How To ... Term 3 Learner's Guide

HOW TO …
LIFE SCIENCES
GRADE 12
LEARNER’S GUIDE
TERM 3
Author: MD Watson
With the assistance of: C van Heerden
LIFE SCIENCES Grade 12
LEARNER’S GUIDE
TERM 3
11.
EVOLUTION
INDEX
11.1 Examination guidelines
A Revision guidelines
11.2 Terminology
B Learning Tips & Tools
11.3 Marking guidelines
11.4 Activity 60 – 71
Learner’s Guide TERM 3 1

11.1 EXAMINATION GUIDELINES 2021
EVOLUTION Terms 3 4weeks

Paper 2: 54 marks
CONTENT ELABORATION
Introduction ❑ Definition of biological evolution change in the characteristics of species over
time
❑ Difference between a hypothesis and a theory
❑ The Theory of Evolution is regarded as a scientific theory since various

hypotheses relating to evolution have been tested and verified over time
Evidence for ❑ Role of the following as evidence for evolution:
evolution • Fossil record – Link to Grade 10
• Biogeography – Link to Grade 10
• Modification by descent (homologous structures)
• Genetics
Variation ❑ Definition of a biological species and a population
❑ A review of the contribution of each of the following to variation that exists
amongst individuals of the same species:
• Meiosis
o Crossing over
o Random arrangement of chromosomes
• Mutations
• Random fertilisation
• Random mating
❑ Types of variation:
• Continuous variation – those characteristics where there is a range of inter-
mediate phenotypes, e.g. height
• Discontinuous variation – those characteristics that fall into distinct catego-
ries e.g., blood groups
CONTENT ELABORATION
Origin of an idea ❑ Ideas on evolution in the order of their origin are as follows:
about origins • Lamarckism
(a historical • Darwinism
development) • Punctuated Equilibrium
Lamarckism ❑ Lamarck used two 'laws' to explain evolution:
(Jean Baptiste de • 'Law' of use and disuse
Lamarck – 1744– • 'Law' of the inheritance of acquired characteristics
1829)
❑ Reasons for Lamarck's theory being rejected
Darwinism ❑ Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection:
(Charles Darwin – • There is a great deal of variation amongst the offspring.
1809–1882) • Some have favourable characteristics and some do not.
• When there is a change in the environmental conditions or if there is
competition,
• then organisms with characteristics, which make them more suited, survive
• whilst organisms with unfavourable characteristics, which make them less
suited, die.
• The organisms that survive, reproduce
• and thus, pass on the allele for the favourable characteristic to their
offspring.
• The next generation will therefore have a higher proportion of individuals
with the favourable characteristic.

Punctuated ❑ Punctuated Equilibrium explains the speed at which evolution takes place:
Equilibrium • Evolution involves long periods of time where species do not change or
(Eldredge and Gould change gradually through natural selection (known as equilibrium).
– 1972) • This alternates with (is punctuated by) short periods of time where rapid
changes occur through natural selection
• during which new species may form in a short period of time.
Artificial selection ❑ Artificial selection involving:
• A domesticated animal species
• A crop species
Formation of new ❑ Biological species concept: similar organisms that are capable of interbreeding to
species produce fertile offspring
❑ Speciation and extinction and the effect of each on biodiversity
❑ Speciation through geographic isolation:

• If a population of a single species becomes separated by a geographical
barrier (sea, river, mountain, lake)
• then the population splits into two.
• There is now no gene flow between the two populations.
• Since each population may be exposed to different environmental
conditions/the selection pressure may be different
• natural selection occurs independently in each of the two populations
• such that the individuals of the two populations become very different from
each other
• genotypically and phenotypically.
• Even if the two populations were to mix again
• they will not be able to interbreed.
• The two populations are now different species.
❑ Speciation through geographic isolation in ONE of the following:

• Galapagos finches
• Galapagos tortoises
• Plants on different land masses (linked to continental drift)
o Baobabs in Africa and Madagascar
o Proteas in South Africa and Australia
• Any example of mammals on different land masses
CONTENT ELABORATION
Mechanisms of ❑ A brief outline of reproductive isolation mechanisms that help to keep species
reproductive separate:
isolation • Breeding at different times of the year
(Keeping species • Species-specific courtship behavior
separate) • Plant adaptation to different pollinators
• Infertile offspring
• Prevention of fertilisation
Evolution in present ❑ Any ONE example of natural selection and evolution in present times:
times • Use of insecticides and consequent resistance to insecticides in insects
• Development of resistant strains of tuberculosis-causing bacteria (MDR and
XDR) to antibiotics, due to mutations (variations) in bacteria and failure to
complete antibiotic courses
• HIV resistance to antiretroviral medication
• Bill (beak) and body size of Galapagos finches

Evidence of common ❑ Interpretation of a phylogenetic tree to show the place of the family Hominidae in
ancestors for living the animal kingdom
hominids, including
❑ Characteristics that humans share with African apes
humans
❑ Anatomical differences between African apes and humans, with the aid of
diagrams, as it applies to the following characteristics:
• Bipedalism (foramen magnum, spine and pelvic girdle)
• Brain size
• Teeth (dentition)
• Prognathism
• Palate shape
• Cranial ridges
• Brow ridges
❑ Lines of evidence that support the idea of common ancestors for living hominids
including humans:
• Fossil evidence: Evidence from fossils of different ages show that the
anatomical characteristics of organisms changed gradually over time.
• Emphasis on evolutionary trends provided by the anatomical features of
fossils of the following three genera:
o Ardipithecus
o Australopithecus
o Homo
as well as:
o The age of each fossil found/time-line for the existence of the three
genera
o The fossil sites where they were found: emphasis on the fossil sites that
form a part of the Cradle of Humankind
o The scientists who discovered them
• Genetic evidence: mitochondrial DNA
• Cultural evidence: tool-making
Out-of-Africa ❑ The Out-of-Africa hypothesis: Modern humans originated in Africa and then
hypothesis migrated to other continents
❑ Evidence for the 'Out-of-Africa' hypothesis:
• Fossil evidence: information on each of the following fossils that serve as
evidence for the 'Out-of-Africa' hypothesis:
o Ardipithecus (fossils found in Africa only)
o Australopithecus (fossils found in Africa only, including Karabo, Little
Foot, Taung Child, Mrs Ples)
o Homo (fossils of Homo habilis found in Africa only; oldest fossils of Ho-
mo erectus and Homo sapiens found in Africa, while the younger fossils
were found in other parts of the world)
• Genetic evidence: mitochondrial DNA
❑ Timeline for the existence of different species of the genus Homo and
significant features of each of fossil type to show the differences amongst them
❑ Interpretation of phylogenetic trees proposed by different scientists showing
possible evolutionary relationships as it applies to hominid evolution

A. REVISION GUIDELINES
PAPER TOPIC CONTENT KEY POINTS TO FOCUS ON DURING
REVISION
P2 EVOLUTION Evidence for • Role of the following as evidence for
(54 marks) evolution evolution:
Refer to the notes ✓ Fossil record
and examples ✓ Biogeography
provided ✓ Modification by descent (homologous
structures)
✓ Genetics
Sources of • Meiosis:
variation ✓ Crossing over
✓ Random arrangement of chromosomes
• Mutations
• Random fertilisation
• Random mating
Lamarck and • State the general theories according to the
Darwin’s theories Exam Guidelines but apply it to a given
example
Natural and • Describe the processes
artificial selection • Tabulate the differences
Emphasise:
• See Diagnostic report p165 (2021)
• Learners must identify the favourable and
unfavourable traits in questions on natural
selection include the exact description of
these traits in their responses.
Punctuated • Describe
equilibrium
Speciation • Apply the example given in a paper
according to the format in the Examination
Guidelines
• Be able to identify the geographic barrier
and speciation of one species becoming
different species
Emphasise:
• The terms population and species. Only a
population is separated by a geographical
barrier and not a species.
• Clarify the following concepts in speciation:
✓ A population is separated, not a species
✓ Speciation occurs due to natural
selection
✓ More than two species may be formed
See Diagnostic Report p165
Mechanisms for • Refer to Examination Guidelines
reproductive
isolation
Evolution in • Any ONE example according to
present times Examination Guidelines
Human evolution: • With the aid of diagrams, as it applies to
similarities of the characteristics in the Examination
humans and Guidelines:
African apes
Human evolution: E.g

differences • Long and narrow vs. short and wide

PAPER TOPIC CONTENT KEY POINTS TO FOCUS ON DURING
REVISION
between humans • Large canines vs. small canines
and African apes • C shaped vs. S shaped vertebral column
• The significance of the evolutionary
changes
E.g Foramen magnum more in front and
under the skull
Trends in human • Interpretation of phylogenetic trees
evolution proposed by different scientists showing
possible evolutionary relationships as it
applies to hominid evolution
Out of Africa • According to the examination guidelines
hypothesis • Focus on species found in Africa or found
ONLY Africa
11.2 TERMINOLOGY – EVOLUTION

