Yifeng Yuan Thesis

PRAGMATICS, PERCEPTIONS AND STRATEGIES
IN CHINESE COLLEGE ENGLISH LEARNING
Yifeng Yuan
B.A. (SNU) M.Ed. TESOL (Usyd)
Submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
Centre for Learning Innovation

Faculty of Education
Queensland University of Technology
March 2012
KEY WORDS
Chinese College English, second language acquisition, pragmatics, intercultural

communication, English as a lingua franca, language learning strategies, perceptions,
language competence, linguistic competence, pragmatic competence.
i
ABSTRACT
This study investigated Chinese College English students‟ perceptions of pragmatics,

their pragmatic competence in selected speech acts, strategies they employed in
acquiring pragmatic knowledge, as well as their general approach to learning English
as a foreign language. The research was triggered by a national curriculum initiative
that prioritizes the need for College English students to enhance their ability to use
English effectively in different social interactions (Chinese College English
Education and Supervisory Committee, 2007).
The traditional “grammar-translation” and “examination-oriented” method is

believed to have reduced Chinese College English students to what is dubbed “mute”
and “deaf” language learners (Zhang, 2008; Zhao, 2009). Many students lack
pragmatic knowledge on how to interpret discourse by relating utterances to their
meanings, understanding the intention of language users, and how language is used
in specific settings (Bachman & Palmer, 1996, 2010). There is an increasing body of
literature on awareness-raising of the importance of pragmatic knowledge and
strategies for classroom instruction. However, to date, researchers have tended to
focus largely on the teaching of pragmatics, rather than on how students acquire
pragmatic competence (Bardovi-Harlig & Dörnyei, 1998; Du, 2004; Hou, 2007;
Ruan, 2007; Schauer, 2009). It is this gap in the research that this study fills, with a
focus on different types of pragmatic knowledge, learner perceptions of such
knowledge, and learning strategies that College English students employ in the
process of learning English in general, and pragmatics in particular.
Three strands of theories of second language acquisition (Ellis, 1985, 1994):

pragmatics (Levinson, 1983; Mey, 2001; Yule, 1996), intercultural communications
(Kramsch, 1998; Samovar & Porter, 1997; Samovar, Porter & McDaniel, 2009) and
English as a lingua franca (ELF) (Canagarajah, 2006; Firth, 1996; Pennycook, 2010)
were employed to establish a conceptual framework for data collection and analyses.
Key constructs derived from the three related theories helped to form a typology for
a detailed examination and theorization of the empirical evidence gathered from
different sources.
ii
Four research instruments: a questionnaire (N=237), Discourse Completion Tasks
(DCTs) (N=55), focus group interviews (N=18), and a textbook tasks analysis were
employed to collect data for this systematic inquiry. Data collected by different
instruments were analyzed and compared by way of a triangulation to enhance its
validity and reliability.
Major findings derived from different sources highlighted that, although College
English students were grammatically advanced language learners, they displayed
limited pragmatic knowledge and a highly restricted repertoire of language learning
strategies. The majority of the respondents, however, believed that pragmatic
knowledge was as important as linguistic knowledge in the process of developing
communicative competence for interaction in different contexts. It was argued that a
combination of a less than sufficient English proficiency, limited knowledge of
pragmatics, inadequate language materials and tasks, and a small stock of language
learning strategies, were a major hindrance to effective learning and communication,
resulting in pragmatic failures in many intercultural communication situations.
As the first systematic study of how Chinese College English students learned
pragmatics, the research provided a solid empirical base for developing a tentative
model for the learning of pragmatics in a College English classroom in China and
similar educational contexts. The model was strengthened by a unique combination
of theories of pragmatics, intercultural communication and ELF. Findings from this
research provided insights into how Chinese College English students perceived
pragmatics in the English as foreign language (EFL) curriculum, the processes of
learning, as well as strategies they utilized in developing linguistic and pragmatic
knowledge and competence.
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Key Words ............................................................................................................... i

Abstract .............................................................................................................. ii
Table of Contents ...................................................................................................... iv
List of Tables ........................................................................................................... viii
List of Figures ............................................................................................................. x
List of Abbreviations ................................................................................................. xi
Statement of Original Authorship .......................................................................... xii
Acknowledgements .................................................................................................. xiii
Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION................................................................................. 1
1.1 English in the world ..................................................................................... 1
1.2 College English learning and teaching in China.......................................... 3
1.3 This empirical study .................................................................................... 7
1.4 Research questions and aims of the study ................................................... 9
1.5 Significance of the study ........................................................................... 11
1.6 Overall structure of the thesis .................................................................... 12
Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................. 15
2.1 Pragmatics.................................................................................................. 15
2.1.1 Introduction to pragmatics ............................................................... 15
2.1.2 Definitions of pragmatics ................................................................. 16
2.1.3 Features of pragmatics ..................................................................... 19
2.1.3.1 Language users .......................................................................... 19
2.1.3.2 Context ...................................................................................... 20
2.1.3.3 Meaning..................................................................................... 21
2.1.3.4 Social interaction ....................................................................... 21
2.1.4 Categorization of pragmatic knowledge .......................................... 22
2.2 Research on pragmatics in ESL/EFL learning and teaching ..................... 24
2.2.1 Learners‟ pragmatic awareness ........................................................ 26
2.2.2 Instruction in pragmatics .................................................................. 31
2.2.3 Pragmatic failure and speech acts .................................................... 36
2.2.4 Pragmatic competence...................................................................... 43
2.3 Research on language learning strategies in ESL/EFL learning ............... 50
2.4 Summary .................................................................................................... 59
Chapter 3: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK .................................................... 61
3.1 Second language acquisition (SLA) .......................................................... 62
3.2 Theory of pragmatics ................................................................................. 64
3.2.1 Interlanguage pragmatics ................................................................. 64
3.2.2 Intercultural/cross-cultural pragmatics ............................................. 65
3.2.3 Sociopragmatics ............................................................................... 67
iv
3.2.4 Pragmatic competence and communicative competence ................. 67
3.2.4.1 Canale and Swain‟s model ........................................................ 70
3.2.4.2 Bachman‟s model ...................................................................... 71
3.2.5 Speech act theory ............................................................................. 74
3.2.5.1 Austin‟s speech act theory ........................................................ 74
3.2.5.2 Searle‟s speech act theory ......................................................... 75
3.3 Theory of intercultural communication ..................................................... 78
3.3.1 Culture and language........................................................................ 78
3.3.2 Interculturality .................................................................................. 80
3.3.3 Intercultural communication ............................................................ 81
3.3.3.1 Perception.................................................................................. 83
3.3.3.2 Beliefs ....................................................................................... 83
3.3.3.3 Values........................................................................................ 83
3.3.4 Intercultural competence .................................................................. 84
3.4 Theory of English as a lingua franca (ELF) .............................................. 86
3.4.1 Kachru‟s three circle model of English ............................................ 86
3.4.2 World Englishes and world standard English .................................. 87
3.4.3 English as a lingua franca ................................................................ 89
3.5 Theories of language learning and teaching .............................................. 92
3.5.1 Language learning strategies ............................................................ 92
3.5.2 Task-based language teaching and learning ..................................... 94
3.5.3 Communicative language teaching .................................................. 96
3.6 Summary.................................................................................................... 98
Chapter 4: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...................................................... 99
4.1 Design of the study .................................................................................... 99
4.2 Participants .............................................................................................. 103
4.3 Data collection ......................................................................................... 103
4.4 Data analysis ............................................................................................ 104
4.5 Questionnaire ........................................................................................... 106
4.6 Discourse Completion Tasks (DCTs) ...................................................... 109
4.7 Semi-structured focus group interviews .................................................. 111
4.8 Textbook tasks analysis ........................................................................... 114
4.9 Validity and reliability ............................................................................. 115
4.10 Ethical issues ........................................................................................... 116
4.11 Summary.................................................................................................. 116
Chapter 5: RESEARCH DATA REPORT ........................................................ 117
5.1 Questionnaire data ................................................................................... 117
5.1.1 Demographic data .......................................................................... 117
5.1.2 Students‟ perceptions of pragmatics in College English
learning and teaching ..................................................................... 118
5.1.3 Students‟ levels of pragmatic competence ..................................... 128
v
5.1.4 Students‟ perceptions and practice of language learning
strategies ......................................................................................... 133
5.2 Discourse Completion Tasks data ........................................................... 140
5.2.1 Data of the speech act of refusal .................................................... 141
5.2.2 Data of the speech act of compliment response ............................. 145
5.2.3 Data of the speech act of apology .................................................. 149
5.3 Semi-structured focus group interview data ............................................ 153
5.3.1 Students‟ perceptions of pragmatic knowledge ............................. 153
5.3.2 Students‟ perceptions of pragmatic competence ............................ 155
learning and teaching ..................................................................... 156
5.3.4 Students‟ perceptions of pragmatic information in textbooks ....... 160
5.3.5 Students‟ perceptions and practice of language learning
strategies in learning English ......................................................... 162
5.4 Textbook tasks analysis data ................................................................... 164
5.5 Summary .................................................................................................. 168
Chapter 6: RESEARCH DATA DISCUSSION................................................. 171
6.1 RQ1: What are Chinese students‟ perceptions of pragmatics in their
English learning? ..................................................................................... 171
6.1.1 Students‟ perceptions of English language learning ...................... 171
6.1.2 Importance of pragmatics in College English learning .................. 174
6.1.3 Students‟ perceptions of learning and teaching pragmatics ........... 177
textbooks ........................................................................................ 183
6.2 RQ2: To what extent do College English students focus on their
pragmatic knowledge in their English learning? What are their levels
of pragmatic competence? ....................................................................... 185
6.2.1 Students‟ focus of pragmatic knowledge in English language
learning ........................................................................................... 186
6.2.2 College English students‟ levels of pragmatic competence ........... 188
6.2.2.1 Questionnaire data ................................................................... 188
6.2.2.2 Discourse Completion Tasks data ........................................... 193
6.3 RQ3: How do College English students apply their language learning
strategies in the learning of English and pragmatics? ............................. 225
6.3.1 Students‟ perceptions of language learning strategies ................... 225
6.3.2 Students‟ practice of language learning strategies ......................... 232
6.4 Summary .................................................................................................. 238
Chapter 7: CONCLUSION ................................................................................. 239
7.1 Current Chinese College English learning and teaching ......................... 239
7.2 Conclusions of the study.......................................................................... 241
7.2.1 Language competence .................................................................... 241
7.2.2 Language and culture ..................................................................... 242
7.2.3 Language learning and teaching ..................................................... 243
vi
7.2.4 Language learning tasks ................................................................. 245
7.3 Model of learning pragmatics .................................................................. 247
7.3.1 Learning content............................................................................. 249
7.3.1.1 Pragmatic knowledge .............................................................. 249
7.3.1.2 Knowledge of intercultural communication ........................... 249
7.3.1.3 Knowledge of English as a lingua franca................................ 249
7.3.1.4 Knowledge of language learning strategies ............................ 250
7.3.2 Learning process ............................................................................ 251
7.3.2.1 Task-based approach ............................................................... 251
7.3.2.2 Intercultural communicative approach.................................... 252
7.3.2.3 Language learning strategies approach ................................... 252
7.4 Implications of the study ......................................................................... 255
7.4.1 Implications for College English learning ..................................... 255
7.4.2 Implications for College English teaching ..................................... 256
7.4.3 Implications for College English course design ............................ 257
7.4.4 Implications for the development of College English learning
and teaching materials .................................................................... 258
7.5 Limitations of the study and recommendations for further research ....... 260
7.5.1 Limitations of the study ................................................................. 260
7.5.2 Recommendations for further research .......................................... 260
References .......................................................................................................... 263
Appendix A: Questionnaire ................................................................................... 289
Appendix B: Discourse Completion Tasks (DCTs) ............................................. 295
Appendix C: Interview questions ......................................................................... 299
Appendix D: Transcripts to students’ responses to open-ended questions
in the questionnaire ........................................................................ 301
vii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 Summary of past studies of pragmatic awareness in ESL/EFL

