2936.

Literature review of tire-pavement interaction

noise and reduction approaches
Tan Li
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA
Maxxis Technology Center, Suwanee, GA, 30024, USA
E-mail: [email protected], [email protected]
Received 29 March 2018; accepted 9 May 2018
DOI https://doi.org/10.21595/jve.2018.19935
Copyright © 2018 Tan Li. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits
unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Abstract. Tire-pavement interaction noise (TPIN) dominates for passenger vehicles with the
speed of above 40 km/h and for trucks with the speed of 70 km/h. With the prevailing trend of
electric vehicles, TPIN can become more NVH (Noise, Vibration, and Harshness) issue in the
future. In this paper, the vehicle noise and tire noise were briefly reviewed in the background
introduction. Then the motivation of and approaches to reducing tire noise was reviewed from
open literature. It was found that the tire industry and the pavement industry have been working
individually on designing and building quiet tire and quiet pavement for many decades. However,
the interaction between tire and pavement was less investigated. The future research on reducing
TPIN can be the combined consideration of both tire and pavement characteristics while
maintaining other performances, such as traction, handling, rolling resistance, hydroplaning, and
durability.
Keywords: tire noise, noise reduction, quiet tire, quiet pavement.

1. Introduction

Tire-pavement interaction noise (TPIN) is defined as the noise emitted from a rolling tire as a
result of the interaction between the tire and road surface (Sandberg and Ejsmont, 2002 [1]), which
is also known as tire-road interaction noise, tire/pavement noise, tire/road noise (TRN), or tire
noise. TPIN has been extensively investigated since 1970’s (Li et al., 2018 [2]). In this paper, the
relationship between TPIN and vehicle noise is first introduced. Then, the categorization of TPIN
is discussed. Next, the motivation of reducing TPIN is explained. Last, the TPIN reduction
approaches are reviewed.

2. Vehicle noise

Noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH), a.k.a., noise and vibration (N&V) represents a quality
factor in the automotive engineering (Mohamed, 2013 [3]). It is generally accepted that there are
five major sources of noise for a running vehicle: engine (power train), intake system, exhaust
system, aerodynamic turbulence (wind) and tire-pavement interaction (Braun et al., 2013 [4]), as
shown in Fig. 1 (Bosch, 2004 [5]). The power train noise is generated primarily due to combustion
in the engine, gas flow, and mechanical movement of the transmission parts. The aerodynamic
noise depends on vehicle geometry and speed of the vehicle, generated due to aerodynamic friction
and turbulence caused by the vehicles moving at higher speeds. The combination of engine (power
train), intake system, exhaust system is also called as the propulsion system which the performance
is largely dependent on the engine speed; they have coherent noise sources and are interacting
with each other, but they are incoherent with tire noise (Fry et al., 1999 [6]). It is reasonable to
infer that for the same vehicle speed, lower gear generates more noise since the engine speed is
higher, as shown in Fig. 2 (Biermann, 2004 [7]). It can be seen that the noise level is relatively
independent of torque except when rpm is below 1000. The intake orifice noise versus engine
speed is displayed in Fig. 3 (Zeller, 2009 [8]). The exhaust noise versus engine speed is displayed
in Fig. 4, and its typical spectrum is shown in Fig. 5 (Alfredson and Davies, 1970 [9]). For vehicle
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noise from trucks, the supplementary braking noise (pneumatic cylinders) and “body slap” are
often important (NZ Transport Agency, 2014 [10]).

Fig. 1. Noise source ranking for a vehicle during the pass-by noise test (source from Braun et al., 2013 [4],
Fig. 21; original from Bosch, 2004 [5]; reprinted with permission from Elsevier)

Fig. 2. Engine noise map of sound pressure level versus torque and rotational speed (source from Braun
et al., 2013 [4], Fig. 11; original from Biermann, 2004 [7]; reprinted with permission from Elsevier)

Fig. 3. Sound pressure level of intake orifice noise versus engine speed and frequency (source from Braun
et al., 2013 [4], Fig. 14; original from Zeller, 2009 [8]; reprinted with permission from Elsevier)

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Fig. 4. Sound pressure level of exhaust noise versus engine speed (source from Braun et al., 2013 [4],
Fig. 16; original from Alfredson and Davies, 1970 [9]; reprinted with permission from Elsevier)

Fig. 5. Typical frequency spectrum of exhaust noise measured at 1880 rpm and 0.9 m from the outlet:
a) 0–5000 Hz; (b) 100–600 Hz (source from Braun et al., 2013 [4], Fig. 17; original from Alfredson
and Davies, 1970 [9]; reprinted with permission from Elsevier)

These noise sources contribute differently for a different speed, as illustrated in Fig. 6,
including propulsion noise, tire-pavement interaction noise and aerodynamic noise. Sandberg
(2001) [11] indicated that the tire-pavement interaction noise dominates for passenger vehicles
with the speed of above 40 km/h and for trucks with the speed of 70 km/h. Engine noise is
dominant at a low speed in low frequencies (Yang et al., 2011 [12]) shown in Fig. 7 (Bravo et al.,
2012 [13]), while aerodynamic noise is important only at a very high speed (15 % at 150 km/h
[14]) and only at low frequencies (50-400 Hz [15]). The intake and exhaust noise also centers
around low frequencies, as shown in Fig. 8 (Freeman and Cerrato, 2011 [16]). It was reported that
air turbulence noise was still more than 10 dB lower than TPIN even at a speed of 90 km/h for
frequencies between 315 Hz and 5 kHz, and engine and exhaust noise were negligible (Dubois
et al., 2013 [17]).