B. TEACHING TIPS & TOOLS
EVOLUTION
Definitions:
Definition of biological evolution:

Biological evolution refers to any genetic change in a population that is inherited and
becomes a characteristic of that population over several generations.
Difference between a hypothesis and a theory

A hypothesis is possible prediction and or explanation and it always states both variables.
A hypothesis is tested in a series of experiments or by repeated observation.
A theory is a well-substantiated (supported by evidence) explanation supported by scientific

evidence that have been tested and verified over time.
Definition of a species and a population

Population
A group of organisms of the same species√
- that lives together in a defined area√
- at a given time√
- and interbreeding√ can take place
Species
A group of organisms that have similar characteristics√
- and can interbreed√
- to produce fertile offspring√

EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION
Evidence of Evolution
1. Fossil record
2. Biogeography
3. Modification by
descent
4. Genetics
1. Fossil record (Link to Grade 10)

Fossils are the remains of ancient life forms preserved usually in rock. Radiometric dating is
used to determine the age of the rock in which the fossil is preserved. Scientists used the age
of fossils to establish when organisms existed and to determine the characteristics of the
organism by studying the fossil. Knowledge of these characteristics allows us to see
relationship amongst different organisms, this is represented in a phylogenetic tree.
Fossils provide evidence of the history of extinct organism on earth and give an indication of
the climate and environment millions of years ago.
Palaeontology - refers to the study of fossils
Palaeontologist - scientists who studies the history of life on earth through fossil records
2. Biogeography (Link to Grade 10)

Biogeography refers to the study of the distribution of existing and extinct plant and animal
species in specific geographic regions with similar habitats and climatic conditions but
separated by geographical barriers.
These studies prove that closely related species usually occur in the same geographical
region which may suggest that they also share a common ancestor.
For example: Baobab trees in Africa and Madagascar

The distribution of the flightless birds: e.g. ostriches in Africa, rheas in southern America,
kiwis and emus in Australia. They show great similarities although they live on different
landmasses and belong to separate species.
3. Modification by descent (homologous structures)

Homologous structures
Homologous structures have the same basic plan even though they perform different
functions. Comparison of homologous structures among organisms to show similarities and
differences e.g. homologous bone structures in the front limbs of different vertebrates,
Scientist interpret homologous structures in the way that it indicates common ancestor.
Modification by descent
Is the phenomenon where the basic body plan of different plants and animals were modified
over time to be better adapted to their different environments.

4. Genetics
Species which have very similar sequences of genes on their DNA will be closely related,
and therefore developed from a more recent common ancestor.
The following features show possible common origin of different organisms:

- Identical DNA compounds
- Similar sequence of genes
- Similar portions of DNA with no function
- Identical protein synthesis
SOURCES OF VARIATION
Crossing over
Random arrangement
Variation
Meiosis
of chromosomes
Random fertilasation Mutations
Random Mating
1. Meiosis
1.1. Crossing over

• occurs during prophase I 
• Homologous chromosomes 
• non-sister – chromatids/adjacent chromatids overlap 
• at points called chiasma /chiasmata
• Genetic material is exchanged 
• resulting in new combinations of genetic material from both parents 

1.2. Random arrangement of chromosomes
• Homologous chromosome pairs arrange randomly on the equator during
Metaphase 1 
• and single chromosomes arrange randomly on the equator during Metaphase 2
• This results into genetic different gametes
1.3 Mutations
Gene Mutation – a change in the sequence of nitrogenous bases or nucleotides

of DNA
Chromosomal mutation – a change in the normal structure or number of
chromosomes
2. Random fertilisation
Random fertilisation between different egg cells and different sperm cells formed by
meiosis result in offspring that are different from each other.

3. Random mating
Random mating between organisms within a species leads to a different set of offspring
from each mating pair, where any male could mate with any female.
TYPES OF VARIATION IN A SPECIES
• Continuous variation – those characteristics where there is a range of intermediate

phenotypes e.g. height
• Discontinuous variation – those characteristics that fall into distinct categories e.g.
blood groups

EVOLUTION THEORIES
1. LAMARCKISM (Jean Baptiste de Lamarck (1744-1829)
1.1 Law of use and disuse
Changes in the environment create new needs that cause organisms to modify their existing
organs to meet the need. Repeated use of the organ would cause it to enlarge and become
more efficient. Disuse of an organ would cause it to degenerate.
1.2 Law of inheritance
The modification an organism acquired during its lifetime could be passed on to its offspring.
How to describe Lamarckism

Example:
GUIDING QUESTIONS LAMARCK’S EXPLANATION

What was the original characteristic All giraffes had short necks originally
at the start?
What did the organism do? Giraffes frequently stretched
Why did the organism do this? Used their necks to reach - for leaves of tall
trees/to feed
What was the result? Necks become longer
What happened to this new The long necks acquired in this way could be
characteristic? passed on to the next generation /were inherited
What was the result of this? All the giraffes have long necks
Refer to the characteristic (long necks) – do not only state …

The favourable characteristic was passed on to the next generation.
Explain why Lamarck’s theory is not accepted/rejected by most scientists today.
Acquired characteristics✓are not inherited✓/do not cause any change to the DNA of an
organism's gametes (sperms or ova) ✓

2. Darwinism (Charles Darwin (1809 – 1882)
Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection:

• There is a great deal of variation amongst the offspring.
• Some have favourable characteristics, and some do not.
• When there is a change in the environmental conditions or if there is competition,
• then organisms with characteristics, which make them more suited, survive.
• Whilst organisms with unfavourable characteristics, which make them less suited, die.
• The organisms that survive, reproduce
• and thus, pass on the allele for the favourable characteristic to their offspring.
• The next generation will therefore have a higher proportion of individuals with the
favourable characteristic.
Note the difference on how to answer this from previous years.

How to describe Darwinism
GUIDING QUESTION DARWIN’S EXPLANATION

State the /gene characteristic that varies There is a variation in the length of
giraffes’ necks.
Describe the variations There were giraffes with long necks and
short necks
Explain the environmental change/ Leaves/ food was only available at the
selection pressure for natural selection top of the tree/higher trees and natural
selection took place between giraffes
with long necks and short necks for food
State the unfavourable characteristic Giraffes with short necks (unfavourable
and why it is unfavourable characteristic) could not get food from
the top of a tree/higher trees, their
necks were too short
Explain what happened to this individual They died of hunger
with the unfavourable characteristics
State the favourable characteristic and Giraffes with long necks (favourable
why it is favourable characteristic) could get food from the

top of a tree/higher trees, their necks
were long enough
Explain what happened to this individual They could eat more leaves/food and
with the favourable characteristics survive
What happened to the favourable The giraffes with the long necks
characteristic reproduced
The allele for long necks will be
passed on to the offspring.
The next generation will have higher
proportion of giraffes with long necks
Differences between Lamarck’s and Darwin’s Theories
LAMARCK’S THEORY DARWIN’S THEORY

Variation of offspring brought about Offspring inherited the variation
individuals in the population that are
changing
Individuals want to change Environmental factors working randomly
Change because of adaptation to Natural selection – best suited to the
environment environment will survive
Individuals in the population change The whole population changes
Changes brought about by adaptation to Characteristics are passed on from
the environment are inherited from generation to generation to enable
parent by offspring individuals to survive in the
environment.
3. Punctuated Equilibrium (Eldredge and Gould – 1972)
Punctuated Equilibrium explains the speed at which evolution takes place:
• Evolution involves long periods of time where species do not change or change
gradually through natural selection (known as equilibrium).
• This alternates with short periods of time where rapid changes occur through natural
selection.
• during which new species may form in a short period of time.
Punctuated equilibrium is supported by the absence of transitional fossils indicating

the period of rapid change.

Differences between Gradualism (Natural Selection) and Punctuated equilibrium
NATURAL SELECTION PUNCTUATED EQUILIBRIUM
Change is continuous and Time period Change occurs during brief period
slow for many years
New species evolve through Change of Species exist unchanged for many
the accumulation of many Species years and then a short period of
small changes over a long time there is a sudden change
period of time
Constant and consistent Change in a Irregular and inconsistent
population
Supported by transitional form Fossil record Supported by lack of intermediate
forms

NATURAL SELECTION VS ARTIFICIAL SELECTION
Natural selection is the mechanism of evolution where natural selects the fittest individual
for survival.
Artificial selection is the deliberate breeding of plants and animals for desirable
characteristics that would not necessarily benefit the survival of the offspring.
NATURAL SELECTION ARTIFICIAL SELECTION
Environment is the selective force Human is selective force
The selected characteristics are The selective characteristics are not
advantageous for survival in the natural necessarily advantageous for survival,
environment but beneficial to humans
It increases variation/ biodiversity It decreases variation/biodiversity
Occurs in natural populations Occurs in domestic populations
Occurs within a species May involve one/more species
A slow process A rapid process
Allows inheritance of beneficial traits Allows inheritance of selected traits over
over generations generations
Similarities between Natural selection and Artificial selection

• Variation occurs in the particular population
• Variation is hereditary in the population
• The outcome is the same i.e. the population changes over time and certain
characteristics become more frequent
• Changes occur over many generations