learning and teaching .......................................................................... 30
Table 2.2 Summary of past studies of instruction in pragmatics in
ESL/EFL learning and teaching ......................................................... 35
Table 2.3 Summary of past studies of pragmatic failure and speech acts in
ESL/EFL learning and teaching ......................................................... 41
Table 2.4 Summary of past studies of pragmatic competence in ESL/EFL
learning and teaching .......................................................................... 48
Table 2.5 Summary of past studies of language learning strategies in
ESL/EFL learning ............................................................................... 57
Table 4.1 Design of the study ........................................................................... 102
Table 4.2 Data collection timeline and place .................................................... 104
Table 5.1 Demographic data ............................................................................. 118
Table 5.2 Students‟ views on linguistic knowledge and pragmatic
knowledge ......................................................................................... 119
Table 5.3 Students‟ views on English language learning outcomes ................. 121
Table 5.4 Students‟ views on communicative language teaching and
practice.............................................................................................. 123
Table 5.5 Necessary tasks to improve students‟ communicative ability .......... 124
Table 5.6 Students‟ views on classroom learning and teaching ....................... 126
Table 5.7 Language learning strategies to improve students‟ pragmatic
competence ....................................................................................... 134
Table 5.8 Students‟ views on the practice of language learning strategies ...... 137
Table 5.9 Frequency of lexical items and basic formulaic sequences
expressing refusals ............................................................................ 142
expressing compliment responses .................................................... 146
expressing apology ........................................................................... 150
Table 5.12 Pages of tasks in New College English Integrated Course
textbooks ........................................................................................... 165
Table 5.13 Pages of task types in New College English Integrated Course
textbooks ........................................................................................... 166
Table 5.14 Pages of pragmatic tasks in New College English Integrated
Course textbooks .............................................................................. 167
Table 5.15 Pages of linguistic tasks in New College English Integrated
Course textbooks .............................................................................. 167
viii
Table 5.16 Pages of pragmatically oriented tasks in New College English
Integrated Course textbooks ............................................................. 168
Table 6.1 List of seven refusal situations ......................................................... 194
Table 6.2 Refusal 1 – made to a friend‟s invitation.......................................... 195
Table 6.3 Refusal 2 – made to the boss‟ request .............................................. 196
Table 6.4 Refusal 3 – made to a friend‟s invitation.......................................... 197
Table 6.5 Refusal 4 – made to a student‟s request ........................................... 198
Table 6.6 Refusal 5 – made to a classmate‟s request ....................................... 199
Table 6.7 Refusal 6 – made to an employee‟s request ..................................... 200
Table 6.8 Refusal 7 – made to a salesman‟s invitation .................................... 201
Table 6.9 List of seven compliment response situations .................................. 204
Table 6.10 Compliment response 1 – made to a friend‟s compliment ............... 205
Table 6.12 Compliment response 3 – made to a classmate‟s compliment ......... 207
Table 6.14 Compliment response 5 – made to a student‟ compliment............... 209
Table 6.15 Compliment response 6 – made to a teacher‟s compliment ............. 211
Table 6.16 Compliment response 7 – made to an employee‟s compliment ....... 212
Table 6.17 List of six apology situations ............................................................ 215
Table 6.18 Apology 1 – made to a friend ........................................................... 215
Table 6.19 Apology 2 – made to a student ......................................................... 217
Table 6.20 Apology 3 – made to classmates ...................................................... 218
Table 6.21 Apology 4 – made to a strange teacher ............................................ 220
Table 6.22 Apology 5 – made to a colleague ..................................................... 221
Table 6.23 Apology 6 – made to a classmate ..................................................... 222
ix
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1 Categorization of pragmatic knowledge ............................................. 23

Figure 3.1 Typology of the theories ..................................................................... 61
Figure 3.2 Bachman‟s model of language competence ....................................... 72
Figure 3.3 Points of articulation between culture and language .......................... 80
Figure 3.4 Kachrun‟s model of world Englishes ................................................. 86
Figure 3.5 Overview diagram of the strategy system .......................................... 93
Figure 4.1 Four elements of research design ..................................................... 100
Figure 4.2 Analysis of the data .......................................................................... 106
Figure 5.1 Knowledge students want to acquire most in English classroom
teaching ............................................................................................. 120
Figure 5.2 Ability students want to gain most in English learning .................... 120
Figure 5.3 Types of English students like to learn to use .................................. 122
Figure 5.4 Pragmatically oriented tasks most often used in classroom
teaching ............................................................................................. 125
Figure 5.5 Students‟ pragmatic competence - situation 1 .................................. 129
Figure 5.10 Most effective way of learning English ............................................ 136
Figure 5.11 Students‟ learning activities in the English class .............................. 137
Figure 5.12 Students‟ learning activities after class ............................................ 138
Figure 5.13 Student‟s preferable way to get information about the use of
English .............................................................................................. 139
Figure 5.14 Ways of solving difficulties in English language learning ............... 140
Figure 7.1 Tentative model of learning pragmatics ........................................... 248
Figure 7.2 Learning content ............................................................................... 251
Figure 7.3 Learning process ............................................................................... 253
Figure 7.4 Model of learning pragmatics ........................................................... 254
x
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
CLIL: Content and language integrated learning

CLT: Communicative language teaching
DCT: Discourse Completion Task
DCTs: Discourse Completion Tasks
EFL: English as foreign language
EIL: English as an international language
ELF: English as a lingua franca
ELLSI: English Language Learning Strategies Inventory
ESL: English as second language
ICT: Information and communications technology
IFID: Illocutionary force indicating device
ILP: Interlanguage pragmatics
L1: First language
L2: Second language
MAQ: Metapragmatic assessment questionnaire
MET: Multimedia Elicitation Task
SAQ: Self-assessment questionnaire
SILL: Strategy Inventory for Language Learning
SLA: Second language acquisition
SPSS: Statistical Package for Social Science
TBL: Task-based learning
TBT: Task-based teaching
TL: Target language
WDCT: Written Discourse Completion Task
WE: World English
WEs: World Englishes
xi
STATEMENT OF ORIGINAL AUTHORSHIP
The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted to meet
requirements for an award at this or any other higher education institution. To the
best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously
published or written by another person except where due reference is made.
Signature: ___________________________________
Yifeng Yuan
Date: ___________________________________
xii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This thesis would have been impossible without the support, help and suggestions of
my supervisors, friends, colleagues and family. I would like to sincerely thank the
following people who helped me to achieve this milestone.
No one has been more influential than Professor Huizhong Shen during the whole
thesis writing process. When he was my Principal Supervisor at Queensland
University of Technology (QUT), he helped me construct and theorize my thesis.
With his help and support, I successfully passed my PhD Confirmation within six
months. After he left QUT, he still devoted large amount of time to reading my thesis
and gave me invaluable suggestions and encouragement. Without his unfailing help
and support, it would have been impossible for me to complete my thesis within two
years. All my thanks to him are beyond words.
I would also like to express my deep gratitude to my three supervisors: Dr. Donna
Tangen, Professor John Lidstone and Dr. Kathy Mills. I am grateful for their
generosity in time, advice, support and encouragement. To Donna, I am grateful for
her time, effort and encouragement especially during the tense period before the final
oral. To John and Kathy, I appreciate their unfailing support and help throughout the
whole thesis writing process, particularly in my most difficult times.
Thanks also go to the academics who offered their help and support along my PhD
journey: Associate Professor Cushla Kapitzke, Associate Professor Deborah
Henderson, and Dr. Amanda Mergler. Their constructive advice and encouragement
have contributed to the betterment of this thesis.
I wish to express my heartfelt thanks to Ms. Xiaoyun Wu, who took care of my life
in a motherly way, and gave me great support and encouragement during my whole
PhD journey.
Many thanks go to my friends and colleagues: Associate Professor Yiming Zhang,

Associate Professor Weiguo Ding, Dr. Xuelai Jia, Mr. Hongquan Ge, and Ms.
Jennifer Yared. I appreciate their assistance, understanding and strength.
xiii
Special thanks to my parents for their enduring support, encouragement and
guidance.
Thanks also go to Professor Shougen Hu, Vice-Chancellor of Shanghai Second