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Fig. 6. Vehicle noise components versus speed (source from Rasmussen et al., 2007 [18], Fig. 7;
reprinted with permission from Dr. Robert Otto Rasmussen of The Transtec Group, Inc., USA)

Fig. 7. Power spectrum of the microphone signals situated close to the engine (blue) and close
to the tire (red) for pass-by velocity of 70 km/h (source from Bravo et al., 2012 [13],
Fig. 3; reprinted with permission from ASME)

Fig. 8. Noise emissions from exhaust and intake system (source from Freeman
and Cerrato, 2011 [16], Fig. 4; reprinted under fair use provision)

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That is to say, at a normal highway speed, tire-pavement interaction noise is the most important
noise contributor [19] (up to 80-90 % at a speed of over 70-80 km/h [20]). It seems not to be the
common established thought, that is, engine is the dominant noise source. It was true before
1970’s, however, as engine and exhaust became less noisy, and the aerodynamic design of vehicle
body was optimized (Dechipre et al., 2010 [21]), the tire-pavement interaction noise became more
and more dominant, as shown in Fig. 9 (Sandberg, 2001 [22]). The trend of electric motor
replacing combustion engine also plays a great role in this change now and in the future (Gasparoni
et al., 2014 [23]). Sandberg (2001) [11] further claimed that usually tire noise dominates during
almost all types of driving for cars and down to about 40 km/h for trucks (vehicles meeting EU
requirements), as shown in Fig. 10 (Bernhard and Wayson, 2005 [24]).

Fig. 9. The most important reduction measures employed in a common car in order to satisfy various
steps in tightened noise emission limits in Germany and the EU. Note that the curves indicate
how the limits and the sources engine, intake, exhaust and tire have developed over time.
(Source from Sandberg, 2001 [22], Fig. 3; reprinted under fair use provision)

Fig. 10. Contributions of various sub-sources of highway traffic noise (source from Bernhard and Wayson,
2005 [24], Fig. 11; reprinted with permission from Ms. Amy Miller of Asphalt Pavement Alliance)

Schuhmacher (2015) [25] applied the blind source separation (BSS) technique to the indoor
vehicle pass-by noise to separate the contributions from different components of the vehicle using
17 microphones. The results are below in Fig. 11.
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Fig. 11. Contribution matrix indicating the relative power contribution from each independent component
(column) to each reference microphone (row) (source from Schuhmacher,
2015 [25], Fig. 11; reprinted under fair use provision)

3. Noise categorization

The three basic elements of noise are source, transmission path and receiver. Based on the
noise generation mechanism (source) and the conveying medium (path), tire noise can be
classified as structure-borne noise and airborne noise. Based on the position of the receiver, tire
noise can be categorized as interior noise (inside the vehicle) and exterior noise (outside the
vehicle). As such, there are basically four types of noise combining two sets of categories, as
illustrated in Fig. 12 (He et al., 2011 [26]). When it comes to tire-pavement interaction noise, it
usually refers to exterior noise, including both structure-borne and airborne.

Fig. 12. Vehicle interior noise transmission path (source from He et al., 2011 [26], Fig. 2;
reprinted with permission from Trans Tech Publications Ltd)

Structure-borne noise is generated from a vibration source, such as tread impact. The acoustic
energy created by these vibrations is transmitted into and through a solid structure, such as rim,
axle, suspension and vehicle body. Air-borne noise is generated directly due to air displacement
such as air pumping. It should be noted that the acoustic energy of the structure-borne noise is
finally released as airborne noise at the interface between the structure and air, and thus it can be
heard. Airborne noise may also change into the structure-borne one, and usually back to airborne
again, such as air pumping noise transmitted into interior noise through vibrations of windows.
Structure-borne noise can be attenuated by vibration isolators, while airborne noise is reduced by
absorption materials or through the use of sound barrier. Generally, in acoustics the difference
between structure-borne and airborne noise is in the medium of transmission, but in terms of tire
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noise, the difference is sometimes focused on the noise generation mechanism, which is kind of
misused. Strictly speaking, the latter should be called as the vibro-dynamic noise and aerodynamic
noise, or vibro-acoustic noise and aeroacoustic noise.
The interior noise of vehicle is a completely different topic than the exterior noise (mainly
TPIN). The spectral content of interior noise is focused around low frequencies, as shown in
Fig. 13 (Chang et al., 2010 [27]). Jen and Lu (2007) [28] reported that the major road excitation
input was below 50 Hz, and the interior noise resonances caused by modes of tires and suspensions
were mainly below 100 Hz.

Fig. 13. Interior noise spectrum at speed 80 km/h (source from Chang et al., 2010 [27],
Fig. 4; reprinted with permission from IEEE)

The three primary interior noise sources are engine, tire, and wind (Lim et al., 2014 [29]). The
secondary sources can be mechanical devices such as ventilation fans (Aissaoui, 2015 [30]) and
power windows (Johnsson and Nykänen, 2013 [31]). Chang et al. (2010) [27] indicated that tire
becomes the dominant noise source for interior noise when the speed is over 80 km/h, and the
structure-borne noise occurs mainly at low frequencies (below 500 Hz) while the airborne one
occurs at high frequencies (500-2000 Hz) (Lopez et al., 2007 [32]). Kitahara et al. (2011) [33]
reported the same results, as shown in Fig. 14. Since the interior noise is mainly structure-borne
noise, the transfer path analysis (Tsuji et al., 2015 [34]; Zhao, 2008 [35]) and multiple coherence
filtering (MCF) are often utilized (Chang et al., 2010 [27]). Saguchi et al. (2007) [36] investigated
the noise and vibration transmissibility for the forces and moments at the spindle, as shown in
Fig. 15 [36]. Vertical force 𝐹 affects up to 500 Hz, overturning moment 𝑀 and aligning moment
𝑀 have influence at around 200 Hz, and lateral force 𝐹 is effective for 600 Hz. Kido and Ueyama
(2005) [37] speculated that it is due to suspension (Geluk et al., 2011 [38]) and wheel resonance.
The comparison between the spectra of exterior noise and interior noise is displayed in Fig. 16.