SPECIATION through geographic isolation
The evolutionary process during which new species from, is known as speciation.
◼ If a population of a single species becomes separated by a geographical barrier (sea,

river, mountain, lake)
◼ then the population splits into two.
◼ There is now no gene flow between the two populations.
◼ Since each population may be exposed to different environmental conditions/the
selection pressure may be different
◼ natural selection occurs independently in each of the two populations
◼ such that the individuals of the two populations become very different from each other
◼ genotypically and phenotypically.
◼ Even if the two populations were to mix again
◼ they will not be able to interbreed.
◼ The two populations are now different species.
NOTE HOW WE ANSWER IT BY APPLYING AN EXAMPLE

 The BOLD is the fact that you state according to the exam guidelines.
 The highlighted/Grey part is what you must get out of the example in the
question.
If a population of a single species/original population

(Mention the original species in the extract that they give you and refer to where the species
lived)
becomes separated by a geographical barrier

(Mention the specific barrier sea, river, mountain, lake)
then the population splits into

(Mention in how many populations do the original species /original population splits into
according to the extract)
There is now no gene flow between the …

(Mention how many populations are there now)
Since each population may be exposed to different environmental conditions/the

(Mention the selection pressure if there is one mentioned in the example)
natural selection OCCURS INDEPENDENTLY in each of the two/three etc. populations
such that the individuals of the two populations become very different from each
other,
genotypically and phenotypically.

(Mention the differences if the extract indicates differences)
Even if the two populations were to mix again,

they will not be able to interbreed.
The two populations are now different species, name the new species. (mention the
new species that form)

Example 1
Pottos and lemurs are small mammals. Scientists believe that pottos and lemurs share a
common ancestor that existed in Africa. Presently pottos only occur in Africa while lemurs are
only found in Madagascar. Madagascar is an island off the East coast of Africa as shown in
the diagram below.
Describe the speciation of the pottos and lemurs

• The BOLD is the fact that you state according to the exam guidelines
• The highlighted part is what you must get out of the example
Applying the example:
If a population of a single species/original population

(Mention the original species in the extract that they give you and refer to where the species
lived)
If the original population of the common ancestor/small mammals of the pottos and
lemurs that existed in AFRICA
becomes separated by a geographical barrier,

(Mention the specific barrier sea, river, mountain, lake)
becomes separated by a geographical barrier the Indian Ocean

then the population splits into …
(Mention in how many populations does the original species /original population splits into
according to the extract)
then the population splits into 2 - Africa and Madagascar
There is now no gene flow between the …

(Mention how many populations are there now)
There is now gene flow between the two population in Africa and Madagascar
Since each population may be exposed to different environmental conditions/the

(Mention the selection pressure if there is one mention in the example)
Each population may be exposed to different environmental conditions on the East

Coast of Africa and Madagascar

natural selection occurs independently in each of the two/three etc. populations
natural selection occurs independently in each of the islands
such that the individuals of the two populations become very different from each other
genotypically and phenotypically.
Even if the two populations of Africa and Madagascar were to mix again
The two populations are now different species, Pottos and Lemurs
Example 2
The present-day distribution of three closely related species of the dog family, the coyote,
jackal and dingo, is shown on the world map below.
If a population of a single species Dog family/ original population of the dog’s ancestor lived
on a large continent
They become separated by a geographical barrier/by continental drift/ ocean
The population splits into three
There is now no gene flow between the three populations, Jackal, Coyote and Dingo
Since each population may be exposed to different environmental conditions on the three
continents/ islands
natural selection occurs independently in each of the three populations

such that the individuals of the three populations become very different from each other,
genotypically and phenotypically
Even if the three populations were to mix again,
The three populations are now different species, coyote, jackal and dingo

REPRODUCTIVE ISOLATION MECHANISMS
NB Learners must write the whole description not just mention names like courtship!!!
• Breeding at different times of the year
Different species will have different breeding seasons or, in the case of plants, will
flower at different times of the year, to prevent cross-pollination.
• Species-specific courtship behaviour

Some animals have very specific courtship behaviours that do not attract individuals of
other species, even if they are closely related species. Courtship behaviour is a
physical or chemical signal that an organism is ready to mate. This can include
anything from being brightly coloured, to singing elaborate mating songs or mating
dances, to the secretion of pheromones to attract a mate.

• Plant adaptation to different pollinators
Many plants and their flowers are specifically adapted for specific pollinators. Some
closely related species of plants have different characteristics such as flower shape,
size, colour, reward type (nectar or pollen), scent and timing of flowering all play a role
in attracting certain pollinators to them. Also, cross-pollination between the different
species is prevented.
Even if two species can physically mate and produce offspring, they will still be
reproductively isolated due to the fact the most hybrid offspring are infertile.

Incompatible sex organs - the shape, size and location of genitals do not match those
of another species.
The genital opening of these snails is not aligned, and mating cannot be completed

EVOLUTION IN PRESENT TIMES
Evolution is always happening. Most of the time it is impossible to observe changes in
populations and species because evolution happens very slowly – thus the theory of
gradualism. However, there are some cases (e.g.: rapidly producing organisms such as
viruses and bacteria) that allow scientists to study how species change in response to
environmental factors. Pathogens (viruses and bacteria) evolve quickly because there is lots
of natural variation amongst them and the fact that mutations occur most often in rapidly
reproducing organisms.
The evolution of drug resistance in bacteria
Low --------------------------->High
Antibiotic resistance level
- With any population there is genetic variation

- Some bacteria are more resistant to antibiotics than
others
- If the amount of antibiotics taken is too low, or the full
course of antibiotics is not completed
- Those who are less resistant to antibiotics will die
- Those who are more resistant will survive
Original population
- The population of resistant bacteria increase

- Continued use of antibiotics had little effect on the
resistant bacteria
- The resistant bacteria reproduce and pass the
resistant gene on to the next generation and increased
- Non- resistant bacteria decrease
- The antibiotics will now be ineffective
- The antibiotics acts as the selective mechanism.

- Natural selection plays a role in the evolution of antibiotic resistant bacteria.

HUMAN EVOLUTION
1. The place of the family Hominidae in the animal kingdom
• Humas are mammals and belong to the class MAMMALIA, because their bodies are
covered with hair and they suckle their young
• The order they belong to is PRIMATES. - Primates includes human, apes,
orangutangs, gorillas an chimpanzees
• The Family HOMINIDAE includes HOMINIDS
HOMINIDS
HOMININS
Great Apes (bipedal)
Orangutan Ardipithecus
Gorilla Australopithecus
Chimpanzee Homo

Note
Hominids refer to the great apes and humans and their fossil ancestors
Great Apes are also referred to as African Apes
Hominin – refers to bipedal organisms
Ardipithecus, Australopithecus and early Homo- species are considered fossil
ancestors of modern humans
Modern Humans are classified in the genus and species – Homo sapiens
Genus – Homo
Species- sapiens
# The genus name and species name must be underlined / in italics #

# Read what the question asks – Give the Genus, species, family, class or order name

2. Interpretation of a Phylogenetic tree
The evolutionary relationship of ancestral species and their descendants can be illustrated
using a branching phylogenetic tree. A phylogenetic tree indicates which ancestors gave rise
to which descendants.
How to interpretate a Phylogenetic tree:
• The root of the phylogenetic diagram represents the ancestor, and the tips of
the branches, the descendants of that ancestor. To move upwards is to move
forward in time.
• Speciation is represented as a branching of the tree, as a single ancestral

lineage gives rise to two or more daughter lines.

• Each lineage has a part of its history that is unique and parts that are shared
with other lineages, as illustrated below …
• And each lineage has ancestors that are unique to that lineage and common
ancestors that are shared with other lineages.