Polytechnic University. His understanding and support, and permission for my study
leave, allowed me the time to complete this milestone.
Last but not least, I also gratefully acknowledge the financial support provided by
QUT Postgraduate Award scholarship, and the international data collection support
provided by QUT Grant-in-Aid scholarship.
xiv
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
With the rapid economic development and further implementation of the reform and
opening policy, the role of English, especially communicative competence in
English, which refers to both the knowledge of a language and the ability to use that
knowledge in social interactions (Barron, 2003; Hymes, 1972; Widdowson, 1992),
has become more and more important in the daily life of people in China. Therefore,
it is important to examine how Chinese English language learners acquire knowledge
of the appropriate use of English and how they practice their knowledge in both their
learning contexts and daily life in order to help them better develop their language
competence. In particular, Chinese English language learners need to develop
pragmatic competence, which is the ability of a second language (L2) learner or a
foreign language learner to use the target language appropriately in corresponding
social contexts (Nuredden, 2008; Savignon, 1991; Taguchi, 2009), in order to use the
language effectively and correctly within various contexts. It is argued in this thesis
that the development of both communicative competence and the sub-theme of
pragmatic competence are essential for English language learning in China.
1.1 English in the world
“Globalization may be thought of initially as the widening, deepening and speeding

up of worldwide interconnectedness in all aspects of contemporary social life” (Held,
McGrew, Goldblatt & Perraton, 1999, p.2) and it is an inevitable process. The
present world order is globally composed as much in the social and cultural realms as
it is in economics and politics (Dewey, 2007). A wider, deeper, accelerated
interconnectedness has a far-reaching influence in the area of linguistics. Like no
other language, English plays a key role internationally because of the enormous
cultural differences of speakers, the extent of its geographical diffusion and the
various domains in which it serves (Held, McGrew, Goldblatt & Perraton, 1999).
Mckay (2002) argues that English is an international language, for English is one of
the five most widely spoken mother tongues in the world today. It is estimated that
there are around 427 million native English speakers, and there are arguably about
750 million second- and foreign-language speakers of English throughout the world
1
(Crystal, 1997). It is clear that people from different countries or regions worldwide
use English to communicate and share their ideas and cultures with each other.
English has become fixed in the culture of the country where it is used.
Prodromou (1997) and Crystal (2003) estimate that up to 80% of global

communication in English takes place between non-native speakers, which is sure to
have a great impact on the English language. Kirkpatrick (2006) suggests that
English is used more to communicate between non-native speakers of English than it
is between native-English speakers, so both in a global sense and local sense, English
is an international language. It can also be called a global language because of its
role and status in the very processes of globalization (Crystal, 1997, 2003;
Gnutzmann, 1999). Indeed, „Englishization‟ is currently considered to be a specific
dimension of globalization (Čeh, 2008). In many disciplines throughout the world,
English plays an important role that cannot be replaced, for example, about 80% of
the world‟s electronically stored information is in English (British Council, 2011).
More books are published in English than in any other language, and English plays a
significant role in higher education in many countries.
Phillipson (1992) argues that English is the dominant language of the world. It is
used throughout the “international community” and its use is common in “influential
frameworks” (Čeh, 2008; House, 1999). In the United Nations, and at all significant
international meetings, English is the most important working language. Business
people use English for communication in many international trade discussions. Thus,
compared with other languages, English is regarded as a global lingua franca
(Larsen-Freeman & Freeman, 2008; Skutnabb-Kangas, 2000; Skutnabb-Kangas &
Phillipson, 1995).
In core English-speaking countries, “native-speaker” English should be considered a

dialectal variety different from “international” English (Jenkins, 2000; Seidlhofer,
2001). Thus native English speakers need to become bilingual in their own language
to communicate with other speakers of global English (Larsen-Freeman & Freeman,
2008). In peripheral English countries, where English is used as an international link
language or English was imposed in colonial times and has been effectively
transplanted (Phillipson, 1992), the language is widely used as a medium of
2
communication in domains such as government and education, though English is not
the native language. In short, there are reasons to suggest that English has a dominant
status in the linguistic area. English is a world language, because it is widely used in
the world (McArthur, 2001).
As English has played an indispensable role in global communication, it is essential

for English language users, both native and non-native, to use clear, comprehensible
and educated English that allows smooth communication and avoids
misunderstandings in social interactions. Hence, communicative competence,
especially pragmatic competence, in English as a lingua franca, can facilitate
language users to successfully achieve their communicative aims in intercultural
communication. The following section focuses on English language learning and
teaching in the Chinese context.
1.2 College English learning and teaching in China
English is regarded as the dominant language in the world as globalization comes to

be universally accepted in political and academic discourse (Bamgbose, 2001).
English has been the dominant foreign language in the curricula of educational
institutions and in foreign language learning in China for more than two decades
(Chang, 2006). It is estimated that there are 440-650 million English learners and
users in China alone, making it the largest English learning and using population in
the world (Bolton, 2003; He & Zhang, 2010; Jiang, 2002). In colleges and
universities in China, English is a compulsory course that all students are required to
complete. Students have to attend a four-semester College English course for two
years and pass all examinations that have been designed to assess linguistic
competence, such as knowledge of English grammar, syntax and lexis.
The number of English learners and English teachers in College English is rapidly
increasing as English is perceived to be a language of high social status, which
provides access to financial and employment opportunities (Qiao, 2010). Wu (2009)
indicates that there are about 55,000 College English teachers and 10 million College
English students in China. The number is not capped as there is an annual new
enrolment of 5 million students in Chinese universities and colleges.
3
Enormous government and non-government funding has been committed to the
development and delivery of the English curriculum at all levels of the education
system in recent years. Yet, students‟ learning outcomes do not always satisfy the
government‟s expectations in a society where English is increasingly used as the
lingua franca particularly for business (He, 1988; Zheng & Huang, 2010), higher
education, school settings and academic studies at home and abroad, as discussed
below.
College English is receiving considerable attention from the Ministry of Education of

China. Chinese English education experts have compiled the unified College English
Curriculum Requirements (1985, 1999, 2007) that has been approved by the Ministry
of Education. All universities are required to carry out their College English teaching
and learning as set out in the Requirements. The national College English Test (Band
Four and Band Six), which began in 1987, is prepared by the College English Test
National Committee and approved by the Ministry of Education, is carried out twice
a year in China, generally in June (summer) and January (winter), to assess the
implementation of the College English Syllabus and to promote English language
learning (Pang, Zhou & Fu, 2002). It is one of the most important English
competency tests nationwide according to the College English Test National
Committee. The number of candidates sitting the test has now reached eight million
annually.
As part of the College English Test, the Spoken English Test is designed to examine
how College English students use English appropriately in communication. Students
who have passed College English Test (writing) are allowed to sit the College
English Test (Spoken English Test). The results of the Spoken English Test provide
information about students‟ communicative competence, and pragmatic competence
in particular, which can help both students and teachers design better English
teaching programs.
The discussion of College English teaching and learning in universities and colleges
in China can be traced back to the 1980s. The first version of the College English
Curriculum Requirements was published and implemented in 1985. The main
objective of College English teaching and learning, which was outlined in the
4
Requirements, was to develop learners‟ language skills, namely the four macro skills
of reading, writing, listening and speaking, with a linguistic model emphasizing
discrete language elements. Students from first-tier universities of China were
required to pass College English Tests (Band Four) before graduation.
The second version of the College English Curriculum Requirements was published
and implemented in 1999. The main goal was to further develop learners‟ linguistic
competence. While the curriculum document mentioned the development of learners‟
communicative competence, there was little explanation as to how communicative
competence could be identified and how it could be developed.
This document introduced the requirement that students at university level needed to
pass College English Tests (Band Four) before they were able to graduate from the
university. Cai (2007) pointed out that the first and second versions of the documents
focused on the development of linguistic competence and neglected the learners‟ role
in the process of College English teaching and learning. This neglected area is the
focus of the current study. The challenges facing College English curriculum remain
and need to be dealt with in a country that is experiencing a rapid social and
economic transformation. English as an international language is indispensible in the
increasingly deep engagement of China with the rest of the world.
English is widely used in people‟s daily work and life in China (Chang, 2006). Yet
traditional “teacher-centered” and “examination-oriented” teaching methods that are
currently widely used do not develop learners‟ communicative competence in the
process of College English teaching and learning. Accordingly, large-scale teaching
reforms of College English have begun in Chinese universities and colleges since the
2000s. The Ministry of Education of China published the third version of the College
English Curriculum Requirements in draft form in 2004, and in final version in 2007.
This document stipulates:
The objective of College English is to develop students‟ ability to use English in

a well-rounded way, especially in listening and speaking, so that in their future
studies and careers as well as social interactions they will be able to
communicate effectively, and at the same time enhance their ability to study
independently and improve their general cultural awareness so as to meet the
5
needs of China‟s social development and international exchanges. (Chinese
College English Education and Supervisory Committee, 2007, p.18)
College English has become a mandatory basic course for undergraduate students. It
is argued in this thesis that the design and delivery of the curriculum need to be
informed by research, theories and best classroom practices for global language
teaching. The curriculum has as its main components knowledge and practical skills
of the English language, language learning strategies and intercultural
communication.
There is now no compulsory requirement for university students to sit and pass the
College English Tests (Band Four) before graduation. The document indicates that it
is not practical to apply the same test to assess College English teaching and learning
because there are great differences among universities across China. Students are
only required to pass College English course examinations designed by each
university before graduation. However, all university students choose to sit the
College English Test (Band Four) as the Test has a high recognition in China and is a
great help for their job hunting.
Independent-learning and self-assessment models have been developed and proposed

by the College English Curriculum Requirements (2007), which are closely related to
language learning strategies that have been investigated in this study. Teachers play
the role of organizers and facilitators in the whole process of teaching and learning.
Student-centered classrooms, it is argued in this thesis, are required to be set up as
the teaching and learning aim of College English is to develop students‟
communicative competence in using English.
As a component of non-native English speakers‟ communicative competence

(Savignon, 1991), pragmatic competence is an important ingredient of language
proficiency (Bachman, 1990; Bachman & Palmer, 1996, 2010; Canale, 1983; Canale
& Swain, 1980). Pragmatic knowledge allows people to be able to understand “how
utterances or sentences and texts are related to the communicative goals of the
language user and to the features of the language use setting” (Bachman & Palmer,
1996, p.68; 2010). Pragmatic competence is essential if users of a global language
6
are to achieve successful communication in the target language. It is proposed in this
research that the lack of pragmatic competence prevents Chinese College English
students from developing communicative competence.
Many College English students do well in their written tests but fail to communicate
effectively with others in spoken English, even in a very simple conversation. After
ten years of compulsory English language study, students can successfully pass the
College English Tests (Band Four or Band Six), but they cannot apply appropriate
spoken English in situ. These „mute‟ and „deaf‟ (Zhang, 2008; Zhao, 2009) language
learners, have developed a large repertoire of lexical and grammatical knowledge,
but are often unable to apply that knowledge in real communication, because they
have limited pragmatic knowledge, let alone pragmatic competence. The
development of the ability to use English appropriately in a given communicative
situation is essential if language learners are to achieve communicative competence.
Therefore, informed by second language acquisition (SLA) theory and research