Fig. 14. Contribution of tire structure-borne and airborne noise for interior noise
(source from Kitahara, 2011 [33], Fig. 2; reprinted under fair use provision)
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Fig. 15. Structure-borne interior noise due to spindle force and moment variations
(source from Saguchi et al., 2007 [36], Fig. 13; reprinted under fair use provision)

Fig. 16. Coast down measurement of exterior noise at the leading CPX (above)
and interior noise at right-ear passenger seat (below) measured simultaneously
(source from Bekke et al., 2010 [39], Fig. 5; reprinted under fair use provision)

Sotteck and Philippen (2010) [40] investigated the separation of airborne and structure-borne
tire road interior noise using the Operational Path Analysis (OPA). The same authors (2012) [41]
presented an approach combining the Operational Transfer Path Analysis (OTPA) and Cross-Talk
Cancellation (CTC) to study the interior noise from tire under dynamic driving conditions, such
as acceleration and deceleration when the engine noise is of more importance.
Pietrzyk (2001) [42] reported that the structural-borne noise from tire resonances below
400 Hz was believed to be transmitted through spindle and solid parts of the vehicle, and thus the
interior noise came from the excited panels and surfaces of the cabin. Molisani et al. (2003) [43]
identified that one such tire resonance is due to the tire acoustic cavity (resonance of the air column
inside the tire cavity).
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He et al. (2011) [26] found that interior noise is greatly influenced by tire tread impact for
some tires. As such, the dominant frequencies have a strong relation with the vehicle speed, which
is not the case for the exterior noise. It is best shown in electric vehicles, since the rpm of electric
motor is also proportional to speed, as shown in Fig. 17 (Fischer et al. 2014 [44]).

Fig. 17. Interior noise spectrum versus electric motor rpm (80 % accelerator pedal position measured
on roller test bench) (source from Fischer et al. 2014 [44], Fig. 6; reprinted with permission
from Mr. David Landes of Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Germany)

The structural-acoustic finite element method is often used for modeling vehicle interior noise
(Sung and Nefske, 2010 [45]), but it is only valid at low frequencies. Sung and Nefske (2009) [46]
then presented a new statistical regression-based energy method for early vehicle design, which is
suitable for high frequencies where the Statistical Energy Analysis (SEA) is often utilized in
acoustics (Gur et al., 2015 [47]). Langhe et al. (2011) [48] proposed a hybrid modeling process
where the Finite Element Method (FEM) with Auto Extruding Perfectly Matched Layer (AML)
technologies is used for the low to mid frequency range while the Fast Multipole Boundary
Element Method (FMBEM) for a higher frequency range, maintaining both the modeling accuracy
and computation speed requirements.
For the interior noise, the sound balance or sound quality (shown in Fig. 18 [49]) is more of a
concern than just making the vehicle quieter [29]. Due to the complexity of human hearing
perception, two different noises with the same A-weighted level are not necessarily equally
disturbing, then it can be partly explained by the psychoacoustics, including loudness, loudness
level, sharpness, fluctuation strength, roughness and so on (Peng et al., 2010 [50]). The reduction
of tones or addition of harmonics sometimes makes the interior noise more pleasant without
changing the overall sound levels. The noise frequency range that mostly affects interior comfort
is 50 to 200 Hz (Labor and Priebsch, 2007 [51]).

Fig. 18. Sound qualities in compartment of passenger car (source from Lee et al., 2005 [49], Fig. 1;
reprinted with permission from Mr. Craig Myles on behalf of SAGE Ltd. Permissions Team)
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4. Motivation of TPIN reduction

The motivation for controlling tire-pavement interaction noise is multiple and different across
different countries. One is to pass the legal approval for the exterior noise level; one is to reduce
the annoyance level in the car interior space and increase passenger comfort (Harrison, 2004 [52]);
one is to boycott foreign tire imports (Chen, 2014 [53]).

4.1. Pollution

“Environmental pollution” can be suggested by many people as air pollution, water pollution,
or similar concepts. But another pollution, which is not quite visible but encountered by more and
more cities, is noise pollution. Noise barriers that are up to 20 feet high have to be built to shield
the neighborhoods from road noise for hundreds of yards along busy highways (Wayson, 2014
[54]). According to many opinion polls, the traffic noise is considered to be the number one noise
nuisance affecting millions of people. Among the different sources of traffic noise (road vehicles,
railways and airplanes), the sound generated by cars is most important because there are millions
of them and because they are almost ubiquitous (Heckl, 1986 [55]).
European Commission Green Paper (1996) [56] pointed out that 110 million people (22 % of
the EU population) are affected by sound pressure level greater than 65 dBA, and more than
225 million (45 % of the EU population) are exposed to noise levels above 55 dBA. It also
indicated that road traffic noise is the most dominant source (over 90 %) of environmental noise
in Europe, followed by rail traffic noise (Remington et al., 1983 [57]), aircraft noise and industrial
noise. As such, traffic noise pollution becomes more and more concerned, as illustrated in Fig. 19
(Murphy and King, 2011 [58]).

Fig. 19. Strategic noise map for the night-time period (𝐿 ) in Dublin, Ireland
(source from Murphy and King, 2011 [58], Fig. 2; reprinted with permission from Elsevier)

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), noise is the second largest
environmental cause of health issues, just after air quality (particulate matter). Sleepers exposed
to night noise levels above long-term average 40 dB can suffer health effects like annoyance, sleep
disturbance and awakenings. Above 55 dB, cardiovascular disease, cognitive impairment and
tinnitus can be triggered. It was estimated that each year noise pollution leaded to about
910 thousand additional prevalent cases of hypertension, 43 thousand hospital admissions, and at
least 10 thousand premature deaths related to coronary heart disease and stroke (Kim, 2007 [59]).
It was also indicated that 1-1.6 million healthy life years were lost every year from traffic noise in

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the EU cities.
In addition, truck drivers for long distance travelling exposed to continuous vehicle noise of
high levels are easier to have health issues (Pan and Boulet, 2014 [60]). Loud traffic noise also
affects animal behavior (Goodwin and Shriver, 2011 [61]; Lengagne, 2008 [62]; Bee and Swanson,
2007 [63]).