HUMANS VS AFRICAN APES
1. Characteristics that humans SHARE with other primates (African
apes)
Similarities
1. Upright posture: the back limbs of hominids are generally stronger
than their front limbs, enabling them to stand erect (upright) and use
their hands for grasping; standing erect also gives a better view of
surroundings and exposure of genitals to attract the opposite sex.
2. Large brains: relative to their body size, hominids have larger brains than other
species in the Animal Kingdom. This allows them to process and store information.
3. Long upper arms / front limbs: apes are normally quadrupeds, and this requires
longer front limbs. Longer front limbs also make it easier to grasp and swing from
branches.
4. Two eyes in the front of the head, this provides good binocular vision as both eyes
work together.
5. The eyes have cones for colour vision that gives greater clarity.
6. Two teats/nipples only.
7. Freely rotating arms: arms can be lifted above the head to swing from branch to
branch, or to pick fruit hanging relatively high above the ground.
8. Elbow joints allowing rotation of forearm this allows the limb to extend or flex to
grasp and reach for objects. It also enables the flexing and rotation of the wrists.
9. Bare fingertips or nails instead of claws: Digits (finger and toes) have soft, broad,
and very sensitive pads. The flat fingernails or toenails protect these pads.
10. Opposable thumb: the thumbs of hominids are positioned so that

it can oppose other digits, enabling the hand to grip an object.
11. Sexual dimorphism – this refers to differences between males and females of the
same species. Humans and apes are sexually dimorphic. This is linked to competition.
12. Rotate hands at least 180º.
13. Olfactory brain centres reduced/reduced sense of smell.
14. Parts of the brain that process information from the hands and eyes are enlarged.
#Note
CORRECT WAY TO STATE INCORRECT WAY

Large brain relative to body size Not just large brain - elephants have
large brain too
Two eyes in front of the head Two eyes
Long upper arms Long arms
Upright posture Can stand up straight
Two teats/nipples Two mammary glands
Freely rotating arms Rotating arms
Elbow joints allowing rotation of Elbows rotate
forearm

2. Anatomical DIFFERENCES between Humans and African apes
Homo sapiens Other primates

Skull
1. Larger cranium 1. Smaller cranium
2. Flat face/ 2. Face sloping/
Forehead slope less backwards Foreheads slope more backwards
3. Foramen magnum more forward 3. Foramen magnum more backwards
at the bottom of the skull position at the bottom of the skull
4. Brow ridges are not well developed 4. Brow ridges are well developed
5. Smaller canines 5. Larger canines
6. Smaller spaces/diastema between the 6. Larger spaces/diastema between the
teeth teeth
7. Palate small and round 7. Palate long and rectangular
8. Jaws with teeth on a gentle/round curve/ 8. Jaws with teeth in a rectangular/
C-shape U-shape
9. Jaws 9. Jaws
None – prognathous/ Prognathous/
Less protruding jaw More protruding jaw
10. Lower jaw has a well-developed chin 10. Lower jaw has poorly developed chin
11. No cranial ridge 11. Cranial ridges at the top of the cranium

Spine
12. Spine more curved/ S-shape 12. Less curved/ C-shape
Pelvic
13. Pelvic gridle short and wide 13. Pelvic gridle long and narrow
MISTAKES made when answering anatomical differences/visible

differences.
BRAIN SIZE - if the brain is not indicated
in a diagram, you cannot state large
brain and small brain when the question
refers to visible differences.
Skull with brain
Skull without a brain
FORAMEN MAGNUM
Human - more forward position

African apes - more backwords position
In both cases you must refer to more

forward/backwards position at the bottom of
the skull

BROW RIDGES are well or not well
develop. (number 4)
No marks will be allocated for:
• Big and small brow ridges

• Visible and not visible
• Prominent and not prominent
LOWER JAW has a well-developed chin

or poorly develop chin (number 6)
No marks will be allocated for:
• Prominent and not prominent

• Big and small chin
JAWS
In Humans In African apes
None – prognathous Prognathous
OR OR
Less protruding More protruding
TEETH
Canines are larger or smaller
It is canines and not teeth
Not:
Big and small

Larger and shorter
Larger and smaller teeth

3. The significance of the structural changes that characterise the
evolution of modern humans.
STRUCTURE SIGNIFICANCE
Changes that lead to bipedalism

1. Foramen magnum
The foramen magnum was in a backward This represents a change from

position at the bottom of the skull in the ape- quadrupedal in ape-like beings to
like beings but in a forward position at the bipedalism in modern humans, leading to
bottom of the skull in modern humans. the following in modern humans:
• Increased awareness of the

environment in sensing
danger/food
• Freeing of the hands to use

instruments/carry
objects/weapons/offspring
• Exposure of a large surface area

for thermoregulation /lose body
heat to surroundings in hot
conditions/reduce overheating
• Display of sex organs /breasts as

part of courtship behaviour
2. Pelvis
Humans have a (wide and short) pelvis, • Support greater weight due to the
apes have a (long and narrow pelvis) upright position
Chimpanze
e

3. Spine
Human’s spine is more curved/ S-shaped and • For flexibility

that of ape-like beings is less curved/ Shock absorption
C-shaped
Other structural changes that characterise the evolution of modern

humans
Cranium This allowed space for a larger brain in

humans than in ape-like beings, making
Modern humans have a larger cranium than the following possible:
the ape-like beings
Modern humans have a less sloping forehead • Better co-ordination of movement
than the ape-like beings
Modern humans have a cranium that is more • Processing of a large amount of
rounded than the ape-like beings information
• Processing information faster
• Development of spoken and

written languages to communicate

STRUCTURE SIGNIFICANCE
Prognathism
Humans have jaws that are non-prognathous • This corresponds with a change in
compared to the jaws of ape-like beings diet from hard, raw food in the ape-
which are prognathous like beings
African–ape has more sloping face and the • To softer, cooked food in humans
modern human a flatter face
Dentition/Teeth
• This corresponds with the
In ape-like beings there are gaps/diastema decreased need to bite and tear
between incisors and canines
but no gaps between the teeth in humans • and an increased need to grind
Humans have smaller canines than the ape- and chew in humans
like beings
Humans have flatter molars and pre-molars • in view of the change in diet to
than the ape-like beings soft, cooked food
Chin
In humans the chin is more developed • Developed chin assists with

compared to the ape-like beings speech in humans
Zygomatic arch
In humans the zygomatic arch is less • This corresponds with the

developed than in the ape-like beings decreased need for attachment of
strong muscles
• due to the decreased jaw size in

humans

Lines of evidence that support the idea of common ancestors for living
hominids including humans.
Tree phyla are used in the fossil evidence
Ardipithecus → Australopithecus → Homo
# It is very important to know the line of fossil evidence and the fossils that are used
as reference (where they are found, who discovered them etc. )
3.1 Fossil evidence:

FOSSILS THAT ARE USED AS REFERENCE
Ardepithecus Ardepithecus ramidus
Australopithecus Australopithecus afarensis – Lucy
Australopithecus africanus
Mrs. Ples
Taung child
Little foot
Australopithecus sediba
Karabo
Homo Homo habilis
Homo erectus
Homo sapience

CHANGES IN STRUCTURE THAT CHARACTERISE HUMAN EVOLUTION
• Emphasis on evolutionary trends provided by the anatomical features of fossils of the

following three genera: Ardipithecus, Australopithecus, Homo as well as:
• The age of each fossil found/time-line for the existence of the three genera
• The fossil sites where they were found: emphasis on the fossil sites that form a part
of the Cradle of Humankind
• The scientists who discovered them
Australopithecus Homo habilis Homo sapience
• Bipedalism (Shift of foramen magnum to a more forward position)

• A more rounded skull and increased cranium size
• A flatter face due to:
➢ less sloping forehead
➢ less protruding jaws (decreased prognathous)
➢ a more developed chin
• A more rounded jaw
• Increased size of skeleton which means increased height
• Change in dentition

The table below shows the characteristics of different organisms (as obtained from a study of
their fossils) that are thought to be in the same line that led to the evolution of modern
humans.
The fossils are dealt with in the order in which they appeared on Earth.
WHEN
DISCOVERED
ORGANISM ORGANISM FOSSIL SITE ANATOMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
BY
EXISTED
Ardipithecus 5 – 4 mya North-East Tim White Brain size: 300–350ml
ramidus Ethiopia Forward position of foramen magnum
(Ardi) Very prognathous (more protruding jaws)
Heavy brow ridges
Pelvis structure: bipedal and tree climbing
Australopithecus 4 – 2,7 mya Ethiopia, Donald Brain size: 375–550ml
afarensis Kenya, Johanson Forward position of foramen magnum
(Lucy) Tanzania Very prognathous
Heavy brow ridges
Canines large and pointed
Long arms
No cranial ridge
Australopithecus 3 – 2 mya Mrs. Ples Robert Brain size: 428–625 ml
africanus Broom Forward position of foramen magnum
(Mrs. Ples, Prognathous
Taungchild, Taung; Raymond
Brow ridges
Littlefoot ) Sterkfontein Dart
Teeth large, canines not long
Little foot Ron Long arms
Clark No cranial ridge
Australopithecus 1,9 – 1,8 mya Malapa Cave – Lee Burger Brain size: 420 ml
sediba in the cradle of Less prognathous
(Karabo) humankind Brow ridges
Large teeth, canines not long
Long arms
No cranial ridge
Homo habilis 2,2 – 1,6 mya Tanzania Louis and Brain size: 650 ml
Mary Leakey Less prognathous
Less pronounced brow ridges
Human-like teeth – smaller canines
Long arms
Homo erectus 2 – 0,4 mya Java in Eugene Brain size: 900 ml
Indonesia Dubois Prognathous
and then Cranial ridges
Swartkrans
Short canines
Longer legs and shorter arms
Homo sapiens 200 000 years Makapansgat Tim White Brain size: 1200–1800 ml
ago – present in Limpopo; No brow ridges
Border Cave in Small teeth
KZN; Blombos
Short arms
Cave in the
Western Cape

Australopithecus fossils found in the Cradle of Humankind:
Hominin species found in South Africa
- Mrs. Ples (Australopithecus africanus),

- Little foot (Australopithecus africanus),
- Taung child (Australopithecus africanus),
- Karabo (Australopithecus sediba) is also regarded as the missing link (between
Australopithecus africanus and Homo erectus.)
3.2 Genetic evidence: mitochondrial DNA
Apart from DNA in the nucleus, DNA also occurs in the mitochondria as mitochondrial
DNA (mtDNA)
• mtDNA of the sperm cell does not fuse
with mtDNA of the egg cell
• mtDNA is therefore handed down from
mother to child
• By following mutations in mtDNA, we
can trace our female line of descent.
• Using mutant nucleotides of Y-chromosomes
• Spencer Wells and his colleagues
have traced lineage of everyman
alive to a common ancestor who
lived in East Africa about 60 000
years ago.
• Analysis of mitochondrial DNA leads to ancestral female who lived in East Africa
about 150 000 years ago.
Given the amount of genetic material shared between humans and other hominids (the
apes), they must have had a common ancestor who lived approximately 5 – 6 million
years ago.