(Ellis, 1985, 1994; Larsen-Freeman & Long, 1991), which have contributed to the
understanding of the language learning, theories of pragmatics (Levinson, 1983;
Mey, 2001; Roever, 2010; Yule, 1996), intercultural communication (Kramsch,
1993, 1998; Lustig & Koesters, 2003; Samovar & Porter, 1997; Samovar, Porter &
McDaniel, 2009) and English as a lingua franca (ELF) (Canagarajah, 2006a, 2006b;
Firth, 1996; House, 2003, 2010; Karsten, 1993; Kirkpatrick, 2007; Pennycook, 2010)
explore how students learn pragmatics in the English language learning process in
China. The theory of pragmatics is used to explore students‟ abilities in using
English, while the theory of intercultural communication is employed to examine the
cultural differences in social interactions, and the theory of ELF is used to suggest
what kind of English university students need to learn. These three theories will be
explored in more depth in Chapter 3.
1.3 This empirical study
This study explored Chinese College English students‟ perceptions of pragmatics,

their pragmatic competence and the language learning strategies they use in learning
English as a foreign language (EFL) in general and pragmatics in particular. The
7
research was carried out in the context of the development and implementation of
China‟s national curriculum document, the College English Curriculum
Requirements (2007). The Requirements have set out new objectives for College
English learning and teaching moving beyond a linguistic model to focus on
communicative competence.
As a sub-theme of communicative competence, pragmatic competence has been

poorly taught in English learning and teaching in China for a long period of time.
Previous studies (Du, 2004; Hou, 2007; Ruan, 2007; Xu, 2003) indicated that
College English learners‟ pragmatic competence, particularly their pragmatic
knowledge – the knowledge that facilitates people‟s ability to interpret discourse by
relating utterances to their meanings, the intentions of language users and the
language use settings (Bachman & Palmer, 1996) – was very poor.
Moreover, some learners did not know what pragmatic competence was (Ji, 2008;
Liu, 2004; Men & Liu, 2000; Zhang, 2002). Research on pragmatics has indicated
that pragmatic competence plays a key role in developing communicative
competence (Bachman, 1990; Canale, 1983; Chavarría & Bonany, 2006), as the
proper application of the language in corresponding contexts makes the
communication continue smoothly.
This research on College English students‟ perceptions of pragmatics, their levels of

pragmatic competence and their language learning strategies provides insights into
College English learning processes as well as empirical evidence for developing a
model for learning pragmatics in the Chinese context. Pragmatic knowledge is an
integral part of communicative competence, yet it is an area that is currently under-
researched in China (Du, 2004; Ji, 2008; Wang, 2004).
Studies of Chinese English learners‟ pragmatic failures (Wang, 2005; Zheng &
Huang, 2010) have explored the relationship between learners‟ English proficiency
and their pragmatic failures, which has referred to the inability to interpret intended
meaning because of regional, ethnic and cultural differences that have caused the
breakdown of communication (LoCastro, 2003; Thomas, 1983). There is a need to
strengthen the teaching of pragmatic knowledge, specifically to raise learners‟ cross-
8
cultural pragmatic awareness – the ability to infer an interlocutor‟s intended meaning
correctly (Bardovi-Harlig & Dörnyei, 1998; Schauer, 2009), and pragmatic
competence. Pragmatic awareness could help improve pragmatic competence and
ensure that fewer instances of pragmatic failures arise.
Previous investigations of pragmatic competence in College English teaching (Du,

2004; Hou, 2007; Ruan, 2007; Wang, 2004; Wang, 2005; Xu, 2003) examined the
relationship between College English learners‟ linguistic competence and pragmatic
competence and offered strategies for college English teaching. These strategies
included input on pragmatic knowledge in authentic contexts and appropriate
handling of learners‟ gender differences and personality differences.
While these studies highlighted the importance of pragmatic competence and offered
alternative approaches to teaching pragmatic knowledge, they tended to focus on the
teaching of pragmatics, rather than on the learning of pragmatics and language
learning strategies. Indeed, there have been few studies that specifically examined
the learning of English pragmatics in China (Chen & Yang, 2010; Zhang & Huang
2010). It is this gap that this study fills. There is a focus on different aspects of
pragmatics and on language learning strategies that College English students employ
in the process of learning the target language, and particularly pragmatics in the
Chinese context.
1.4 Research questions and aims of the study
Central to this study is the importance of the development of College English

students‟ pragmatic competence. Adequate pragmatic knowledge and competence
facilitate students to achieve communicative competence in language learning.
Specifically, this research focuses on learners‟ perceptions of pragmatics, levels of
pragmatic competence in certain speech acts (refusals, compliment responses and
apologies), as well as language learning strategies used in learning English in general
and pragmatics in particular. Three research questions designed for this study are as
follows:
9
RQ1: What are Chinese College English students‟ perceptions of pragmatics in their
English learning?
One aim of this study was to examine College English students‟ perceptions of
pragmatics. For example, students were asked what English, such as Chinese
English, American English or British English, they would like to learn to use most in
the questionnaire. This question was designed to explore students‟ perceptions of the
practical use of English. College English students in China have limited
opportunities for exposure to authentic English learning environments and English
language input. They have become accustomed to a traditional “grammar translation”
and “vocabulary translation” teaching methodology. In a teacher-centered classroom,
students are not provided with much in the way of pragmatic knowledge. Previous
studies (Liu, 2004; Zhang, 2002) showed that students at university level had little
knowledge of pragmatics, and even less capability in applying their pragmatic
knowledge in actual communication. Thus, they had difficulty in understanding and
communicating in the target language. Understanding students‟ perceptions of
pragmatics assists both students and teachers to adjust their learning and teaching
focuses.
RQ2: To what extent do College English students focus on their pragmatic

knowledge in their English learning? What are their levels of pragmatic competence?
A second aim of the study was to examine the levels of College English students‟
pragmatic competence in selected speech act situations (declining an offer, offering
compliment responses, and making an apology). The process of SLA is complex as it
is the process of overcoming the impact of the students‟ first language (L1) (Ellis,
1994). Knowledge and understanding of the process of learning and of linguistic and
pragmatic competence would provide empirical evidence to inform classroom
pedagogy. Students, teachers, textbooks, teaching pedagogy and learning strategies
are all important factors to be considered in a successful learning process. Highly
motivated students with effective language learning strategies in student-centered
classrooms are more likely to achieve optimal learning outcomes. Having a clear
picture of students‟ levels of pragmatic competence, as well as being able to identify
the strategies they use in language learning, is important as it can help recognize
10
students‟ English language in development and provide support for further
development in their learning of the target language.
RQ3: How do College English students apply their language learning strategies in
the learning of English and pragmatics?
A third aim of the research was to understand how College English students applied
language learning strategies in learning English, particularly in learning pragmatics.
As suggested by SLA theory and research, language learning strategies can help
language learners learn a language more effectively and become more proficient
language practitioners (Kaplan, 2002; Oxford, 1990). There has been no study in
China that particularly examines language learning strategies applied in learning
College English in general, and pragmatics in particular. Strategies are important for
language learning as they are tools for active and self-directed involvement that is
crucial for the development of communicative competence (Oxford, 1990), which is
in line with the requirements suggested by the College English Curriculum
Requirements (2007). Understanding language learning strategies allows both
students and teachers to have a clearer picture of problem areas, and provides
information that allows them to apply more useful strategies in learning pragmatics
of the target language.
1.5 Significance of the study
The College English Curriculum Requirements (2007) stipulates that attainment of

communicative competence should be the goal of College English learning and
teaching in China. Current College English teaching and learning still follows the
traditional “grammar translation” and “vocabulary translation” model. There is a
widespread perception that learning outcomes are by no means in proportion to the
amount of money and energy that have been invested in College English curriculum
reforms.
In the language learning process, little attention is given to the study of pragmatics
(Bardovi-Harlig, 2001; Kasper & Rose, 2002). Questions concerning the
development of pragmatic competence are seldom considered in College English
11
learning and teaching processes, and empirical research. In particular, research on
how students acquire pragmatic knowledge and their language learning strategies is
very limited: most studies focus on teaching and neglect the application of language
learning strategies in learning English and pragmatics. It is for these reasons that this
research examines Chinese College English students‟ perceptions of pragmatics,
their pragmatic competence, as well as language learning strategies in learning
English in general and pragmatics in particular. Understanding how students learn
can help to inform curriculum and textbook writers to better meet the learning needs
of students.
The findings of this study fill the gap between research on teaching and learning, and
provide valuable data for the development of pragmatic knowledge in College
English learning. Three strands of theory are used to conceptualize findings
generated by the different research instruments of the study. These three strands of
inquiry also inform the development of a new model of learning pragmatics
developed by the research. This new model of learning pragmatics is proposed to
enable College English students to learn pragmatics more efficiently. The tentative
model of learning pragmatics incorporates a range of different theories, for example,
the theory of pragmatics which suggests the importance of the appropriate use of the
language in communication (Levinson, 1983; Mey, 2001), intercultural
communication that indicates the significance of understanding different cultures in
communication (Samovar & Porter, 1997), and ELF which proposes the trend of
learning various Englishes for English language learners, especially for English as a
second language (ESL) or EFL learners (Canagarajah, 2006a, 2006b; Kirkpatrick,
2007).
1.6 Overall structure of the thesis
The thesis consists of seven chapters.
Chapter 1 introduces the background of the research, highlights the aims and
significance of the study, and states the research questions that have guided this
study.
12
Chapter 2 presents the research on pragmatics and language learning strategies. An
introduction to pragmatics as well as definitions of pragmatics is discussed, and
features of pragmatics (LoCastro, 2003; Mey, 2001; Thomas, 1995; Wierzbicka,
2010) are presented. Past studies discussed in this chapter are related to the learning
and teaching of pragmatics and language learning strategies in the ESL/EFL context.
The issues and arguments that arise from previous studies provide empirical evidence
to highlight the significance as well as a theoretical base for this study.
Chapter 3 highlights three strands of theories informed by SLA theory and research:
pragmatics, intercultural communication and ELF. SLA theory provides a broad
framework for a detailed analysis of language learning strategies and language
teaching and learning process. The theory of pragmatics, together with theories of
intercultural communication and ELF, forms a typology for theorizing a new model
of learning pragmatics.
Chapter 4 describes in detail the four instruments used in this thesis: a questionnaire,
Discourse Completion Tasks (DCTs), semi-structured focus group interviews, and a
textbook tasks analysis. A detailed description and explanation of the design of the
study, procedures of data collection and data analysis are presented.
Chapter 5 reports and categorizes both the collected qualitative and the quantitative
data according to different themes. The data are reported and interpreted in the form
of tables, figures and texts.
Chapter 6 discusses the findings with reference to the theories presented in Chapter 3
and to the research and scholarship of past studies critically reviewed in Chapter 2.
The discussion centers on the development of pragmatic competence as well as
communicative competence that can help College English students achieve optimal
learning outcomes in an EFL context.
Chapter 7 presents conclusions of the study, linking the findings with the empirical
literature. It also discusses implications for College English learning and teaching in
China. A detailed, tentative model of learning pragmatics in the Chinese context is
proposed. Suggestions for further research in SLA and pragmatics are presented.
13
14
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
There has been an ever-growing focus on language learners‟ development of