4.2. Policy

As traffic noise becomes more of a concern, the global regulations tend to have more and more
tightening limits on the noise levels. After the INTER-NOISE 1992 conference in Toronto, the
International Institute of Noise Control Engineering (I-INCE) started a global study on the effect
of vehicle noise regulations on road traffic noise. The work was conducted by the Working Party
on Noise Emissions of Road Vehicles (WP-NERV) including 13 members from 10 countries, of
which Ulf Sandberg from the Swedish National Road and Transport Research Institute (VTI) was
the convener. The final report (2001) [22] presented the changes of vehicle noise emission limits
over 30 years (1970-2001), as shown in Fig. 20. Recommendations for future noise emission
regulations were also given in the report since some regulations had a limited effect (Sandberg,
2001 [22]).

Fig. 20. Regulation limits for noise emission of passenger cars in European Union (EU),
Japan and USA (source from Sandberg, 2001 [22], Fig. 1; reprinted under fair use provision)

In Fig. 20, it can be seen that Europe has the most stringent regulations on tire noise. The first
relevant policy is Directive 70/157/EEC in 1970 (European Economic Community, 1970 [64]).
The main current regulation on environmental noise is Directive 2002/49/EC (2002) [65]. For road
traffic noise, the current regulations are Regulation (EU) 540/2014 (2014) [66] for motor vehicles
and Regulation (EU) 168/2013 (2013) [67] for motor cycles. For tire noise, Directive 2001/43/EC
(2001) [68] indicates the noise emission limits for new tires, as shown in Fig. 21 (FEHRL, 2001
[69]). In 2009, Regulation (EC) 661/2009 [70] and Regulation (EC) 1222/2009 [71] require
revised noise limits (more stringent) for tire approval, as shown in Fig. 22, and mandatory tire
labeling beginning from November 2012 as shown in Fig. 23. The tire approval process is in
UN/ECE R117/2011 (2011) [72] and UN/ECE R51/2011 (2011) [73] requiring the measurement
of rolling resistance, wet grip and pass-by noise. In the future, for M1a vehicles (99 % of the
current car population) it is planned to limit the noise to 72 dBA in 2016 then to 68 dBA in 2024,
affecting roughly 85 % of the current car population (ACEA, 2012 [74]). The Dutch National
Traffic and Transportation indicated the goal regarding noise nuisance caused by road traffic:
decreasing the number of houses exposed to a noise level of >70 dBA by 100 %, the number
> 65 dBA by 90 % and the number > 60 dBA by 50 % in 2030 (Nijland et al., 2003 [75]). China
also introduces tire labeling system for voluntary tire certification including tire noise, as shown
in Fig. 24 (RenMinWang, 2016 [76]).

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Fig. 21. Noise emission limits according to Directive 2001/43/EC (source from FEHRL, 2001 [69],
Appendices Fig. 3; reprinted under fair use provision)

Fig. 22. Noise emission limits according to Regulation (EC) 661/2009

(modified from EC, 2009 [70]; reprinted under fair use provision)

Fig. 23. Tire labeling information (source from ETRMA, 2011 [77];
reprinted with permission from ETRMA)

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Fig. 24. China Green Tyre Rating Assessment (C-GTRA)

(source from Ren Min Wang, 2016 [76]; reprinted under fair use provision)

In the U.S., the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) requires tire
labeling according to the Uniform Tire Quality Grading standard (UTQG), including wet braking
traction performance, predicted tread wear life, and high temperature endurance without tire noise
requirements. The current federal regulation for traffic noise is 23 CFR 772 (2010) [78].
In Canada, the regulation regarding sound levels related to transportation is “Noise Assessment
Criteria in Land Use Planning, LU-131” published by the Ontario Ministry of the Environment in
October of 1997 [79].
In India, the noise pollution is also regulated by CPCB (2000) [80] and framed under the
Environment Act 1986 [81], as shown in Table 1.
Most policies are focused on exterior vehicle noise (mostly as per the coast-by method at 7.5 m
distance from the vehicle [82]), but for interior noise, they are only regulated by market
requirement or consumer orientation (Mohamed, et al., 2013 [3]).

Table 1. Permissible limits on ambient noise standards in India

(source from CPCB, 2000 [80]; reprinted under fair use provision)
Zone code Category of zone Day (6 am to 10 pm) Night (10 pm to 6 am)
A Industrial 75 dB 70 dB
B Commercial 65 dB 55 dB
C Residential 55 dB 45 dB
D Silent 50 dB 40 dB