3.3 Cultural evidence: toolmaking
• A very important aspect of human evolution, separating humans from other hominids,
is the development and use of tools.
• Art also contributed. The earliest known art dates from about 100 000 years ago, and
the earliest cave paintings (see Figure 26 below), of which we have an abundance in
South Africa, were made some 40 000 years ago
• Behaviour like burial sites

4. THE OUT-OF-AFRICA HYPOTHESIS
Modern humans originated in Africa and then migrated to other continents.
4. Evidence for the 'Out-of-Africa' hypothesis:

All modern humans originated in Africa and migrated to other parts of the world.
4.1 Fossil evidence:

It must be explained as stated here
Information on each of the following fossils that serve as evidence for the 'Out-of-Africa'
hypothesis:
o Ardipithecus fossils found in Africa only
o Australopithecus fossils found in Africa only (Karabo, Little Foot, Taung Child, Mrs Ples)
o Homo -fossils -
- Homo habilis found in Africa only
- Oldest fossils of Homo erectus and Homo sapiens found in Africa,
- Younger fossils were found in other parts of the world)

4.2 Genetic evidence: mitochondrial DNA
Apart from DNA in the nucleus, DNA also occurs in the mitochondria as mitochondrial
DNA (mtDNA)
• mtDNA of the sperm cell does not fuse
with mtDNA of the egg cell
• mtDNA is therefore handed down from
mother to child
• By following mutations in mtDNA, we
can trace our female line of descent.
Just something to read, not for assessment
• Using mutant nucleotides of Y-chromosomes

• Spencer Wells and his colleagues
have traced lineage of every man
alive to a common ancestor who
lived in East Africa about 60 000
years ago.
• Analysis of mitochondrial DNA leads
to ancestral female who lived in East
Africa about 150 000 years ago.

11.3 MARKING GUIDELINES
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN LAMARCKISM AND DARWINISM
LAMARCKISM DARWINISM
Variation of the offspring occurs when Variation in the offspring is inherited
individuals in the population change
Change occurs because of adaptation to Natural selection – individuals best suited
the environment/ Law of use and disuse to the environment survive
Individuals in the population change The population as a whole changes
Acquired characteristics are inherited by Characteristic are passed on from
offspring generation to generation to enable
individuals to survive in the environment
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN NATURAL SELECTION AND ARTIFICIAL SELECTION
NATURAL SELECTION ARTIFICIAL SELECTION

The environment or nature is the Humansrepresent the selective force
selective force
Selection is in response to suitability to the Selection is in response to satisfying
environment human needs
Occurs within a species May involve one or more species  (as in
cross breeding)
HOW LAMARCK AND DARWIN EXPLAINED EVOLUTION (IN GENERAL)
*Evolution according to Lamarck
Lamarck explained evolution using the following two 'laws':

The law of use and disuse: 
- As an organism uses a structure or organ more regularly, it becomes
better developed or enlarged in that organism.
- If an organism does not use a structure or organ frequently, it becomes
less developed or reduced in size and may disappear altogether in that organism
The law of inheritance of acquired characteristics: 

- Characteristics developed during the life of an individual- (Acquired characteristics) can
be passed on to their offspring
Evolution according to Darwin

- Organisms produce a large number of offspring
- There is a great deal of variation amongst the offspring
- Some have favourable characteristics
- and some do not
- When there is a change in the environmental conditions/or
- there is competition
- Then organisms with characteristics which are more favourable survive
- Whilst organisms with less favourable characteristics die
- This is called natural selection
- The organisms that survive reproduce
- And thus pass on the favourable characteristics to their offspring
- The next generation will therefore have a higher proportion of individuals with the
favourable characteristics
HOW LAMARCK AND DARWIN EXPLAINED EVOLUTION (SPECIFIC EXAMPLE)
An ancestor of the elephant, Phiomia, had a long nose-like structure called a proboscis which
evolved into the trunk of the elephant. The proboscis was used to gather leaves as food.
Explain the evolution of the elephant's trunk in terms of Lamarckism and Darwinism as well
as the way in which an increase in the length of the trunk of the elephant could be achieved
through artificial selection.
Lamarckism:
- The ancestral elephant stretched its proboscis
- to get leaves in trees/further from the body
- The more it used the proboscis,
- the longer it became - law of use and disuse.
- The offspring then inherited the acquired longer proboscis - law of inheritance of
acquired characteristics
- Over many generations the length of the proboscis increased- until it became a
trunk as in the modern elephant
Darwinism:
- There was a great deal of genetic variation amongst the offspring of the ancestral
elephant
- Some had a long proboscis- and some had a short proboscis
- There was a change in environmental conditions/competition amongst the animals
for food
- They had to reach higher in the trees to get leaves
- The animals with shorter proboscis died as they could not reach the leaves
- They did not possess the favourable characteristics for that environment
- Those individuals with the longer proboscis survived as they possessed the
favourable characteristics for the environment.
- The elephants with the longer trunks then reproduced
- and passed on this favourable characteristic to their offspring
- The next generation of animals had a greater proportion of longer trunks
- Gradually over time the gene pool of the elephants with short trunks are eradicated
Artificial selection:
- Humansselect the elephants with
- desirable characteristics/long trunk
- and mate them to produce offspring with longer trunks
- Those that are pure breeding for long trunks
- are further selected to mate to produce offspring with further longer trunks
DARWIN'S IDEAS ABOUT GRADUALISM COMPARED TO PUNCTUATED EQUILIBRIUM

- Darwin believed that evolution takes place through an accumulation of small
- gradual changes that occur over a long period of time
- supported by transitional forms in fossil record
- Punctuated equilibrium suggested that evolution sometimes involves long
periods of time where species do not change/very little change occurs
- This alternates with short periods of time where rapid changes occur
- New species are formed in a short period of time/relative to the long
period of no/little change
- supported by the absence of transitional forms

THE ROLE OF VARIATION IN NATURAL SELECTION
- Organisms of a particular species shows a great deal of variation
- Some individuals may have characteristics that are favourable /any example
- Others may have characteristics that are unfavourable /any example
- If there is competition/changing environmental conditions/ selective pressure by the
environment
- organisms with favourable characteristics survive
- and reproduce
- and pass this favourable characteristics to their offspring
- while organisms with unfavourable characteristics will die out
- Over time the whole population will have this favourable trait
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN A POPULATION AND A SPECIES

- A species is a group of organisms with similar characteristics
- that are able to interbreed
- to produce fertile offspring
- A population is a group of organisms of the same species
- found in the same habitat 
- at the same time
SPECIATION BY GEOGRAPHIC ISOLATION (IN GENERAL)

• If a population splits into two populations  by a geographical barrier
• there is now no gene flow between the two populations
• Since each population may be exposed to different environmental conditions
• Natural selection occurs independently in each of the two populations
• such that the individuals of the two populations become very different from each
other
• genotypically and
• phenotypically
• Even if the two populations were to mix again
• they will not be able to reproduce with each other thus becoming different / new
species
SPECIATION BY GEOGRAPHIC ISOLATION (SPECIFIC EXAMPLE)

Use the example of the anole lizard of the Caribbean Islands to describe how natural
selection led to the process of speciation that gave rise to different species of lizards.
- The original species of anole lizards was separated

- into different populations
- by a geographical barrier 
- which is the sea 
- There was no gene flow
- between the separated populations
- Each population was exposed to different environmental conditions/ different
environmental temperatures and food availability on each island
- Because there is variation amongst the lizards
- natural selection occurred independently  in each population
- Each population became different from the other  over time
- genotypically
- and phenotypically
- Even if the populations were to mix again
- they would not be able to reproduce/interbreed with each other

MECHANISMS FOR REPRODUCTIVE ISOLATION
Geographic isolation causes speciation. Reproductive isolation isolates the gene pool of a
species.
Examples of reproductive isolation:
• Breeding at different times of the year
• Species-specific courtship behaviour
• Adaptation to different pollinators
THE ROLE OF MUTATIONS AND EVOLUTION IN PRESENT TIMES (IN GENERAL)

- In a population of insects /bacteria/HI viruses/Galápagos' finches
- mutations are a source of variation
- which may make some organisms more resistant  /better suited
- to insecticides /antibiotics/antiretroviral medication/ drought
- Those individuals that are not resistant /suited will die whereas
- those that are resistant/ well suited, will survive
- to pass the resistant allele/resistance on to their offspring
- This is known as natural selection
- As a result, individuals of the future generations will be resistant to the
insecticides/antibiotics/antiretroviral medication/adapted to drought
HOW MOSQUITOES DEVELOP RESISTANCE TO DDT (SPECIFIC EXAMPLE)

− More mosquitoes are produced than can survive
− There is genetic variation amongst the mosquitoes
− Some mosquitoes may be naturally resistant to DDT
− When DDT is applied
− those that are resistant survive
− and they then reproduce
− passing the allele for resistance to the offspring
− Those that are not resistant, die
− and their alleles are lost from the population. 
− The number of DDT-resistant mosquitoes therefore increases over the
generations
EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION, HUMAN EVOLUTION AND OUT OF AFRICA HYPOTHESIS
EVOLUTION HUMAN EVOLUTION OUT OF AFRICA

HYPOTHESIS
Fossil evidence Fossil evidence Fossil evidence
Genetics Genetics mtDNA Genetics mtDNA
Comparative anatomy Cultural evidence (tool Cultural evidence (tool
(modification by descent) making) making)
Biogeography

HUMAN EVOLUTION
CHARACTERISTICS THAT HUMANS SHARE WITH AFRICAN APES.