pragmatics (Levinson, 1983; LoCastro, 2003; Mey, 2001; Trosborg, 2010; Yule,
1996) and language learning strategies (Bremner, 1998; Green & Oxford, 1995;
Oxford, 1990) in the language learning process in the past several decades. A
growing body of literature derived from research on pragmatics and language
learning strategies in different contexts as well as a large number of studies and
publications (Bardovi-Harlig & Dörnyei, 1998; Bataineh & Bataineh, 2006; Chen,
2009; Cummings, 2005; Griffiths, 2003; Ji, 2008; Tang & Zhang, 2009; Yan, Chye,
Lin & Ying, 2010; Zheng & Huang, 2010) has been produced. The following chapter
provides a critical overview of research on pragmatics in general, and research on
pragmatics in ESL/EFL learning and teaching in particular. The overview also
includes discussion of past studies on learners‟ language learning strategies in
learning English and pragmatics.
2.1 Pragmatics
2.1.1 Introduction to pragmatics
Communication in society occurs mainly through the medium of language. However,

the users of language communicate and use language on society‟s premises, and
society controls their access to the linguistic and communicative means (Mey, 2001).
Pragmatics is concerned with the study of meaning in communication as expressed
by a speaker or writer and interpreted by a listener or reader (Yule, 1996). It focuses
on the analysis of what people mean by their utterances rather than the verbatim
meanings of words or phrases people use in their utterances.
Although pragmatics is a comparatively new branch of linguistics, reference to

pragmatics can be traced back to ancient Greece and Rome. The term „pragmaticus‟
is found in Latin and „pragmaticos‟ in Greek, and both terms mean „being practical‟
(Liu, 2005). Pragmatics theory originated as a philosophical theory (Morris, 1938;
Strawson, 1964; Trosborg, 1995; Wittgenstein, 1953) but, in contrast with syntax and
15
semantics, it does not have a long history. The following example shows the
importance of learning pragmatics in the study of language:
Two women are discussing their children:
A: How is Tom going at school?
B: Ah, well … you know what they say: boys will be boys.
A: Yeah, but girls are no easier … you know what Jess did the other day? …
(Wierzbicka, 1991, p.391)
Speaker B does not exactly state how Tom behaves at school, but the meaning is
understood by Speaker A. However, it is difficult for second or foreign language
learners to understand the implied meaning of her remark “boys will be boys”, which
literally is a meaningless statement. For English speakers, though, there is enough
information for Speaker A to continue the conversation. In this example, Speaker B
conveyed more than the literal meaning of her words, which is the essence of
pragmatics. Thus, pragmatics is needed for language users because they must
understand the meaning conveyed by the words rather than the meaning of each
individual word. In understanding the pragmatics, language users share certain rules
and conventions which enable them to understand each other in many instances
where the meaning and the intent of utterances are not clearly stated (Pohl, 2004;
Yule, 1996). Pragmatics suggests what cannot be found in traditional linguistics and
pragmatic methods assist people in understanding how to use language to better their
communicative competence (Ji, 2008).
2.1.2 Definitions of pragmatics
The term “pragmatics” is defined in different ways from different perspectives.

Pragmatics research, in applied linguistics, mostly focuses on the relationship
between language use and the social and interpersonal context of interaction (Roever,
2010). Morris (1938) first introduced the modern usage of pragmatics. He used the
term pragmatics in a very broad sense to refer to “the study of the relation of signs to
interpreters”, while he defined syntax as “the formal relation of signs to one another”
and semantics as “the relation of signs to the objects to which the signs are
applicable” (Morris, 1938, p.6).
16
Morris expanded the scope of pragmatics in accordance with his particular
behavioristic theory of semiotics (Black, 1947; Levinson, 1983): “It is a sufficiently
accurate characterization of pragmatics to say that it deals with the biotic aspects of
semiosis, that is, with all the psychological, biological, and sociological phenomena
which occur in the functioning of signs” (Morris, 1938, p.108).
This broad interpretation of pragmatics, covering much more than linguistic

pragmatics, suggests that it is the study of understanding intentional human action
(Yule, 1996). However, Morris‟s definition is on the basis of a semiotic view of
pragmatics, and successive definitions of linguistic pragmatics use different terms
and are in more detail (Schauer, 2009).
For example, a modern treatment of meaning has been distinguished by two kinds of
meaning, natural and non-natural, and by detailing the sense of pragmatism in
people‟s conversational meanings (Grice, 1975). According to Grice (1975),
pragmatics needs to concentrate on the more practical aspect of utterance-meaning.
Therefore, pragmatics is the study of language usage (Levinson, 1983).
Another argument is that “Pragmatics is one of those words (e.g., societal and
cognitive) that give the impression that something specific and technical is being
talked about when often in fact it has no clear meaning” (Searle, Kiefer & Bierwisch,
1980, p.viii). Pragmatics also explores how listeners can make sense of the speaker‟s
intended meaning by recognizing what is left unsaid by a speaker. Another definition
of pragmatics proposed by Levinson (1983) states: “Pragmatics is the study of those
relations between language and context that are grammaticalized, or encoded in the
structure of a language” (p.9).
This definition restricts pragmatics to the study of linguistic structures, that is, the
study of the relationship between language and context only. It is relating to the
grammatically relevant usage of the language and is in stark contrast to Katz and
Fodor‟s (1963) definition. They developed a theory of pragmatics essentially
concerned with the disambiguation of sentences by the contexts in which they are
uttered. In this viewpoint, contexts do more than only select between semantic
readings of sentences because contexts are culturally and linguistically relevant to the
17
interpretation and production of utterances and they are basic to an account of
language understanding (Levinson, 1983).
Trosborg (1995) suggested that pragmatics can be defined as a branch of semiotics

dealing with the relation between signs of linguistic expressions and those who use
them; it is a branch of linguistics dealing with the contexts in which people use
language and the behavior of the speakers and listeners. Pragmatics is not only used
in analyzing linguistic words in people‟s communication but also applied in
interpreting what people mean in a particular context and how the context influences
what is said. It examines how speakers organize what they want to say in accordance
with who they are talking to, when, where, and under what circumstances (Yule,
1996).
Crystal (1997) proposed pragmatics as “the study of language from the point of view
of users, especially of the choices they make, the constraints they encounter in using
language in social interaction and the effects their use of language has on their
participants in the act of communication” (p.301). It affects people‟s selection of
sounds, grammatical construction, and vocabulary from the resources of the language
in social interactions, and influences the effects of people‟s choice on others (Crystal,
1985). Therefore, pragmatics can be defined as the study of communicative action in
its sociocultural context (Rose & Kasper, 2001).
The above definitions bring one to the heart of the definitional problem of
pragmatics: pragmatics covers both context-dependent aspects of language structures
and principles of language usage and understanding, and has nothing or little to do
with linguistic structure (Levinson, 1983). In other words, the study of pragmatics
concentrates on the relationship between language use and the context in which it is
used, that is, how features of the outside, real-world context are reflected in the
language used (Roever, 2010).
Pütz and Neff-Aertselaer (2008) argued that “pragmatics as a usage-based

perspective on the language sciences such as linguistics, the philosophy of language
and sociology of language essentially focuses on the exploration of language use and
the users of language in real-life situations and, more generally, on the principles
18
which govern language in everyday interaction” (p.ix). Thus, pragmatics studies the
language used in social interactions to realize interactive contexts (Pütz & Neff-
Aertselaer, 2008).
Drawing from the definitions reviewed above, this study applies a working definition
of pragmatics which is “the ability of language users to match utterances with
contexts in which they are appropriate” (Bardovi-Harlig & Mahan-Taylor, 2003,
p.37). Central to this definition is the emphasis on language users, the
communicative context, situated meaning and the relation between the speaker and
the listener. These features are discussed in the following sections.
2.1.3 Features of pragmatics
Pragmatics, as explored in the study, is characterized by the following key elements:

(a) language users; (b) context; (c) meaning, and (d) social interaction in exploring
Chinese College English language learners‟ pragmatic competence. Each of these
features is discussed in detail in the following section.
2.1.3.1 Language users
Second language users or foreign language learners can be understood as individuals

who can freely access the resources available in the target language to make meaning
in situ (Armour, 2004). They are not only required to acquire a new set of
grammatical, lexical, and phonological forms of the target language, but also need to
socially participate in the symbologically mediated lifeworld of another culture
(Pavlenko & Lantolf, 2000).
Pragmatics, then, concentrates on language-using humans (Mey, 2001). The proper

domain of pragmatics would be what Chomsky (1965) has called performance,
focusing upon the way people go about using the language in interactions (Cook,
2000). Language users need to properly apply the language knowledge they have
learned within different contexts, and this usage might fall outside of the traditional
purview of institutional correctness-oriented language instruction (Belz, 2002). That
is to say, what language learners learn in class may be different to the language use
they encounter outside the class. Pragmatics focuses on the language producing
19
process and its producers with a focus on more authentic language use. This
distinction is important for this study as the research focuses on the language learners
and the process of learning pragmatics and English in an EFL context.
2.1.3.2 Context
Context is a difficult concept to describe, but it is important in distinguishing

ambiguities in both the spoken and written language. Bilmes (1986) indicated that
context is the total social setting in which the speech event takes place: “the meaning
of an utterance is determined in large part by how it responds and how it is
responded to, by its place in an interactional sequence” (p.127). It is “a dynamic, not
a static concept: it is to be understood as the continually changing surroundings, in
the widest sense, that enable the participants in the communication process to
interact, and in which the linguistic expressions of their interaction become
intelligible” (Mey, 2001, p.39).
Context has a powerful impact on how referring expressions are to be interpreted