4.3. Other considerations

Traffic noise is dependent on the traffic volume, traffic speed and percentage of trucks in the
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traffic mix [83] (on high-speed road, the dominant noise source is heavy truck tires [84]). In the
US, federal Code 23, Section 772 (2010) [78] requires transportation projects that receive federal
funding to meet noise impacts limits. The U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway
Administration (2010) [85] presented five approved methods to mitigate traffic noise, including
noise barriers, vegetation screens, traffic management, building insulation and buffer zones, most
of which are passive noise control regarding sound transmission path. Usually, the noise barrier is
the only viable option to mitigate the traffic noise.
The reason why quiet pavement is not included in the approved methods is that pavements can
wear out and become louder with time. Donovan et al. (2013) [86] presented a methodology for
evaluating the feasibility, reasonableness, effectiveness, acoustic longevity, and economic features
of pavement strategies and barriers for noise mitigation. The Life Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA) is
utilized to quantify their economic features. It was reported that noise barriers have a higher initial
cost ($1.3-3 million per mile [87]) than quieter pavements but have lower ongoing costs due to
minimal maintenance requirements. In addition, the noise reduction effect of noise barriers does
not diminish with time.
However, as the endurance of pavement acoustic performance improves, more and more
transportation agencies are interested in quiet pavement, especially in Europe. Moreover, noise
barriers have some disadvantages: locations such as hillsides and intersections are not suitable for
building noise barriers; most noise barriers block the view, which does not look beautiful; barrier
on one side will increase reflection to the other side (Kohler, 2010 [88]). Controlling tire-pavement
interaction noise at its source, i.e., quiet pavement and quiet tire, can be a more economical and
effective approach.
As electric and hybrid motor vehicles (E/H vehicles) gained increasing interest, a significant
reduction (3-4 dB) of traffic noise emissions (Jabben et al., 2012 [89]) can be reached. On the
other hand, concerns arise that E/H vehicles with quiet pavements might pose a severe threat to
the safety of vulnerable road users due to poor vehicle detection ability (Mendonça, 2013 [90]).
Some regulations start to focus on limiting the minimum sound of electric vehicles. However,
Sandberg (2013) [91] pointed out that it is currently far more justified to work towards reducing
the noise emission of the noisiest vehicles than adding noise to the quiet ones.

5. TPIN reduction approaches

As traffic noise is expected to be more of an environmental and health concern, the exploration
to reduce the noise, especially tire road noise, will be of greater interest (Bückers and Stöckert,
2012 [92]). A lot of attempts have been conducted to reduce tire-pavement interaction noise at the
source and to ensure a lasting effect, such as low-noise tires and quite road (Sandberg, 2001 [11]).
The pavement seems to have greater potential for noise reduction (10 dB) compared to tire (4 dB)
at the speed of 60 mph (Mogrovejo et al., 2014 [93]; Saemann et al., 2012 [94]). In the following,
the approaches to tire pavement noise reductions are introduced.

5.1. Quiet tire

For a long time, it was assumed that a quiet tire was an unsafe tire for the general public. This
assumption was based on the belief that quiet tires should be very smooth and consequently should
have a low skid resistance (Heckl, 1986 [55]). As regulations for silent tires and vehicles are
introduced internationally (Nijland et al., 2003 [75]), a number of design concepts to reduce tire
noise are presented, as shown in Table 2. It can be seen that the modification has been applied to
the tire tread, tread pattern, tire cavity, and rim. However, few of these design concepts are
commercially viable due to manufacturing complexities and costs, safety and durability; the sound
absorbing materials attached inside the tire cavity to reduce the cavity resonance noise might be
the most successful so far.

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Table 2. Design concepts for quiet tire (green indicates commercially available)
Company / Reduction
Category Reference Modification Method Illustration
Institution effect
Attachment of a rubber
Iwao and Nissan Motor
Tread ring on the inside surface 5 dB
Yamazaki, Co., Ltd. Tire tread Fig. 25
vibration of the center part of the (800-1600 Hz)
1996 [95] (Japan)
tread surface
Continental
Tread Application of seal and
Saemann et Reifen
vibration Tire tread foam absorber to the 7.5 dB
al., 2011 Deutschland Fig. 26
& cavity and cavity inside surface of tread (230-240 Hz)
[96] GmbH
resonance band
(Germany)
Zhou, 2013 Reduction of fluid drag
Jiangsu
[97]; Zhou force and noise by using > 10 dB
University Tread pattern Fig. 27
et al., 2014 the bypass structure and (800-1500 Hz)
(China)
[98] bionic tread groove
Circumferential length of
Sumitomo
contact patch is
Kakumu, Rubber
Tread pattern substantially equal to the 5 dB Fig. 28
1990 [99] Industries
transverse groove pitch
(Japan)
multiplied by an integer
Strategic placement of
grooves such that the
amount of groove void
Bridgestone/F
Cusimano, across the trailing and/or
Air irestone, Inc. Tread pattern N/A Fig. 29
1992 [100] leading edges of the
pumping, (USA)
footprint is substantially
pipe
uniform about the
resonance
circumference of the tire
(1) “Harmonic Comfort
Chambers” based on the
“Helmholtz resonator”
positioned on the inner
Continental
shoulder of the tire
Continental Reifen
pattern
AG, 2016 Deutschland Tread pattern N/A Fig. 30
(2) “0’ dB-Eaters”
[101] GmbH
uniquely shaped
(Germany)
in-groove elements
designed to split and
diffuse noise waves for
lower road noise
Lightweight steel rim to
Fitz and Ineffective
Epilogics shift the modal
Heck, 2001 Rim (shift down Fig. 31
Group (USA) frequency of the tire rim
[102] 1 Hz)
outside of 200-250 Hz
Extrusion of three strips
RMIT of rubber from the tire Marginal
Cavity/rim Sainty et al.,
University Tire tread into the cavity to shift (shift down Fig. 32
coupling 2012 [103]
(Australia) the modal frequency of 18 Hz)
resonance
the tire cavity
Attachment of elastic
RMIT ring on rim with Effective
Sainty et al., Rim and
University separator fins which (shift up Fig. 33
2012 [103] cavity
(Australia) extends into the cavity 156 Hz)
due to centrifugal forces

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Virginia Tech Incorporation of