- Large brains / skulls compared to their body mass
- Bipedal / upright posture / foramen magnum in a more forward position
- Olfactory brain centres reduced/ reduced sense of smell
- Eyes in front/ binocular vision / stereoscopic vision
- Eyes with cones / colour vision
- Freely rotating arms
- Long upper arms
- Five digits per limb
- Flat nails instead of claws/ bare, sensitive finger tips
- Opposable thumbs/precision grip
- Sexual dimorphism / distinct differences between males and females
ANATOMICAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN HUMANS (Homo sapiens) AND AFRICAN

APES
FEATURE HUMANS (Homo sapiens) AFRICAN APES

Cranium Large cranium / brain Small cranium / brain
Brow ridges Brow ridges are not well Brow ridges are well
developed developed
Spine More curved (S-shaped) Less curved (C-
spine shaped)  spine
Pelvic girdle Short, wide pelvis Long, narrow pelvis
Canines Small canines Large canines
Palate shape Small and rounded palate Long and rectangular
palate
Jaws Small jaws Large jaws
less protruding / less more protruding / more
prognathous prognathous
Cranial ridges No cranial ridge Cranial ridge at the top
of the cranium
Foramen magnum In a forward position In a backward
position below the
skull
GENERAL TREND IN HUMAN EVOLUTION HAS BEEN TOWARDS BIPEDALISM AND A

CHANGE IN DIET FROM RAW FOOD TO COOKED FOOD
The development of bipedalism:

• The backward position of the foramen magnum on the skull
• the narrow pelvis
• and the less-curved spine
• indicates that the ape-like beings were quadrupedal
• The forward position of the foramen magnum on the skull
• the wider / shorter pelvis
• and the curved S- spine
• indicates that modern humans are bipedal

Change in the diet from raw food to cooked food:
• The large teeth, especially the canines
• as well as the large and long jaws
• which makes the skull prognathous
• as well as cranial/brow ridges associated with large muscles that operate the jaws
• indicate that the ape-like beings ate raw food that required a great amount of
processing /tearing, biting and chewing.
• The smaller teeth, including the canines
• as well as the smaller jaw size
• which makes the skull less prognathous
• as well as the absence of cranial/brow ridges due to the presence of smaller muscles for
chewing
• indicate that modern humans rely on a diet of cooked food that does not require the
same amount of processing /tearing, biting and chewing.
ADVANTAGES OF BIPEDALISM
- Frees the arms so that they could carry offspring/ tools / food / manipulate things
- Allows ability to see furtherto spot danger/ food
- Exposes a large surface area for thermoregulation
- Reduces the surface area exposed to the sun so less
heat is absorbed/ less heat lost/thermoregulation
- Expose the genitalsto attract opposite sex
- Efficient locomotionallows traveling over longer distances
ADVANTAGES OF LARGER CRANIUM

- Allows for a bigger brain
- Development of speech/ communication
- Higher intelligence
- Complex behaviour
- Quick processing of information
- Process large amounts of information
OUT OF AFRICA HYPOTHESIS

- All modern humans /Homo sapiens - originated in Africa
- and migrated to other parts of the world
EVIDENCE THAT SUPPORTS THE OAH:

FOSSIL EVIDENCE
- The OLDEST Fossils of Ardipithecus were found ONLY in Africa /Rift
Valley/Ethiopia/South Africa
- The OLDEST Fossils of Australopithecus were found ONLY in Africa/Rift
Valley/Ethiopia/South Africa
- The OLDEST The fossils of Homo habilis were ONLY found in Africa
- The OLDEST fossils of Homo erectus were found in Africa
- The OLDEST fossils of Homo sapiens were found in Africa
GENETIC EVIDENCE
- Mitochondrial DNA
- is passed down from mother to child / Is inherited only from the maternal line
- Analysis of mutations on this mitochondrial DNA
- were traced to an ancestral female that existed in Africa
- and shows that all humans descended from her/mitochondrial Eve
- The Y chromosome shows the paternal line

CULTURAL EVIDENCE
- The OLDEST/most primitive artefacts (tools, cutlery, art etc.) - were ONLY found in
Africa

11.4 ACTIVITIES
Evolution: Evidence of evolution
Activity 60 Date: _______________
1. Match the definition in Column B to fit the term in Column A
COLUMN A COLUMN B
1.1 Biological evolution A Species that are closely related have a greater
genetic similarity to each other than distant species
and therefore share more recent common ancestor
1.2 Species B A group of organisms with similar characteristics that
interbreed to produce fertile offspring
1.3 Population C The study of the distribution of existing(extant) plant
and animal species in specific geographical regions
1.4 Theory D Similar structure with the same body plan that
perform different functions
1.5 Hypothesis E A group of individuals of the same species
occupying a specific habitat at a specific time
1.6 Fossil records F The study of fossils
1.7 Homologous structures G Any genetic change in a population that is inherited

over several generations
1.8 Biogeography H A possible solution to a problem or explanation of a
specific phenomenon
1.9 Genetic evidence I The basic body plan of different plant and animal
groups that change over time and are then better
adapted to their different environments
1.10 Decent with modification J An explanation of something that has been observed
in nature which can be supported by facts,
generalisations, tested hypotheses, models and laws
1.11 Palaeontology K Different fossils are found in different rock layers with
the oldest fossils in the older rock layers with
transitional fossils present

2. The theory of evolution emerged from and is explained by different lines of evidence:
A. Fossil records
B. Decent with modification
C. Biogeography
D. Genetics
Look at the diagrams below and write down the letter in the space provided, that
represents the line of evidence the best.

3 3.1 Indicate what evidence do fossils provide for evolution. (2)
3.2 Explain why fossils are not a reliable source of evidence for (2)
evolution.
3.3 How can homologous structures provide evidence for evolution? (1)
3.4 Explain what biogeography is. (2)
3.5 Describe the role of biogeography as evidence for evolution. (2)
3.6 Name the FOUR points that genetics are based on to provide (4)
evidence for evolution.

Evolution: Variation
Activity 61 Date: _______________
1 1.1 Name the sources of variation in a population. (4)
1.2 Describe how meiosis contributes to variation among individuals (8)

of the same species.
1.3 Distinguish between Random fertilisation and Random mating. (4)
2 2.1 Complete the table below on the differences between continuous

and discontinuous variation. (7)
Continuous variation Discontinuous variation

Definition Those characteristics
where there is a range
of intermediate
phenotypes from one
extreme to another
Gene locus Usually only one but may be
a very small number
Number of Many pairs of alleles
alleles as many genes
contribute to the
inheritance
Effect on Many intermediate
phenotype phenotype
Environment Environment has little to no
influence influence
Example

3 3.1. The graph below illustrates different heights in humans.
(5)
3.1.1 What type of variation is illustrated in this graph? (1)
3.1.2 Explain your answer in 3.1.1 (2)
4 4.1. The diagram below is a phase during meiosis.
4.1.1. Name the process that is illustrated in the diagram. (1)
4.1.2 Explain the significance of this process in 4.1.1. (2)
5. Explain how gene mutations can play a role in genetic variation in

species. (2)
6. Explain random fertilisation and the role it plays in genetic variation. (2)

Evolution: Origin of ideas
Activity 62 Date: _______________
1 Theories of evolution:
A. Lamarckism
B. Darwinism
C. Punctuated equilibrium
Write the letter of the correct evolution theory next to the statement below.
1.1. Inheritance of acquired characteristics

1.2. Only organisms best suited to the environment will
survive
1.3. Long periods of little changes followed by short
periods of rapid change
1.4. If structures are not being used, then the structure
would become smaller and might disappear (4)
2 Name and explain the two laws of Lamack. (6)
3 Describe the evolution theory of Eldrege and Gould. (4)
4 Describe Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection. (8)
5 5.1 A scientist used guppies (Poecilia reticulata) in an investigation to test

Darwin's theory of natural selection. Male guppies have brightly coloured
spots to attract females, but these spots also attract predators. It was
previously observed that males living in streams where there were many
predatory fish tended to have fewer spots. This reduced their risk of
being eaten. Those males living in streams with fewer predators had
more spots.
The procedure for the investigation was as follows:

• Equal numbers of male and female guppies were put into two ponds
(pond 1 and pond 2).
• In pond 1, predatory fish that prey on guppies were introduced.
• In pond 2, predatory fish that do not feed on guppies were introduced.
• The guppies were allowed to breed for 20 months, representing
several generations of guppies. (Guppies reproduce when they are
about three months old.)

