridge with abutments at each end shaped as a curved arch.
Arch bridges work by transferring the weight of the bridge and its loads partially into a horizontal thrust
held by the abutments at either side.
A viaduct (a long bridge) may be made from a series of arches. However other less expensive structures are
typically used today.
*Advantages of Arch Bridges: 1. Strong and durable: Arch bridges are strong and have a long lifespan.
2. Good resistance to lateral forces: Arch bridges have good resistance to lateral forces like earthquakes, wind,
and water. *Disadvantages of Arch Bridges:
1. High construction cost: The construction of arch bridges is often more expensive than other types of bridges
due to their complex design. 2. Limited span length: The maximum span length for an arch bridge is limited.

**B). Cantilever Bridges: >>A cantilever bridge is formed of cantilevers projecting from supporting piers. The ends
of a cantilever bridge are treated as fixed.
>>A cantilever bridge combines the advantages of a simply supported span and a continuous span.
*Advantages of Cantilever Bridges:
1. Cost Effective: They are cost-effective in comparison to other types of bridges, as the construction and
materials required are less.
2. Strong and Stable: Cantilever bridges are strong and stable as they are constructed with two beams extending
from the supports.
*Disadvantages of Cantilever Bridges: 1. Limited Load Capacity: Cantilever bridges have limited load capacity and
are not suitable for heavy-duty traffic or freight transport.
2. Complex Construction: The construction process of cantilever bridges is complex and requires skilled labor.

**C). Cable-Stayed Bridge>>>Cable-stayed bridge is a bridge similar to suspended bridge in that it has towers and
a deck that is held by cables, but its cables hold the deck by connecting it directly to the towers instead via
suspender cables. >>>It usually carries pedestrians, bicycles, automobiles, trucks, and light rail. It is used in
places where spans need to be longer than cantilever bridge can achieve (because of its weight), but the span is
short enough a suspension bridge is not practical there economically.
*Advantages of Cable-Stayed Bridges:
>>The two halves may be cantilevered out from each side. There is no need for anchorages to sustain strong
horizontal forces, because the spans are self- anchoring.
>>They can be cheaper than suspension bridges for a given span. Many asymmetrical designs are possible.
*Disadvantages of Cable-Stayed Bridges: >>The cables require careful treatment to protect them. from corrosion.
>>In the longer sizes, the cantilevered halves are very susceptible to wind induced oscillation during construction.

**D) Composite Bridge: >>'Composite' means that the steel structure of a bridge is fixed to the concrete structure
of the deck so that the steel and concrete act together, so reducing deflections and increasing strength.
>>This is done using 'shear connectors' fixed to the steel beams and then embedded in the concrete. Shear
connectors can be welded on, perhaps using a 'stud welder, or better still on export work, by fixing nuts and bolts.
Advantages:1. Longer span lengths: Composite bridges can span longer distances than traditional bridges, making
them ideal for bridges in remote areas where longer spans are required.
**2. Lighter weight: Composite bridges are much lighter than traditional bridges, making them easier and quicker
to construct, and reducing their impact on the environment.
*Disadvantages: 1. High cost: Composite bridges are often more expensive to construct than traditional bridges,
and the high cost of materials can be a barrier for some projects.
*2. Technical expertise required: Constructing composite bridges requires specialized skills and expertise, which
can make them less accessible for some projects.
* (page no 12 ka hai ye)
*E). Suspension Bridge:>>A suspension bridge is one wherever several cables are set up across two or many
towers that support the bulk of the bridge weight and force.
>>The cables run from the tower to the anchorages. Suspension bridges are robust and might span long distances.
>>They are high-priced as a result of they take an extended time to create and need an oversized quantity of the
fabric.
Advantages of Suspension Bridge: >>Longer main spans are achievable than with any other type of bridge
>>Less material may be required than other bridge types, even at spans they can achieve, leading to a reduced
construction cost
Disadvantages of Suspension Bridge: >>Considerable stiffness or aerodynamic profiling may be required to
prevent the bridge deck vibrating under high winds
>>The relatively low deck stiffness compared to other (non-suspension) types of bridges makes it more difficult to
carry heavy rail traffic where high concentrated live loads occur