Molisani et & Michelin secondary acoustic 15 dB force
al., 2003 North Rim cavities to detune and transmission Fig. 34
[43], [104] America, Inc. damp out the main tire (230 Hz)
(USA) cavity resonance
Assembly of separate
Honda R&D
Kamiyama, thin, lightweight plastic 10 dB
Co. Ltd. Rim Fig. 35
2014 [105] resonators in the wheel (190-230 Hz)
(Japan)
well
KTH Implementation of a
Fernandez, Obvious
University Rim Helmholtz resonator Fig. 36
2006 [106] (205-240 Hz)
(Sweden) attached to the rim
RMIT
Sainty et al., Introduction of a sound 14 dB
Cavity University Cavity Fig. 37
2012 [103] absorption material (225 Hz)
resonance (Australia)
Sumitomo
Yukawa et Gluing of a foam layer to
Rubber Obvious
al., 2004 Cavity the inner liner beneath Fig. 38
Industries (interior noise)
[107] the tread
(Japan)
Pirelli Noise Cancelling
System (PNCS, P
Pirelli, 2013 Pirelli & C. ZERO™): polyurethane
Cavity 2-3 dB Fig. 39
[108] SpA (Italy) sponge inserted into the
cavity to absorb the
vibrations
Mohamed RMIT Placing a trim layer onto
10 dB
and Wang, University Tire the inner surface of the Fig. 40
(225 Hz)
2015 [109] (Australia) tire tread

Fig. 25. Attachment of rubber ring on inside surface Fig. 26. Tire cross section with seal and foam
of center part of tread surface (source from Iwao absorber mounted on rim (source from
and Yamazaki, 1996 [95], Fig. 13; reprinted Saemann et al., 2011 [96], Fig. 1;
under fair use provision) reprinted under fair use provision)

Fig. 27. Reduction of fluid drag force and noise by using bypass structure and bionic tread groove
(source from Zhou et al., 2014 [98], Fig. 4; reprinted under fair use provision)

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Fig. 28. Illustration of low noise transverse groove (𝐿 = 4×𝑃)

(source from Kakumu, 1990 [99], Fig. 2; reprinted under fair use provision)

Fig. 29. Illustration of low noise tread pattern (The sum of the groove void (A+B+C+D+E+F+G+H+l)
along projection 86 is substantially equal to the sum of groove void (J +K+L+M+N+O+P+Q+R+S) along
projection 88) (Source from Cusimano, 1992 [100], Fig. 1A; reprinted under fair use provision)

a) b) c)
Fig. 30. a) product image of Continental ComfortContact CC6, b) harmonic comfort chambers,
c) 0’ dB-Eaters (Source from Continental AG, 2016 [101]; reprinted under fair use provision)

Fig. 31. Finite element displacement analysis results for Kühl wheel mode shape at 210 Hz
(source from Sainty et al., 2012 [103], Fig. 2; reprinted with permission from ASME)

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Fig. 32. CAD model of tire with three rubber strips Fig. 33. CAD model of proposed elastic ring
extruded into cavity (source from with four fins attached (source from
Sainty et al., 2012 [103], Fig. 6; reprinted Sainty et al., 2012 [103], Fig. 10; reprinted
with permission from ASME) with permission from ASME)

a) b)
Fig. 34. Incorporation of secondary acoustic cavities to detune and damp out main tire cavity resonance
(source from Molisani, 2004 [104], Fig. 42; reprinted under fair use provision)

Fig. 35. Assembly of separate thin, lightweight plastic resonators in wheel well
(source from Kamiyama, 2014 [105], Fig. 1; reprinted under fair use provision)

Fig. 36. CAD model fitted with Helmholtz resonator Fig. 37. Testing tire filled with PU foam prior to
(source from Sainty et al., 2012 [103], wheel rim and tire assembling (source
Fig. 4; reprinted with permission from ASME) from Sainty et al., 2012 [103], Fig. 7;
reprinted with permission from ASME)
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Fig. 38. Tire Silencer with white rigid foam support Fig. 39. Pirelli Noise Cancelling System (PNCS)
removed from tire after 1,053 miles (source from Tire Business, 2013 [111];
(source from Schmidt and Majumdar, 2011 [110], reprinted under fair use provision)
Fig. 2; reprinted under fair use provision)

a) b)
Fig. 40. Installation of trim onto rim and tire: a) trim layer on rim; b) trim layer onto tire
(source from Mohamed and Wang, 2015 [109], Fig. 7; reprinted with permission from Elsevier)

In the tire industry, the tread pattern design and pitch sequence optimization have been
extensively investigated to spread the noise spectrum to a broader band, so that the noise will
sound less objectionable. Morgan (2002) [112] optimized a three-pitch sequence where the
relative length of the shortest pitch (S) is 0.8, the medium pitch (𝑀) is 1.0, and the longest pitch
( 𝐿 ) is 1.2. 100 pitch sequences were proposed and the acoustically preferred one is
LMSMSLMLMLMLMLMMLMLMLMLMLM. However, very few achievements have been
published after 1980’s due to commercial considerations (Hoffmeister and Bernard, 1998 [113]).
In academia, without the availability of the tire building machine and mold, it is very difficult or
nearly impossible for researchers to modify the tread pattern or investigate its effect on tire noise
[114, 115]. However, academic researchers still made numerous attempts to reveal the tire noise
generation mechanisms by looking into the tire vibration modes. To reduce the noise relating to
certain modes, there are generally two ways (Aboutorabi and Kung, 2012 [116]): (1) the modal
frequency shifted to where the noise was less likely to be amplified or transferred; (2) more
damping introduced into the tire, for example, to decrease the rubber hardness or stiffness [117].
During the tire design process, a lot of parameters have contradictory effects on tire parameters,
and compromises and optimizations are needed to achieve vehicle performances such as traction,
rolling resistance, durability, ride comfort, noise, wear resistance, etc. (Lee et al., 2011 [118]), as
shown in Fig. 41, Fig. 42 and Table 3.
However, there seems to be no consistent conflict between noise characteristics and friction,
rolling resistance, wet braking or aquaplaning speed after examining about 100 modern car tires
of similar size (Sandberg et al., 1998 [119]; Sandberg and Ejsmont, 2000 [120]). On the contrary,
the noise reduction can meantime also lead to the reduction of rolling resistance and possible
improvement of friction characteristics. Low noise tread pattern design includes pattern
randomization, ventilating channels, reducing the air/rubber ratio (to 20 % from today’s common
value 30 % [69]), increasing the number of circumferential tread elements preferably up to 100
(common is 65), increasing number of sipes, or optimizing tread element pitch sequence
(Kim et al., 2012 [121]), most of which are also favorable to hydroplaning performance.