The result of the investigation: The male guppies in pond 2 had
significantly more spots than the male guppies in pond 1.
5.1.1 How could the validity of this investigation be increased? (3)
5.1.2 Identify the:
a) Independent variable (1)

b) Dependent variable (1)
5.1.3 Explain why the scientist included pond 2 in this investigation (5)
5.1.4 Describe how Darwin’s theory of natural selection can be used to (6)
explain why the guppies in pond 1 had fewer spots.
Guiding Question Darwin’s explanation

State the characteristic that varies
Describe the variations
Explain the environmental
change/ selection pressure for
natural selection
State the unfavourable
characteristic and why it is
unfavourable
Explain what happened to this
individual with the unfavourable
characteristics
State the favourable characteristic
and why it is favourable
characteristics
What happened to the favourable
characteristic

6 6.1 The red-bellied black snake (Pseudechis porphyriacus) and the
green tree snake (Denderelaphis punctulatus) are predators that
sometimes feed on cane toads (Bufo marinus) that contain a toxin
that may kill them. The snakes consume the toads by swallowing
them whole. A decrease in the average jaw size of the snakes has
been observed over a period of 70 years. Some scientists believe
that this may be an example of punctuated equilibrium. With this
change it was also noted that the snakes could no longer swallow
the large cane toads. This has resulted in an increase in the
survival of the snakes.
6.1.1 Define punctuated equilibrium. (5)
6.1.2 What characteristic of the toad species protects it from predation? (1)
6.1.3 Explain how the change in jaw size helped the snakes to survive. (3)
6.1.4 How would Lamarck have explained the development of a small (6)
jaw size in the snakes?
Guiding Questions Lamarck’s explanation

What was the original
characteristic at the start?
What did the organism do?

Why did the organism do this?
What was the result?
What happened to this new

characteristic?
What was the result of this?
7 7.1 What type of characteristics does nature select during evolution? (1)
7.2. In nature, there is always a fight for survival due to competition,

predation and adverse weather conditions. Suggest a collective
term for all these factors. (1)
7.3 Why is the concept of natural selection so important? (3)
7.4 Why is natural selection not a random process? (4)

Evolution: Extra evolution theories
Activity 62 A Date: _______________
1 Brine shrimp are small arthropods found in saltwater lakes. During

favourable conditions female shrimps produce eggs that hatch into live
young. However, when conditions are unfavourable, the shrimp produce
cysts. Each cyst contains the embryo covered with a hard, protective
covering. In this state the embryo stops growing and is said to be dormant.
The embryo can remain in this dormant state for many years and the cyst
will only hatch at the optimum salt concentration.
Scientists wanted to investigate which salt concentration resulted in the
highest percentage of hatched cysts.
They did the following:
• Prepared salt solutions of different concentrations: 0%, 0,5%, 1%, 1,5% and
2%
• Placed 30 mℓ of each solution into one of five beakers
• Took samples of brine shrimp cysts using a dropper
• Counted the number of cysts in each sample
• Recorded this as the initial number of cysts
• Placed the samples into each of the five beakers
• Left the beakers at room temperature for 48 hours
• Recorded the number of cysts that hatched in each beaker
• Calculated the percentage of cysts that hatched
The results are shown in the table below.
1.1. State TWO planning steps to consider before collecting the samples. (2)
1.2 State the:

a) Independent variable (1)
b) Dependent variable (1)
1.3 Calculate the value of X in the table. Show ALL working. (3)
1.4 State THREE factors that were kept constant in order to ensure the (3)
validity of this investigation.
1.5 Which salt concentration resulted in the highest percentage of hatched (1)
cysts?

1.6 Use the theory of evolution through natural selection to explain how
the ability to produce cysts led to the survival of the brine shrimp.

Explain the environmental change/
selection pressure for natural
selection
unfavourable
Explain what happen to this
characteristics
Explain what happen to this
individual with the favourable
characteristics
What happen to the favourable
characteristic

2 There are two variations in the colour of kingsnakes. Some have a bright
colourful pattern and others have a dull pattern. Kingsnakes are non-
poisonous to their predators. Coral snakes also have a bright colour
pattern, but are poisonous to their predators. This is a defence
mechanism as predators avoid them. Scientists observed that where
kingsnakes shared the same habitat with coral snakes, there were more
kingsnakes that had bright colourful patterns. The diagram below
represents the distribution of the snakes.
2.1 Explain how the bright colour pattern of coral snakes influences
their survival. (3)
2.2 Use Darwin's theory of evolution through natural selection to

explain why there are more brightly coloured kingsnakes in this
habitat.

Explain the environmental
change/ selection pressure for
natural selection
unfavourable
characteristics
characteristics

characteristic
3 Flightless bird species that are currently distributed across different continents
are shown in the picture below.
Scientists hypothesise that these species of flightless birds arose from a single
common ancestor that was able to fly.
3.1 Describe how Lamarck would have explained the evolution of flightless
birds. (6)
Guiding Questions Lamarck’s explanation

What was the original characteristic
at the start?
What did the organism do?

Why did the organism do this?
What was the result?
What happened to this new

characteristic?
What was the result of this?

Evolution: Difference between Lamarckism, Darwinism and Punctuated equilibrium
Activity 63 Date: _______________
1 Darwin and Lamarck were both scientists who tried to understand

evolution.
Lamarck’s theory of evolution was based around how organisms (e.g. animals,
plants) change during their lifetime, and then pass these changes onto their
offspring. For example, Lamarck believes that the giraffe had a long neck
because its neck grew longer during its lifetime, as it stretched to reach leaves
in high-up trees, meaning that each generation of giraffe had a longer neck
than previous generations.
Darwin’s theory, known as natural selection, believed that organisms

possessed variation and these variations led to some being more likely
to survive and reproduce than others. In terms of the giraffe, Darwin’s theory
would state that longer necked giraffes were more likely to survive, because
they could eat leaves from taller trees, and therefore more long-necked
giraffes will be born, which eventually caused all giraffes to have longer necks.
1.1 Give:
a) The term that describes Lamarck’s ideas. (1)

b) The term that describes Darwin’s idea of Natural selection (1)
c) The name of the Scientists that are associated with the
theory of punctuated equilibrium. (1)
1.2 Tabulate the difference between Lamarck’s theory of evolution and

Darwin’s theory of evolution. (5)
Lamarck’s Darwin
1.3 Explain whose idea of evolution is more acceptable today. (2)
2 Distinguish between punctuated equilibrium and gradualism. (2)
3 What is the similarity between punctuated equilibrium and

gradualism (4)

Evolution: Artificial selection
Activity 64 Date: _______________
1 The first dog evolved from a population of wolves. Although wolves look
very similar to some breeds of domestic dogs, wolves and domestic
cannot interbreed.
All types of domestic dogs are capable of interbreeding to produce

puppies which will eventually be capable of interbreeding with any other
domestic dog.
1.1 Explain why all breeds of domestic dogs belong to the same
species. (2)
1.2 Domestic dogs are bred to show specific characteristics with

respect to their health, personality, and appearance. Explain why
this is considered as artificial selection. (2)
1.3 Describe how artificial selection led to different breeds of domestic

dogs. (3)
1.4 What effect does the type of selection mentioned in 1.3 have on the
survival chances of the dog species? (2)

Evolution: Speciation
Activity 65 Date: _______________
1.1. Define the term population. (4)
1.2. Describe how speciation of the GRAND CANYON squirrels took place. (6)
2 Darwin discovered two different species of tortoises on two different islands in

the Galapagos. One had a domed shell and short neck, the other had an
elongated shell and a longer neck. The two islands had very different
vegetation. One of the islands (island X) was rather barren, dry and arid. It had
no grass but rather short tree-like cactus plants. On the other island (island Y),
there were no cactus plants but it had a good supply of water and grass grew
freely. The diagram below shows the two main tortoises.
2.1 Which tortoise would be found on island Y? (2)

2.2 Describe how the two tortoise species become different. (6)
2.3 List FOUR sources of variation that could lead to the variation in the
tortoise population. (4)
2.4. Explain the role of natural selection on island X where more of tortoise 2
are found. (6)

Explain the environmental change/
selection pressure for natural
selection
State the unfavourable characteristic
and why it is unfavourable
characteristics
individual with the favourable
characteristics
characteristic