(Yule, 1996). Understanding the language in communication requires the ability to
interpret meaning in context (Leinonen, Ryder, Ellis & Hammond, 2003). Contextual
information contains all the information that is utilized when interpreting an
expression in a certain situation, and pragmatic comprehension is regarded as an
ability to use context in understanding language (Loukusa, Leinonen, Kuusikko,
Jussila, Mattila, Ryder, Ebeling & Moilanen, 2007). Efficiently manipulating
contextual information, especially in sophisticated contexts, can help language users
competently deal with the communication.
Thus, context can provide language users with true pragmatic meanings, permit true
pragmatic acts, and allow the use of linguistic resources to understand language as it
is used (Mey, 2001). In College English learning in China, there are two broad
contexts: the context of language and the context of learning that need to be focused
so as to get the meaning of utterances in social interactions. Without understanding
the importance of context for interpreting meaning, there is a danger that the focus on
language learners‟ pragmatic competence might be set aside for a focus instead on
20
linguistic development. Both are important but without pragmatic competence,
language learners cannot become fully competent in communication.
2.1.3.3 Meaning
Marinoff (1999) has suggested that “meaning has to do with how you understand
your life on an ongoing basis” (p.210). It is suggested that meaning is about those
interpretations, narrative frameworks, philosophical rationales and perspectives, and
faith or belief systems that every one of us brings to the various worlds where we
live, work, learn, love and worship (Nash & Murray, 2010).
In the words of Yalom (1980), meaning is an “anxiety emollient”. Parks (2000) has
argued that meaning involves the “search for a sense of connection, pattern, order,
and significance…it is a way to understand our experience that makes sense of both
the expected and unexpected…” (p.14); it helps us to make sense of our world (Nash
& Murray, 2010). Meaning is neither only inherent in words nor produced by the
speaker or the listener alone. Meaning-making is a process, which involves the
negotiation of meaning between the speaker and the listener, the potential meaning of
an utterance and the context of utterance (Thomas, 1995).
In the field of pragmatics, meaning is a key problem. Levinson (1983) has indicated
that pragmatics is concerned with the study of utterance-meaning while semantics
researches the study of sentence-meaning. Pragmatics can also be defined as the
study of particular kinds of meaning, such as “speaker meaning”, “contextual
meaning” (Yule, 1996, p.3), “meaning in use”, and “meaning in context” (Thomas,
1995, p.1). Meaning in pragmatics is related to the understanding of utterances
within a particular context a speaker or user of the language has (Leech, 1983).
2.1.3.4 Social interaction
Understanding social interaction is important for the development of social

competence (Semrud-Clikeman, Walkowiak, Wilkinson & Minne, 2010). Vygotsky
(1978) argued that language and knowledge develop simultaneously through social
interactions. Language is considered social in nature (Vygotsky, 1978; Wedin, 2010).
21
Social interactions are particular forms of externalities, where the actions of a
reference group influence an individual‟s preferences (Scheinkman, 2008). In human
interactions, language is regarded as a tool that can express people‟s personality,
thoughts, intentions, desires, and feelings (Wierzbicka, 2003, 2010).
On the one hand, any language, including English, represents a universe of meaning,
which is shaped by the history and human‟s experience. On the other hand, in any
language certain culture-specific words act as keys for whole networks of meanings,
and understanding the meanings of those key words provides us with the ability to
access and understand a complete cultural universe (Wierzbicka, 2010).
Pragmatically speaking, social interactions can refer to either spoken communication

involving at least two people or all kinds of written and mixed forms of
communication (Kasper & Rose, 2002). Thus, it is essential for English language
teachers and learners to be fully aware of different kinds of social interactions that
can assist them to become socially competent in communication and to know how to
utilize this knowledge effectively (Wierzbicka, 2010).
2.1.4 Categorization of pragmatic knowledge
Bachman and Palmer (1996, 2010) indicated that “pragmatic knowledge enables us
to create or interpret discourse by relating utterances or sentences and texts to their
meanings, to the intentions of language users, and to relevant characteristics of the
language use setting” (1996, p.69; 2010, p.46). Pragmatic knowledge can be
categorized as functional knowledge and sociolinguistic knowledge. Functional
knowledge enables people to interpret relationships between utterances or sentences
and texts and language users‟ intentions, and it includes knowledge of four categories
of language function: ideational, manipulative, instrumental, and imaginative.
Sociolinguistic knowledge enables people to create or interpret language that is
suitable in a particular setting (Bachman & Palmer, 1996, 2010).
Guided by Bachman and Palmer‟s notion of pragmatic knowledge, Ji (2008)

categorized pragmatic knowledge into general pragmatic information, metalanguage
information, metapragmatic information, speech acts, cultural knowledge,
22
pragmatically oriented tasks, and knowledge on how to learn pragmatic knowledge
(see Figure 2.1).
General pragmatic information
Metalanguage information
Metapragmatic information
Pragmatic
Speech acts
Knowledge
Cultural knowledge
Pragmatically oriented tasks
Knowledge on how to learn pragmatic knowledge
(Source: Ji, 2008, p.86)
Figure 2.1 Categorization of pragmatic knowledge
“General pragmatic information” conveys different topics relevant to the usage of

pragmatics. “Metalanguage information” refers to a language that can be used to
describe languages (Richards, Schmidt, Platt & Schmidt, 2002). “Metapragmatic
information” describes language that characterizes or describes the pragmatic
function of some speech acts (Silverstein, 2001). “Speech acts” focuses on the
detailed and metapragmatic descriptions of speech acts (Ji, 2008). “Cultural
knowledge” refers to the target language culture, which contains high culture,
popular culture, and deep culture (Hall, 1976). Each of these elements is a piece of
the puzzle that constitutes pragmatics and must be included for an overall
understanding of the importance of developing pragmatic competence in language
learning. It is argued in this thesis that pragmatically oriented tasks assist language
learners to develop their pragmatic competence in the learning process. Having
knowledge on how to learn pragmatic knowledge enables language learners to
develop the perceptions of learning pragmatics and how to apply this knowledge in
their language learning. The elements of pragmatic knowledge listed above are at the
heart of this study.
23
2.2 Research on pragmatics in ESL/EFL learning and teaching
Pragmatics is a relatively new branch of linguistics that provides a new way of

looking at things „linguistic‟. Verschueren (1999) characterized pragmatics as “a
general cognitive, social, and cultural perspective on linguistic phenomena in relation
to their usage in forms of behavior” (p.7). Pragmatics, as a branch of linguistics,
offers a different perspective, which constitutes “a radical departure from the
established component view which tries to assign to pragmatics its own set of
linguistic features in contradistinction with phonology, morphology, syntax and
semantics” (Verschueren, 1987, p.36).
Of particular interest to this study is the idea of performatives as an element of

pragmatics. „Performative‟ implies that “by each utterance a speaker not only says
something but also does certain things: giving information, stating a fact or hinting
an attitude” (Byram, 2000, p.477). The study of performatives has led to the
hypothesis of speech act theory that holds that a speech event embodies three acts: a
locutionary act, an illocutionary act and a perlocutionary act (Austin, 1962; Searle,
1969). Exploration of speech events are considered in the current research in relation
to College English students‟ pragmatic knowledge and competence.
Research into pragmatic competence of adult second/foreign language learners

(Bardovi-Harlig & Dörnyei, 1997) has indicated that grammatical development does
not assure an equivalent level of pragmatic development, and even advanced learners
may fail to comprehend or convey their intended intentions and values (Eslami-
Rasekh, 2005). For example, a language learner may successfully pass an exam but,
at the same time, not be able to use the same language appropriately in real world
communication. Blum-Kulka, House, and Kasper (1989) found that fairly advanced
second or foreign language learners‟ communicative acts frequently had pragmatic
errors and suggested that there was a need for L2 instruction to include a
concentration on the pragmatics of the language (Bardovi-Harlig & Hartford, 1997).
Pragmatic competence has been recognized as one of the critical components that
help language learners become communicatively competent (Bachman, 1990). Thus,
one of the aims of classroom instruction is to raise learners‟ pragmatic awareness
(Bardovi-Harlig & Hartford, 1997).
24
Language learners‟ perceptions of pragmatics are regarded as a broad concept, but an
important one. To narrow the focus, this study concentrated on language learners‟
pragmatic awareness in relation to their perceptions of learning pragmatics.
Language learners‟ pragmatic awareness impacts their acquisition of pragmatic
knowledge and levels of pragmatic competence. Meanwhile, instruction in
pragmatics helps language learners improve their perceptions of pragmatics that
influence their achievement of pragmatic competence.
There are a number of activities which are useful for pragmatic development and can
be divided into two major types: activities to raise students‟ pragmatic awareness,
and activities providing chances for communicative practice (Bardovi-Harlig &
Hartford, 1997). Awareness-raising activities are those that have been designed to
develop recognition of how language forms are used correctly in context (Eslami-
Rasekh, 2005), For example, Schmidt (1993) suggests a consciousness-raising
approach that includes paying conscious attention to related forms, their
pragmalinguistic functions and the sociopragmatic constraints these particular forms
involve. Activities that provide chances for communicative practice may include
group work, in-class discussions and social interactions outside the class.
In pragmatics, awareness of what someone says to their interlocutor is a matter of

noticing. What affects understanding is related to the recognition of the social
conventions of language within the elements of the context (Schmidt, 1995). In
general, studies on pragmatic awareness in ESL/EFL learning have been conducted
in relation to the following questions:
(a) Does instruction make a difference in learners‟ pragmatic awareness and
production?
(b) Does learners‟ pragmatic awareness of suggestions improve after instruction?
(c) Does the environment influence learners‟ awareness of pragmatics?
(d) Does the learners‟ level of proficiency influence their degree of awareness of
pragmatics (Alcón-Soler, 2005; Bardovi-Harlig & Dörnyei, 1998; Martínez-
Flor & Alcón-Soler, 2007; Niezgoda & Röver, 2001)?
Pragmatic competence is an important component of communicative competence

(Zheng & Huang, 2010). Knowledge and understanding of pragmatics and the
25
culture of the target language can help learners improve their communicative
competence. General studies of pragmatic competence in ESL/EFL learning often
focus on learners‟ pragmatic failures and their speech acts in cross-culture
communication, specifically considering the following questions:
(a) To what extent would the different aspects of speech act, expressions, amount,
formality, directness, or politeness be rated differently?
(b) To what extent would the different speech acts differ?
(c) Do students with sufficient linguistic knowledge make mistakes in cross-
cultural communication?
(d) Does the degree of input enhancement influence the learning of target
request/compliment/apology strategies (Hudson, 2001; Takahashi, 2001; Zheng
& Huang, 2010)?
The following sections provide a critical overview of past studies of pragmatics in