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Fig. 41. Criteria for choice of tires by consumers

(source from FEHRL, 2001 [69], Fig. 49; reprinted under fair use provision)

Fig. 42. Polar diagram illustrating the property profile of particular tire (source from FEHRL, 2001 [69],
Fig. 26, kindly obtained from Dr. Saemann, Continental Tyres; reprinted under fair use provision)

Table 3. Target conflicts in tire development (-1 indicates bad; 1 indicates good;
0 indicates ambiguous) (modified from FEHRL, 2001 [69])
Tread Construction
Compound Design Footprint Sidewall
Performance
Increasing Increasing
Stiffness Damping Round Squared Stiff Soft
block size number of sipes
Winter (snow) -1 1 -1 1 1 0 0 0
Noise -1 1 -1 1 0 0 -1 1
Wet grip -1 1 0 1 -1 1 1 0
Handling 1 0 1 -1 0 0 1 -1
Dry braking 1 1 1 -1 -1 1 1 -1
Aquaplaning 1 0 -1 0 1 0 1 0
Rolling
0 -1 0 -1 -1 1 0 -1
resistance
Mileage 0 1 1 1 -1 1 1 1
Endurance 0 -1 0 -1 1 0 0
High speed 0 -1 -1 -1 -1 1 0 0
Heat build-up 0 -1 1 -1 0 0 0 0
Comfort (NVH) 0 0 0 0 1 0 -1 1
Flat spot 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 -1

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There is also no strong evidence showing tradeoff between low noise emission and high safety
either, although there is a common prejudice that low noise tire will sacrifice safety (Sandberg,
2001 [11]). It was also shown that the low noise technology could be adapted to run flat tires
(FEHRL, 2001 [69]). In general, the tires on the market with high safety show characteristics of
high noise, just statistically (𝑅 = 0.29), but not deterministically (Nelson et al., 1993 [122];
FEHRL, 2001 [69]).
There is no denying that the modifications for noise reduction might influence other tire
performances. Saemann et al. (2012) [94] presented that lowering the sound level by 3 dB might
result in several drawbacks associated with other performance, as listed in Table 4.

Table 4. Modifications to lower tire noise and drawbacks (Saemann et al., 2012 [94])
Parameter Modification Influence
Increase in wet braking by
Tread 40 %
From 34 % void volume to slick
pattern Increase in aquaplaning in
curve by 60 %
Tread From summer tread compound to ice tread compound
Increase in wear by 50 %
material (decrease rubber hardness/stiffness)
Tread From normal tread to thicker under tread Increase in rolling
material (decrease contact stiffness) resistance by 15 %
Increase belt stiffness (such as increasing the number of Decrease in wear by 20 %
Carcass the plies, adding reinforcement rubber, Increase in cornering
and using steel ply materials) power by 10 %

Major tire companies also produce quiet tires, such as Goodyear Assurance ComforTred,
Hankook Optimo H727, Hankook Ventus S1 evo2 SUV (foam attached on the inside of tire tread),
Yokohama “dB-tyre”, Michelin Primacy LC, Michelin Defender, Michelin Primacy MXV4,
Michelin Energy Saver A/S, and Michelin Primacy 3 ST.

5.2. Quiet pavement

For the same driving conditions, there can be as much as a 9 dBA difference for a single
pavement type and as much as a 14 dBA difference between different types of pavement (Bernhard
and Wayson, 2005 [24]). There are some suggestions on noise reduction in terms of pavement
characteristics, listed in Table 5.

Table 5. General suggestions on noise reduction in terms of

pavement characteristics (Rasmussen, 2010 [123])
Parameter Suggestion
Avoid (flatten) texture at intervals > 1 inch or smooth (floated or polished) surfaces to
allow air escape channels
Texture
Negative texture (grooves, without fins)
Texture oriented longitudinally; if transverse, should be closely spaced and randomized
Strong and durable mortar; mix optimized for placement, finishing, curing
Siliceous sands for durability and friction (hard, durable, and polish resistant coarse
Concrete
aggregate for diamond grinding; adequate and consistent depth of mortar near the surface
for tined and drag textures)
Narrow, single-cut joints preferred but avoid widened (reservoir) cuts
Joints
Avoid faulted or spalled joints; design or retrofit adequate load transfer
Increase the porosity (porous asphalt, over 20 %) and depth of the porous layer
Aggregate
Decrease pavement stiffness (elastic pavement)

A couple of pavements are reported to be quiet pavement or have potential to be, as displayed
in Table 6.

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In addition, there are some other novelty pavement designs, but further investigation and
validation may be needed. Hofman and Kooij (2003) [128] demonstrated a three-layer design: the
top two layers were assembled as one roll-up layer with a thickness of 30 mm, and the bottom
support layer had cavities as Helmholtz resonators. Maennel et al. (2013) [129] presented a similar
Helmholtz type porous asphalt, as illustrated in Fig. 43. A noise attenuation of 3 dB was found
compared to the twin layered porous asphalt and it also had good acoustic durability.