Evolution: Reproductive isolation
Activity 66 Date: _______________
1 Identify the reproductive isolation mechanism that is illustrated in the

diagrams below. (5)
Insects have very specific copulatory organs.
May-flower
Species 1 Species 2

Sheep and goat hybrid dies before birth
2 2.1. What is meant by the term reproductive isolation? (1)
2.2. Describe species-specific courtship. (2)
2.3. Give THREE examples of species-specific courtship. (3)

3 3.1
Differences in flower structure in black and white sage, is the

selection force for different pollinating bees. Large bees do not fit
on black sage petals.
3.1.1 Identify the reproductive isolation mechanism that is illustrated in

the diagram above. (1)
3.1.2 Explain what the significance of this isolation mechanism is. (2)
4 4.1. Explain the development of infertile offspring between two

species. (3)
4.2. Give an example of infertile offspring between two species. (2)

Evolution: Evolution in present times.
Activity 66 A Date: _______________
1 The introduction of DDT represents a change in the environment of the

mosquito. Study the diagram and answer the questions.
1.1. Give a suitable heading for the above diagram. (2)
1.2. What process is represented by …?
a) A (1)
b) B (1)
1.3 Describe the composition of the first generation. (2)
1.4 Explain how these two dark mosquitoes evolved in the first generation. (3)
1.5 Describe the composition of the survivors of the second pesticide

application. (2)

Evolution: Phylogenetic tree
Activity 67 Date: _______________
1 The diagram below shows possible relationships between

members of Hominids.
POSSIBLE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN HOMINIDS
Present
Homo sapiens
Time (million years ago)
Homo erectus
Australopithecus robustus
Australopithecus boisei
Homo habilis
Australopithecus
africanus Australopithecus afarensis
1.1. What is the name given to this diagram? (1)
1.2. How many of each of the following are represented in the

diagram?
a) Genera
b) Species (2)
1.4. Explain why A. robustus and A. boisei are more closely related
than A. boisei and A. afarensis. (2)
1.5. Which hominid is the common ancestor of all the hominids in this
diagram? (1)
1.6. Give the
a) Family to which all humans belong to (1)

b) Genera to which all humans belong to (1)
c) Name of the ancestral of homo sapience (1)

Evolution: Similarities between humans and African apes
Activity 68 Date: _______________
1 Skeletons of an African ape and a human.
A B
1.1. Organism A and B belong to the same order and family. Give the
name of the order and family. (2)
1.2. Give FOUR similarities they share regarding their upper limps. (4)
1.4. Which organism

a) belong to the hominin group? (1)
b) Is quadrupedal? (1)
c) Is Mammalia? (2)
1.5. How is the function of the opposable thumb of organism A and B

different? (2)

Evolution: Differences between humans and African apes
Activity 69 Date: _______________
1 Parts of an African ape and a human skeleton.
DIAGRAM A DIAGRAM B
DIAGRAM C DIAGRAM D
SKELETON PARTS OF AFRICAN APE AND HUMAN
1.1 .1 Give the label for X. (1)
1.1.2 Describe the difference of the position of X in diagram A and B. (2)
1.1.3 Explain the significance of the position of X in diagram A. (5)
1.1.4 Tabulate THREE visible differences between the jaw /teeth of

diagram A and diagram B. (6)
A B
1.1.5 Explain the difference in diagram C and D. (2)

2 Fossilised skulls of three different species of primates
2.1.1 Give the label for X and Y. (1)
2.1.2 Which skull belongs to … ?
a) Hominidae (3)
b) Hominin (2)
c) Bipedal (2)
2.1.3 Explain how the change in the skull from B to C could indicate change
in intelligence. (4)
2.1.4 Tabulate FIVE visible differences between the skulls of A and C. (10)

Evolution: Fossil evidence
Activity 70 Date: _______________
1 The extract below is about human evolution.
1.1 Name the TWO lines of evidence for human evolution that is
referred to in the extract above. (2)
1.2 How long did Homo floresiensis exist on Earth? (1)
1.3 Name ONE Homo ancestor mentioned in the extract. (1)
1.4 Describe ONE feature of the skull that can be used as evidence for
bipedalism. (Not mentioned in the extract) (2)
1.5 State TWO similarities between the hands of African apes and
modern humans. (3)
1.6 State THREE features of the jaw of H. floresiensis that might have
led scientists to believe that it resembled that of Australopithecus,
rather than of a Homo species. (3)
1.7 Draw a table to show the brain volumes of the different Homo
species, using information from the extract. (4)

2 Scientists use fossils as evidence for human evolution. The brain
volume of some extinct primates has been estimated from their
fossils and have been compared to the brain volumes of living
primates.
2.1 What type of evidence of human evolution is given in the table? (1)
2.2 Give the
a) Family to which all these fossils belong to. (1)

b) First primate that become extinct. (1)
c) Genes of erectus. (1)
2.3 Name FOUR fossils of Australopithecus that is found in Africa

only. (4)
2.4 The brain of an organism is not preserved as a fossil. How do

scientists determine the brain volume of extinct primates? (2)
2.5 Give evidence from the table that suggests that:
a) Homo habilis and Homo erectus may have existed at the

same time. (1)
b) Ardipithecus was the most primitive of all the primate

genera. (1)

2.6 Draw a bar graph to show the average brain volume of EACH of the
species of the genus Homo. (6)
2.7 Explain how genetic evidence as a line of evidence contribute for

human evolution. (4)

Evolution: Tabulate the different fossils
Activity 71 Date: _______________
1 The image below is that of Mrs. Ples.
1.1 Give the:
a) Genus and species to which Mrs. Ples belong. (1)

b) Site where Mrs. Ples is found. (1)
c) Scientist that discovered Mrs. Ples. (1)
1.2 Name THREE ape-like features of this skull. (3)
1.3 If asked to decide whether a complete skull with jaw bones was
that of Ardipithecus or Australopithecus, describe which FOUR
features would you examine. (8)
2 2.1 Complete the table. (7)
Organism Fossil site Discovered by

Aridipithecus
Lee Berger
Indonesia and
Swartkrans
Makapansgat in Tim White
Limpopo; Border
Cave in KZN
Lucy Donald Johanson
Sterkfontein R Dart
2.2 Give the name of the Australopithecus afarensis that was found in
Kenya and Tanzania. (1)
2.3 Give the Australopithecus africanus that was discovered by …
a) Robert Broom (1)

b) R Dart (1)
c) Lee Berger (1)
d) Ron Clark (1)

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11.3 Marking guidelines

Learner’s Guide TERM 3 1

EVOLUTION Terms 3 4weeks

❑ Difference between a hypothesis and a theory

❑ The Theory of Evolution is regarded as a scientific theory since various

Learner’s Guide TERM 3 2

❑ Speciation and extinction and the effect of each on biodiversity

❑ Speciation through geographic isolation:

❑ Speciation through geographic isolation in ONE of the following:

Learner’s Guide TERM 3 3

Learner’s Guide TERM 3 4

Human evolution: E.g

Learner’s Guide TERM 3 5

11.2 TERMINOLOGY – EVOLUTION

Learner’s Guide TERM 3 6

Definition of biological evolution:

Difference between a hypothesis and a theory

A theory is a well-substantiated (supported by evidence) explanation supported by scientific

Definition of a species and a population

Learner’s Guide TERM 3 7

1. Fossil record (Link to Grade 10)

2. Biogeography (Link to Grade 10)

Learner’s Guide TERM 3 8

3. Modification by descent (homologous structures)

Learner’s Guide TERM 3 9

The following features show possible common origin of different organisms:

Random fertilasation Mutations

1.1. Crossing over

Learner’s Guide TERM 3 10

Gene Mutation – a change in the sequence of nitrogenous bases or nucleotides

Learner’s Guide TERM 3 11

TYPES OF VARIATION IN A SPECIES

• Continuous variation – those characteristics where there is a range of intermediate

Learner’s Guide TERM 3 12

1.1 Law of use and disuse

How to describe Lamarckism

GUIDING QUESTIONS LAMARCK’S EXPLANATION

Refer to the characteristic (long necks) – do not only state …

Explain why Lamarck’s theory is not accepted/rejected by most scientists today.

Learner’s Guide TERM 3 13

Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection:

Note the difference on how to answer this from previous years.

GUIDING QUESTION DARWIN’S EXPLANATION

Learner’s Guide TERM 3 14

Differences between Lamarck’s and Darwin’s Theories

LAMARCK’S THEORY DARWIN’S THEORY

3. Punctuated Equilibrium (Eldredge and Gould – 1972)

Punctuated Equilibrium explains the speed at which evolution takes place:

Punctuated equilibrium is supported by the absence of transitional fossils indicating

Learner’s Guide TERM 3 15

Learner’s Guide TERM 3 16

Similarities between Natural selection and Artificial selection

Learner’s Guide TERM 3 17

◼ If a population of a single species becomes separated by a geographical barrier (sea,

NOTE HOW WE ANSWER IT BY APPLYING AN EXAMPLE

If a population of a single species/original population

becomes separated by a geographical barrier