ESL/EFL learning in response to the above questions and indicate the relationship
and necessity of conducting this study.
2.2.1 Learners’ pragmatic awareness
As pragmatic competence has been recognized as one of the essential components of

communicative competence (Bachman, 1990), raising learners‟ pragmatic awareness
is supported with the acquisition of information about pragmatic aspects of language
(Eslami-Rasekh, 2005). A number of studies have been carried out on learners‟
pragmatic awareness (Alcón-Soler, 2005; Bardovi-Harlig & Dörnyei, 1998; Bardovi-
Harlig & Griffin, 2005; Martínez-Flor & Alcón-Soler, 2007; Niezgoda & Röver,
2001; Schauer, 2006).
Bardovi-Harlig and Dörnyei (1998) conducted a study to examine the extent to

which instructed L2 learners of English were aware of differences in learners‟ and
target-language production in pragmatics and grammar. A videotape with 20
scenarios was used to test 370 Hungarian EFL learners, 173 American ESL learners,
as well as 25 Hungarian English teachers and 28 American English teachers. In
addition, 112 Italian EFL speakers, who were primary school teachers, took part in
the research. The only instrument used for data collection was a questionnaire, which
relied on self-reporting.
26
Results from the study concluded that EFL learners and their teachers identified and
ranked grammatical errors more seriously than pragmatic errors, while ESL learners
and their teachers ranked pragmatic errors more seriously than grammatical errors.
The high-proficiency learners rated the grammar errors lower than the low-
proficiency learners. Both EFL students and the teachers showed the same degree of
awareness of pragmatics and grammar as did the native English-speaking ESL
teachers and students.
The findings of the study indicated that the language learning environment played an
important role in language learners‟ pragmatic awareness. EFL and ESL learners
were different in the intensity of their contact with English in the academic setting.
That is, EFL learners learn English in a foreign setting while ESL learners learn
English within a largely native-English speaking setting. EFL and ESL learners‟
sensitivity to pragmatic and grammatical problems were revealed through their
language tests as their English levels were usually assessed by tests. Tests results
indicated that ESL learners were more sensitive to pragmatic errors than EFL
learners and this was suggested to occur because ESL learners were immersed in
authentic language contexts on a daily basis and had more opportunities to
communicate with native English speakers. There existed an imbalance in the
competencies, where grammatical competence usually exceeded pragmatic
competence.
However, language development was associated with the increase of pragmatic

awareness. Learners may not be aware of the difference between their interlanguage
pragmatics and the pragmatics of the L2. Accordingly, EFL learners‟ pragmatic
awareness could be improved by increasing the amount of pragmatic input in the
classroom teaching and learning and by putting a greater emphasis on this area of
communicative competence (Bardovi-Harlig, 1992, 1996; Bardovi-Harlig &
Dörnyei, 1998; Gilmore, 2007).
Building on the work described above, Neizgoda and Röver (2001) conducted a
replication study. The aim was to discover the degree of learners‟ pragmatic and
grammatical awareness in relation to their learning environment and their proficiency
levels. They followed Bardovi-Harlig and Dörnyei‟s (1998) research questions using
27
the same questionnaire as in the original study and they also applied a videotape to
observe language learning in the class. Unlike Bardovi-Harlig and Dörnyei‟s ESL
participants, the 48 L2 learners in this study came from a private language school in
Honolulu and represented a diverse population that included seven languages or
cultures. In addition, 124 university students studying English in the Czech Republic
were selected as EFL learners, and they represented a highly selective sample.
Unlike the first study, Neizgoda and Röver (2001) concluded that EFL learners did
not rate pragmatic errors and grammatical errors in any notably different ways. Their
findings showed that pragmatic awareness could be acquired in the L2 classroom or
in the foreign language classroom. In other words, the language learning
environment might not be the most important factor responsible for learners‟
pragmatic awareness.
Bardovi-Harlig and Griffin (2005) conducted another recent study, which examined
the effectiveness of a pragmatic awareness activity in an ESL classroom. Learners
were not given formal instruction in pragmatics prior to the activity. Five complete
ESL classes containing 43 students from 18 language backgrounds at Indiana
University took part in the activity. Students were asked to work in pairs to recognize
pragmatic inappropriateness in interactions between two students in 20 video-taped
scenarios. They were asked to perform short role plays to repair the improprieties
they had identified and their role plays were video-taped.
The study found that learners were able to identify pragmatic inappropriateness and
supplied new utterances to solve the problems. The findings indicated that high-
intermediate or low-advanced ESL learners had a certain degree of pragmatic
awareness about the L2 even without specific instruction. Building on this
awareness, instruction would help learners better their productive abilities in L2
pragmatics (Alcón-Soler, 2005; Martínez-Flor & Fukuya, 2005). L2 learners could
benefit from instruction in L2 pragmatics, and with instruction to L2 pragmatics their
cultural and personal orientation to speech events could moderate the content. Thus,
classroom activities could provide necessary information and choices to raise L2
learners‟ pragmatic awareness which could help them become proficient users of the
target language (Bardovi-Harlig & Griffin, 2005).
28
The above past studies all highlighted the importance of understanding appropriate
instruction as well as the learning environment in ESL or EFL learners‟ pragmatics
learning. The findings of the research pointed out that instruction afforded language
learners the necessary pragmatic information and helped them raise their pragmatic
awareness in their learning. Well-designed classroom activities could help to increase
learners‟ pragmatic awareness and promote pragmatic competence in the target
language.
As Chinese College English students are EFL learners, there is a necessity to

understand their perceptions of English pragmatics that may affect their learning and
use of English as a target language. The past studies suggested the importance of the
language learning environment (Alcón-Soler, 2005; Bardovi-Harlig & Dörnyei,
1998; Niezgoda & Röver, 2001), especially classroom teaching and learning
(Bardovi-Harlig & Griffin, 2005; Martínez-Flor & Alcón-Soler, 2007), as well as the
language learners themselves (Bardovi-Harlig & Dörnyei, 1998; Schauer, 2006) in
improving language learners‟ pragmatic awareness in the language learning process.
These aspects, particularly the third aspect, appear neglected in College English
learning and teaching in China. There is a need for this study to find out whether the
English language learning settings, both classroom and residence, and Chinese
College English students‟ opinions on the English language learning influence their
pragmatic awareness in the language acquisition process. As indicated by Bardovi-
Harlig and Griffin (2005) appropriate classroom instruction can help raise language
learners‟ pragmatic awareness, the following table (Table 2.1) gives a critical
overview of past studies focusing on language learners‟ pragmatic awareness.
29
30
Table 2.1 Summary of past studies of pragmatic awareness in ESL/EFL learning and teaching
Source Context Findings Comments
Bardovi-Harlig 370 Hungarian EFL learners and their teachers There existed an imbalance between pragmatic This study focused on pragmatic
& Dörnyei (N=25), 173 American ESL learners and their competence and grammatical competence, and an error analysis and was a seminar
(1998) teachers (N=28), and 112 Italian EFL speakers EFL/ESL learning environment (e.g. residency) work.
influenced learners‟ pragmatic awareness.
Niezgoda & 48 ESL learners in a language school in Honolulu, The second language setting and the foreign language The study was conducted in the
Röver (2001) and 124 university students studying English in the setting (e.g. classroom) might not be the most important classroom that resulted in the
Czech Republic factor accounting for learners‟ pragmatic awareness. absence of any production data.
Alcón-Soler 132 EFL high school students (95 females and 37 Awareness-raising tasks or input enhancement techniques EFL classroom teaching needed to be
(2005) males) in Spain were effective in developing language learners‟ both considered in the study.
linguistic competence and pragmatic competence.
Bardovi-Harlig 43 ESL students from 18 language backgrounds at Instruction in pragmatics could help learners to raise their EFL students needed to be
& Griffin (2005) Indiana University, US productive abilities in L2 pragmatics. investigated.
Schauer (2006) 16 German ESL learners and 2 control groups (17 The temporal influence of exposure to the L2 and As participants did not take a
German EFL learners; 20 British English native individual learner differences seemed to have affected standardized language proficiency
speakers) learners‟ interlanguage pragmatic development. test, their different language levels
might impact the results of the study.
Martínez-Flor & 81 EFL students (69 males and 12 females) majoring Instruction had positive effects on learners‟ pragmatic Gender of participants was
Alcón-Soler in computer science at Universitat Jaume I in awareness. Both explicit and implicit instructional unbalanced.
(2007) Castellón, Spain approaches were helpful in developing learners‟
pragmatic awareness in EFL classroom.
2.2.2 Instruction in pragmatics
A number of studies have highlighted the role of direct (explicit) instruction in

developing pragmatic knowledge in the language classroom (Bardovi-Harlig &
Griffin, 2005; Ji, 2008; Liddicoat & Crozet, 2001; Martínez-Flor & Alcón-Soler,
2007; Nikula, 2008; Rose & Kwai-fun, 2001; Savignon & Wang, 2003). The
classroom has received special attention in relation to developing learners‟ pragmatic
competence in both second and foreign language contexts (Rose & Kasper, 2001)
because this is the setting where most initial language learning occurs. Explicit
instruction is generally teacher-centered. However, one study looked at including
implicit instruction for pragmatic learning.
The study conducted by Martínez-Flor and Alcón-Soler (2007) examined the

effectiveness of explicit and implicit classroom instruction in terms of raising
learners‟ pragmatic awareness as well as strategies to support this learning. All
together 81 EFL students (69 males and 20 females) aged between 19 and 25 years
attending Universitat Jaume I in Castellón, Spain participated in the research. These
students all majored in computer science. The study employed a rating assessment
test, which included a pre-test and a post-test to rate the effects of instruction on
students‟ awareness of suggestions.
Explicit instruction involves guiding learners‟ attention towards the target forms with
the aim of discussing those forms and, in contrast, implicit instruction aims to attract
the learners‟ attention without any type of metalinguistic explanation while
minimizing the interruption of the communicative situation (Doughty, 2003). Results
from the study indicated the positive effects of instruction on learners‟ pragmatic
awareness of suggestions. Both explicit and implicit instruction proved to be
effective in developing learners‟ pragmatic awareness of appropriate suggestions in
particular situations. The study showed that explicit and implicit instruction is
beneficial in the development of language learners‟ pragmatic awareness in the EFL
classroom.
The study‟s findings strengthen the notion that further L2 development requires
learners‟ noticing the target language features (Schmidt, 1993, 1995, 2001). Research
31
on instruction, more specifically, has explored the teachability of different pragmatic
features (Kasper & Rose, 2002). The findings indicated that both explicit and
implicit instructional approaches were very helpful in developing learners‟ pragmatic
awareness in the EFL classroom. It is necessary for this study to consider the role of
instruction in pragmatics in the EFL classroom in China, which could better help
understand students‟ learning pragmatics.
Pragmalinguistic and sociopragmatic awareness are particularly difficult for students