Table 6. Quiet pavement technologies (McGhee, 2012 [124]; Mogrovejo et al., 2014 [93])
Category Technology
Rubberized Asphalt Concrete (RAC) [125]
Polymer-Modified Asphalt Concrete (PMAC) or
Fiber-Modified Asphalt Concrete (FMAC)
Asphalt
Porous friction course surfaces with and without rubber
concrete
Open-graded asphalt with small aggregate size and porosity over 20 %
(reported to be quietest pavement currently in use)
Poroelastic Road Surface (PERS)
Conventional Diamond Grind (CDG)
Next Generation Concrete Surface (NGCS)
Surface modification of Portland Cement Concretes (PCC) by introducing 15-20 %
Cement
porosity: (1) through non-aggregate component of the mixture, resulting in Enhanced
concrete
Porosity Concrete (EPC); (2) through the use of soft inclusions (cellulose fibers) in the
matrix, resulting in Cellulose-Cement Composites (Neithalath, 2004 [126];
Neithalath et al., 2005 [127])

a) b)
Fig. 43. a) Helmholtz type porous asphalt, b) laying process (source from Maennel et al. (2013) [129],
Fig. 7, Fig. 8; reprinted with permission from Mr. Manuel Männel of Müller-BBM GmbH, Germany)

For the quiet concrete pavements, Next Generation Concrete Surface (NGCS) can be the most
important. The NGCS is basically made by the Conventional Diamond Grind (CDG) followed by
a flush-grind operation and a longitudinal grooving step (Mogrovejo et al., 2014 [93]). It is a
consistent, predictable, and quiet nonporous concrete texture with good lateral stability and
hydroplaning resistance.
For the quiet asphalt concrete pavements, Poroelastic Road Surface (PERS) can be the most
promising (Nilsson and Zetterling, 1990 [130]). It is a wearing course with a very high porosity
(>20 %) and high proportion of rubber or epoxy (>20 % in weight) either in the shape of granules
or elongated fiber-like particles (Sandberg and Goubert, 2011 [131]). It was claimed that it was
10 dBA quieter than conventional pavements. Noise attenuation is likely to occur for almost all
noise mechanisms on PERS, such as low texture impact due to aggregate of small maximum size
and small stiffness, low air pumping and high absorption due to high void content, low stick/slip
and stick/snap motions due to rubber/rubber contact. It is also expected to have good traction and
wet skid resistance properties. However, nearly all field tests so far have failed in some way or
another, such as bad durability, even though it has been brought up by Nilsson around 40 years

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ago (Nilsson, 1979 [132]), indicating that further improvements are necessary. For example, PERS
increased the tire rolling resistance, which decreased the fuel economy.

5.3. Combination of tires and pavements

The contributions on noise reduction from tires and pavements cannot be considered separately
[133]. A “quiet tire” on one specific pavement may not be quiet on the other type of pavements;
similarly, a “quiet pavement” may not work for all the tires, which makes sense because TPIN
comes from the interaction between the tire and pavement. The noise performance cannot be
determined if only the tire or pavement information is given.
Fong (1998) [134] reported that the crossply truck tire (7.00R15) for medium trucks was
among the noisiest over a relatively coarse chipseal pavement, but it was one of the quietest on a
smoother chipseal pavement. Blokland and Leeuwen (2010) [135] investigated more than 2000
tire/road combinations and found that the sound reduction due to the combination of silent surfaces
and silent tires was smaller than the numeric sum of both, especially for rough pavements where
the silencing effects of quiet tires were marginal. Berge and Haukland (2011) [136] indicated that
the Bridgestone B-250 had a relatively high type approval level (73 dBA) but was more silent on
the Norwegian dense (and rough) surfaces than some other tires. The Michelin Energy Saver was
rated as a quiet tire in terms of interior noise but was shown to be rather noisy in the exterior.
However, Berge and Haukland (2011) [136] also demonstrated that some tires seemed to
perform as low-noise tires independent of the type of pavements.

5.4. Active noise control

Couche and Fuller (1998) [137] applied the Active Noise Control (ANC) for cabin noise from
power train (40-500 Hz) with advanced speakers. Sun et al. (2012) [138] applied active noise
control to the low-frequency structure-borne vehicle interior noise from tire road interaction and
proved its efficiency. Zafeiropoulos et al. (2015) [139] investigated the active control of
structure-borne interior noise based on the separation of front and rear structural noise related
dynamics. However, the present author found no literature investigating the active noise control
of exterior noise.

6. Conclusions

Due to the pressure from the regulations and customers, the tire/automotive companies and
pavement organizations have been endeavoring to reduce the tire-pavement interaction noise. Tire
industries attempted to optimize the tread pattern and tire construction for quieter tires, including
pitch sequencing, tire cavity foam, tread and rim modifications, etc. Pavement industries
attempted to modify the pavement texture and stiffness for quieter pavement. In the future, more
and more research should be focused on the interaction between tire and pavement, which would
lead to a quieter combination rather than quiet tire and quiet pavement separately. The challenge
for both tire and pavement industries is that the acoustic performance of tire and pavement usually
conflicts with other performances, such as traction, handling, rolling resistance, hydroplaning, and
durability. Therefore, a compromise between noise reduction and maintaining other performances
should be carefully considered and designed.

Acknowledgements

This study (Project Code: MODL-2015-B3-8) has been partially supported by the Center for
Tire Research (CenTiRe), an NSF-I/UCRC (Industry/University Cooperative Research Centers)
program led by Virginia Tech. The author hereby wishes to thank the project mentors and the
members of the industrial advisory board (IAB) of CenTiRe for their kind support and guidance.
The author is also very grateful for the advisement of his academic advisors, Dr. Ricardo Burdisso
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and Dr. Corina Sandu.

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Tan Li received his B.S. in automotive engineering from Tongji University in China with
Summa Cum Laude in 2013. He earned his Ph.D. in mechanical engineering from Virginia
Tech in 2017. Then he has been working at Maxxis Technology Center as a Senior NVH
Engineer in Atlanta, GA, leading the projects on NVH (Noise, Vibration and Harshness)
and vehicle/tire dynamics.

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