(F)Bow String Girder Bridge (R.C.C.):

>>In this type of bridge, the main components are a set of R.C.C. Bow string girder carrying the bridge floor on
their ties In this case, the horizontal thrust is taken by the lower horizontal member called the tie of the girder and
abutment is called upon to take only vertical thrust.
>>The weight of the floor is taken by vertical members called suspenders which in turn spring from arch.
Advantages:
1. Simple design, easy to construct. 2. Low maintenance costs. 3. Lightweight, reducing the load on the
supporting structures. 4. Cost-effective compared to other types of bridges.
Disadvantages:
1. Limited load capacity compared to other types of bridges.
2. Less durable and less resistant to harsh weather conditions. 3. Vulnerable to damage from collisions or impact.
Q). Explain continuous bridge in brief?
Continuous Bridge: >>>In continuous bridges spans are continuous over two or more supports. They are statically
indeterminate structures. >>>They are useful when uneven settlement of supports does not take place
>>In continuous bridges the bending moment anywhere in the span is considerably less than that in case of simply
supported span. >>>Such reduction of bending moment ultimately results in the economic section for the bridge.
>>>In continuous bridges the stresses are reduced due to negative moments developed at pier or supports.
>>>Thus, continuous span bridges have considerable saving compared to simply supported bridge construction.
Q). What is breakwater explain various types of breakwaters
Breakwaters:
>>>Maintaining calm water conditions in harbour is very important for the various activities scheduled for the
vessels. However, apart from natural harbours, artificial harbours need to provide with breakwaters.
>>>Breakwaters protect the ship berthed inside the harbour from the action of heavy and strong waves of sea.
Breakwater is to break momentum of water by means of wave breakers.
>>>The height of a breakwater depends upon its purpose, extent of enclosed water area and the nature of
existing shipping work. Generally, the height of Most of the breakwater construction depends upon -wave
approach and considering some other environmental parameters.
Types of break water:
1. Rubble Mound Breakwater (Structure): Consist of interior graded layers of stone and an outer armor layer.
Armor layer may be of stone or specially shaped concrete units.
>>It is Adaptable to a wide range of water depths, and suitable on nearly all foundation.
2. Composite or Wall-Type Breakwaters: Typically consist of cassions (a concrete or steel sheel filled with sand or
gravel) sitting on a gravel base (also known as vertical wall breakwater). Exposed faces are vertical or slightly
inclined (wall-type).
>>Sheet-pile walls and sheet-pile cells of various shapes are in common use.
>Reflection of energy and scour at the toe of the structure are important considerations for all vertical structures.
3. Floating Breakwaters: Potential application for boat basin protection, boat ramp protection, and shoreline
erosion control.
Q). What are requirements of Harbours and ports?
REQUIREMENTS OF HARBOURS AND PORTS

Following are the requirements of harbours and ports:

1. A careful consideration and survey of the area with a view of ascertaining what type of stones, gravel etc. are
present and also the water.
2. Provisions of good beaching ground, ample quay space easily accessible by road or rail is important especially in
smaller classes of harbour.
3. The entrance of the harbour, the depth and width should be sufficient to cope up with the density of traffic,
degree of protection and the basic purpose of the harbour.
4. The depth of water in the approach channel must be sufficient for navigation of vessel. However, when such
ideal conditions do not persist, proper considerations in the designing must be done.
5. The tuming basin, in which manoeuvring of the ship takes place, should be of area so that the vessel can turn
with continuous headway without the help of tug
6. The harbour area must be clam and thereby contribute to safety of vessel by providing breakwaters.
7. Good holding ground and secure anchorage at various depths for all commercial purposes including fishing and
small squadron of war ships.
8. Port and Harbour management should include measures to prevent serious harm to people and protection for
the marine environment.
Q). Give classification of Harbours based upon protection needed.
CLASSIFICATION OF HARBOURS:
The harbours are classified based upon: a). Protection needed, b). Utility and c). Location
1. Artificial Harbour: An artificial harbour is a man- made harbour deliberately constructed breakwaters, sea
walls, or jetties, or otherwise, they could have been constructed by dredging, and these require maintenance by
further periodic dredging. These types of harbours are also called as man-made harbours. Madras harbour is an
artificial harbour. The components of harbour like breakwater, berth, etc...
2. Natural Harbour: Natural harbour is protected from storms and waves by prominences of land. The natural
harbour consists of a part of body of water which is protected and deep enough for anchorage.
Vizhinjam, India is a natural harbour. Following Fig. 6.4 shows layout of natural harbour
3. Semi-Natural Harbour: Semi-natural harbours are the ones who are protected on sides by land and require
man-made protection only at the entrance. Visakhapatnam is a semi-natural port.
Q). Discuss in detail the factors affecting the choice of selection of site for an airport
The factors affecting the selection of a suitable site for a major airport installation are mentioned below:
1. regional plan 2. airport use. 3. proximity to other airport. 4. ground accessibility. 5. topography
6. obstructions 7. visibility 8. wind 9. noise nuisance 10. grading, drainage and soil characteristics
11. future development 12. availability of utilities from town 13. economic consideration
1. Regional plan: Th e site selected should fit well into the regional plan there by forming it an integral part of the
national network of airport
2. Airport use: Therefore, the airport site selected should be such that it provides natural protection to the area
from air roads. This consideration is of prime importance for the airfield elds to be located in combat zones. If the
site provides thick bushes.
3. Proximity to other airport: the site should be selected at a consider able distance from the existing airports so
that the aircraft landing in one airport does not interfere with the movement of aircraft at another airport.
4. Ground accessibility: the site should be so selected that it is readily accessible to the users. The airline
passenger is more concerned with his door-to-door time rather than in the actual time in air travel. The time to
reach the airport is therefore an important consideration especially for short haul operations.
5. Topography: this includes natural features like ground contours trees streams etc. A raised ground a hill top is
usually considered to be an ideal site for an airport.
6. Obstructions: when an aircraft is landing or taking off it loses or gains altitude very slowly as compared to the
forward speed. For this reason, long clearance areas are provided on either side of runway known as approach
areas over which the aircraft can safely gain or lose altitude.
Q). Write short on 1) wet, Dock 2) Apron 3) Hangers 4) wind rose diagram
5) runway configuration 6) Airport obstruction ( jo puche so hai wahi liko)
**1. Wet, Dock:
>>A wet dock is a dock where the level of water in the dock is maintained despite the raising and lowering of the
tide. This makes transfer of cargo easier. >>It works like a lock which controls the water level and allows passage
of ships. >>A dock where the water is shut in, and kept at a given level, to facilitate the loading and unloading of
ships; also sometimes used as a place of safety, a basin.
**2. Apron>> An apron is a defined area intended to accommodate aircraft for purposes of loading and unloading
passengers, mail or cargo, fueling and parking or maintenance
>>The apron is generally paved but may occasionally be unpaved;
>>for example, in some instances, a turf parking apron may be adequate for small aircraft
**3. Hangars: >>Hangars are buldings in which airplanes are Repaired or Serviced
>>Most airlines have their own hangars in which they can park many jets at the same time
>> and Most hangers are far away from terminals and nunways so that they do not interfere with airport traffic
**4. Wind Rose diagram:
1. A wind rose diagram shows wind speed and direction frequency.
2. The diagram is made up of a circle with spokes representing wind directions.
3. The size of each wedge in the diagram represents wind frequency from a specific direction.
4. Wind roses are used in meteorology, engineering, and architecture to understand wind patterns at a site.
5. Wind roses can provide important information for wind-related projects.
**5. Runway Configuration: >>Runway Configuration is the layout or design of a runway or runways, where
operations on the particular runway or runways being used at a given time are mutually dependent.
>>>A large airport can have two or more runway configurations operating simultaneously.
1. Single – an airport having one runway
2. Parallel- two or more runways at an airport whose centerlines are parallel

**6. Airport Obstruction:

>>>The site for airport should be selected that, it does not obstruct the safe landing and take-off of aircrafts.
>>>Steps should also be taken to curb possibility of developing any future obstruction.
>>>The purchase of the entire flight approach areas, and the turning areas, to prevent the undesirable growth of
structure is not always feasible economically.
>>>As such zoning ordinances regarding the permissible height of structures and the land used within the airport
boundary, need implementation, as soon as the site is selected for the airport.
Q). Give the various geometric standards for different classes of runways and taxiways
*GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RUNWAY
1. Length 2. Taxiways 3. Longitudinal and Effective gradient 4. Safety Area 5. Sight Distance 6. Transverse Gradient
7. Width
1. Length of Runway: The Basic runway length is given by ICAO in accordance with the classification of airports.
>>The actual runway length is computed after applying corrections in length for: – a). Elevation b). Temperature,
and c). Gradient
2. Taxiways:
Class A: 23 m wide with a clear width of at least 3 m on either side of the taxiway centerline
Class B: 18 m wide with a clear width of at least 3 m on either side of the taxiway centerline
Class C: 15 m wide with a clear width of at least 3 m on either side of the taxiway centerline
3. Longitudinal and Effective gradient: The longitudinal gradient increases the runway length Fuel consumption of
aircraft increases on uphill slope climbing during takeoff.
4. Safety Area: It includes runway, shoulders on either side of runway, and additional length and the shoulders are
generally unpaved
Q). Explain various safety measures in tunneling
1. Guidance of competent foreman is a must f o r a l l operations to be carried out inside the tunnel.
2. Adequate ventilation is required to remove polluted air, gases and smoke produced.
3. Temperatures of not more than 40 C dry and 29 C wet at the working place to be ensured
4. The tests shall be carried out once after every blast or a major rock-fall or at least every 24 hours once.
5. Tests of gases and for temperature measurements and ventilation measurements shall be recorded properly
maintained.
6. Adequate steps shall be taken to prevent the liberation, accumulation and the propagation of air-borne dust.
7. Periodical medical checkup of the workers at least once in three months to be done and recorded.
8. Adequate supply of pure and hygienic air to be maintained.
9. Rocker or cradle type dump cars shall be provided with a positive type lock to prevent accidental dumping in
mucking yards.
10. The trolley tracks to be laid with points, crossings and junctions and also adequately maintained.
Q). Explain various advantages in tunneling method.
1. The tunneling procedure is more economical in nature, compared to open cut trench method when the depth is
beyond a limit
2. The surface life or ground activities like transportation are not disturbed when tunneling is undergone.
3. The method ensures high-speed construction with low power consumption
4. Reduces Noise Pollution
5. These methods have freedom from snow and iceberg hazards, in areas of high altitudes
6. Surface and air interference is restricted for tunnels
7. Provision of tunnels with easy gradients, help in reducing the cost of hauling
8. For the transportation of public utilities, tunneling method has a remarkable advantage compared to the
bridge.
9. The dangerous open cut to a nearby structure, when it is needed, is solved by the tunneling method
10. The tunneling grant greater protection in aerial warfare and bombing conditions
Q). Explain piolet tunnel in brief
PILLOT TUNNEL:

>>>When the diameter of tunnel is large say 8 to 9 m, adopting full face excavation possess many problems.
Instead, if a small size says 2.5 to 3 m diameter tunnel called as pilot tunnel is driven, as it allows many
advantages.
>>>Pilot tunnel serves as exploratory tunnel and gives information regarding the strata likely to be encountered;
so that proper strategy can be planned and likely problems tackled.
>>>It provides an access for ground treatment.
>>>In a large face, the effects of relaxation of stress penetrate further ahead and larger volume of ground is
involved over longer period, resulting in much stronger support.
>>>This is more important in case of soft ground than in rock or stiff clay.
>>>With increase in the size of tunnel, more than proportionate thrust is required due to decrease in arching
action.
>>>If d and p represent diameter of pilot tunnel and ground pressure and if 2d is the diameter
of main tunnel.
Q). Write a note on A). Classification of tunnels B). TBM explain it types
C). Drainage in tunnels D). Ventilation in tunnels (jo pucha wahi liko)
A). Classification Tunnel:
Classification based on Purpose of Tunnel:
A). Transportation: a). Transportation of people and goods through railways. highways, metros, pedestrian
tunnels. b). Transportation of water for supply of drinking water to cities, supply of water to hydroelectric power
station, irrigation, canals, cooling towers etc.
B). Storage plant, public amenities: a). Car parks, underground sports complexes, swimming pools, etc.
b). Storage of oil, liquid, wine etc. c). Underground power stations.
C). Classification based on Strata:
The classification based on strata encountered can be classified as:
a. Tunnels in hard rock. b. Tunnels in soft rock. c. Tunnels in soft soil,
d. Tunnels in quick sand, and e) Tunnels below bed of river.
D). Classification based on Position of Tunnels: >>a. Saddle Tunnel: >>When tunnel is to pass through valleys,
then in the valley portion where steep gradient exists, tunnel is provided and, in the portion, where gradient is
gentle, vehicles/railways are allowed to travel along the ground surface. >>By such arrangement, length of tunnel
is reduced. Such arrangement is justified if expected volume of traffic in long run is less. However, if in the course
of time, volume of traffic is expected to be high, it is advisable to provide longer tunnel at lower elevation.
B). Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM):
>>While tunneling through soft soil, many problems like dewatering, collapse of roof, strengthening of roof et are
required to be tackled. In the early years of 20 century.
>>these were tackled by providing shield tunneling, which consist of forcing sharp edged steel shield in the crown
portion, ahead of excavation, and then removing the soil below mechanically or manually.
>>Essentially, Tunnel Boring Machines [TBM] are modern versions of shield tunnel. Initially. TBMs were
developed, for tunneling in soft soil, but with the new developments, different types of TBMs are available, so
that tunneling can be carried out in various types of soils and rocks.
*Following types of TBMs are available: 1. Unshielded open type. 2. Shielded type. 3. Double shielded.
4. Closed face slurry type. 5. Earth pressure balance type.
C). drainage tunnels
>>The art of collection and removal of water entering the tunnels during and after their constructions is known as
drainage of tunnels.
>>If proper arrangements of drainage during construction are not adopted, the seepage water affect the tunnel.
Necessity of Drainage of Tunnels:
>>An efficient drainage system is necessary during construction of tunnels to have more progress of work.
>>After the construction of tunnel is over, its drainage is also essential to reduce wear and tear of the
communication route and to achieve more safety of the moving vehicles.
Classification of drainage: 1. temporary drainage system 2. permanent drainage system
D). Ventilation in tunnels:
>>The ventilation means supply of air, light and keeping the level of noise to bearable to human beings.
>>The technique of providing fresh air inside the tunnel during and after construction is known as tunnel
ventilation.
*Objects of Tunnel Ventilation: 1. To supply fresh air inside the tunnel
2. To remove safely the dust caused by drilling, blasting and mucking
3. The remove poisonous gases, smokes etc. To reduce temperature in tunnel situated at great depth.
*Types of Ventilation:
1. Temporary Ventilation: When ventilation is to be provided at the time of construction only, such ventilation
system is known as temporary ventilation.
2. Permanent Ventilation: When ventilation is to be provided at the time of construction and after the
construction work is over, such ventilation system is known as permanent ventilation.