studying in an EFL context to understand and, consequently, develop (Grant &
Starks, 2001; Rose, 2001; Washburn, 2001). Explicit and implicit instruction was
investigated in Alcón-Soler‟s (2005) study to learn the extent to which these two
instructional paradigms influenced learners‟ knowledge and ability to use request
strategies as a communication tool. A total of 132 EFL high school students (95
females and 37 males) in Spain participated in the research. These participants had
studied English for between seven and ten years. They were randomly assigned to
three groups (explicit, implicit and control) and exposed to excerpts taken from
different episodes of the movie series Stargate through 15 self-study lessons.
The results showed that in contrast to the control group, learners in explicit and
implicit groups appeared to have mastered symbolic representations of requesting.
They were aware of the appropriate selection of linguistic forms according to social
and contextual factors. However, explicit instruction benefited learners‟ production
of requests more than implicit instruction. The study indicated the importance of
setting up a more direct connection between interlanguage pragmatic research and
the field of SLA (Rose & Kasper, 2001). It confirmed previous research on the
positive effect of instruction on foreign and L2 learning (Doughty, 2003; Norris &
Ortega, 2000), particularly the development of learners‟ pragmatic competence in
request speech acts. The findings suggested that awareness-raising tasks or input
enhancement techniques were effective for the development of both learners‟
linguistic competence and pragmatic competence.
It would be interesting to know how different teaching approaches could be

employed for different instructional contexts and whether they may have different
learner outcomes, as Rose and Kasper‟s (2001) study only focused on the self-study
32
lessons but not on EFL classroom teaching. As research indicates that instruction has
a positive influence on pragmatics in foreign language learning, it is critical for the
current study to explore the impact of instruction in pragmatics in Chinese College
English learning and teaching processes.
A qualitative study of pragmatics was conducted by Nikula (2008) in content-based

instruction in Finland. The study examined classroom discourse in content and
language integrated learning (CLIL) settings. It looked at how pragmatic concerns
were considered at the local level of interaction and the nature of CLIL classrooms as
environments for pragmatic learning. Six EFL students, aged 13 years, and nine EFL
students, aged 15 years at the Department of Languages of the University of
Jyväskylä participated in the study. The data were gathered from three 90-minute
seventh-grade biology lessons. The classrooms were video and audio recorded for
the purpose of the research. Recorded students‟ performance and the classroom
interaction suggested the way students achieved their pragmatic meaning-making.
The results of the study showed that interactions involved in CLIL classrooms were
largely dialogic and students were active participants of the interactions. The
classrooms seemed to be different from foreign language classrooms, which were
often criticized for offering students limited opportunities to practice the target
language. Students had active conversational roles in CLIL classrooms which offered
students chances to practice pragmatics of conversational participation.
The research suggested that pragmatic matters were relevant in CLIL classrooms.
The linguistic range with which EFL learners conveyed pragmatic meanings was not
as resourceful as that of native speakers. EFL learners might not use exactly the same
pragmatic strategies that native English speakers would use in similar situations, yet,
they could still complete interpersonal communication. This is in line with Bardovi-
Harlig‟s (2005) argument that it is interactional success rather than convergence with
native speaker standards that needs to be the focus of interlanguage pragmatics.
Coming from different cultures with diverse L1, it is impossible for EFL learners to
use exactly the same language as native English speakers (Baker, 2009).
33
Nonetheless, Englishes they use can help them achieve communicative success in
intercultural communication.
These past studies highlighted the importance of instruction in pragmatics in the

ESL/EFL learning context. Appropriate and adequate instruction in pragmatics could
facilitate ESL/EFL learners to possess sufficient pragmatic knowledge and become
pragmatically competent in communication. Otherwise, pragmatic failure may arise,
which may lead to communicative failure. The following table (Table 2.2) gives a
summary critical overview of previous studies focusing on instruction in pragmatics.
34
Table 2.2 Summary of past studies of instruction in pragmatics in ESL/EFL learning and teaching
Liddicoat & A group of 10 second-year university French French students showed differences in the way they The number of participants was too
Crozet (2001) students studying in Australia organized their talk after instruction that concentrated on small for convincing the results of
the cultural role of two “equivalent” utterances in the L1 the study.
and the target language.
Rose & Kwai- Two treatment groups and one control group (first- Learners benefited from instruction in compliments and Three instruments were used, but
fun (2001) year students) in the Faculty of Business at the City compliment responses in a foreign language context. the use of speech acts was limited.
University of Hong Kong and undergraduate Both inductive and deductive instruction could lead to
students in first-year composition course at the achievements in pragmalinguistic proficiency, but
University of Illinois deductive instruction might be effective for developing
sociopragmatic proficiency.
Savignon & 174 EFL learners (105 females and 69 males) from There was a difference between the needs and The elaborately designed
Wang (2003) two Taipei universities preferences of English language learners and their questionnaire provided useful data
perceptions of instructional practice. for the study.
Ji (2008) 196 first-year Chinese College English students and Although both College English students and teachers Three different research
44 Chinese College English teachers agreed that pragmatics was an indispensable part of instruments ensured the validity and
language teaching and learning, College English reliability of the data collection.
textbooks or College English classroom teaching could
not provide adequate pragmatic instruction to learners.
Nikula (2008) 6 EFL students, aged 13 and 9 EFL students, aged Pragmatic matters were relevant in content and language Participants of the study were at a
15 at the Department of Languages of the integrated learning (CLIL) classrooms, and linguistic low language proficiency level so
University of Jyväskylä, Finland range with which EFL learners conveyed pragmatic the results could not embody those
meanings was not as resourceful as that of native high proficient language learners.
speakers.
35
2.2.3 Pragmatic failure and speech acts
Pragmatic failures can hardly be avoided by ESL/EFL learners in intercultural

interactions, and they are barriers to the success of cross-cultural communication
(Zheng & Huang, 2010). Some studies have explored the key errors that may cause
pragmatic failures (Hou, 2007; Nikula, 2008; Zheng & Huang, 2010).
The study conducted by Zheng and Huang (2010) investigated pragmatic failures that
Chinese College English students tended to commit. It aimed to find out the
pragmatic competence of Chinese College English learners and to provide
constructive suggestions as to how to improve the learners‟ pragmatic competence.
Sixty-eight Chinese College English students were randomly selected from first year
to fourth year studies at Zhejiang University. Questionnaires and interviews were
used to collect data.
It was found that Chinese College English students‟ pragmatic failures were due to
cultural differences between China and English-speaking countries, negative
pragmatic transfer, teaching-induced errors and native English speakers‟ tolerance
towards Chinese speakers‟ pragmatic failures, which set up barriers to the success of
intercultural communication. The researchers proposed that pragmatic knowledge
and cultural information associated with the target language needed to be involved in
language teaching. However, the qualitative data collected from the interview of this
study was not detailed and substantial, and the focus remained on teaching and
pragmatic errors by the learner. It identified the important role that cultural
perspectives have played in communication. Thus, applying theories of intercultural
communication in the current study can better support the development of an
efficient model of teaching and learning to help Chinese EFL learners achieve
pragmatic competence.
A great deal of research concentrating on learners‟ speech acts aims at examining

their pragmatic competence. Speech acts are often considered to be language
functions and include communication such as offering compliments or compliment
responses (Chen & Yang, 2010; Farghal & Al-Khatib, 2001; Rose & Kwai-fun,
2001; Tang & Zhang 2009); making apologies (Afghari, 2007; Bataineh & Bataineh,
36
2006; Nureddeen, 2008), knowing how to refuse someone (Félix-Brasdefer, 2006;
Keshavarz, Eslami & Ghahraman, 2006), making requests (Alcón-Soler, 2005; Rose,
2009; Takashashi, 2001) and knowing how to respond appropriately to a question
(Liddicoat & Crozet, 2001). Speech acts pragmatic functions are regarded as the
most complex aspect of language, for they require collaboration or synergy of all
levels of language, and use the interaction between cognition and language
(Spanoudis, Natsopoulos & Panayiotou, 2007). They require that the speaker
understands the subtle nuances of a language and its culture.
A study on the effects of inductive and deductive approaches to instruction in the

pragmatics of compliments and compliment responses was conducted by Rose and
Kwai-fun (2001). Undergraduate students in the Faculty of Business at the City
University of Hong Kong and undergraduate students in a first-year composition
course at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign participated in the study.
Three instruments were used for data collection: a self-assessment questionnaire
(SAQ), a metapragmatic assessment questionnaire (MAQ), and a discourse
completion task (DCT).
It was observed that instruction in pragmatics could benefit learners in a foreign

language context. Both inductive and deductive instruction could help learners
achieve pragmalinguistic proficiency, and deductive instruction might lead to better
results for developing soiciopragmatic proficiency. However, the study only applied
the speech acts of compliments and compliment responses to examine language
learners‟ pragmatics learning, which is only one aspect of developing pragmatic
competence. While the current research explored three speech acts: refusals,
compliment responses and apologies in relation to Chinese College English students‟
pragmatic competent abilities.
Recently, a number of studies exploring speech acts have been carried out in Arabic,
Chinese, Japanese, and Persian language learning contexts (Afghari, 2007; Chen &
Yang, 2010; Nureddeen, 2008; Yu, 2003). The study conducted by Nureddeen
(2008) attempted to identify the type and extent of use of apology strategies in
Arabic with Sudanese students to clarify the sociocultural attitudes and values of the
community. Fifty-five female and 55 male adult native speakers of Arabic in the
37
Khartoum area doing higher studies in subjects other than English or linguistics took
part in the study. A discourse completion test, which consisted of ten different social
situations, was used to collect data. Students were required to provide responses in
English to the different social situations.
The results indicated that students liked to use illocutionary force indicating devices
(IFIDs), which was an expression of responsibility for the offense, an account of
cause of violation, an offer of repair and a promise of forbearance (Nureddeen,
2008), and explanations in situations to make their apologies. As students were
aware that apologies damaged their positive face, they became cautious in choosing
apology strategies. The concept of „face‟ originated in China (Bargiela-Chiappini,
2003; He, 2007), and is connected with some emotional concepts, such as
embarrassment, shyness, and losing face (Goffman, 1967). The study strengthened
the understanding of the culture-specific aspects of language use, and the
generalization of apology strategies. They provided insights into the opinion of
politeness in this community and were conducive to intercultural communication.
Thus, this thesis considers culture and cultural knowledge as a key component in
investigating students‟ use of English in communication.
Keshavarz, Eslami and Ghahraman (2006) investigated the speech act, refusals, in a
study designed to explore interlanguage pragmatic studies in EFL contexts with
understudied EFL groups. Forty Iranian native speakers of Persian in Tehran, 111
Iranian EFL learners in Tehran, and 37 native speakers of American English in
Washington, DC, participated in the study. A written discourse completion task
(WDCT) of the dialogue completion type was the instrument used to collect data in
the study. The results of the study revealed that Iranian native speakers of Persian
and Iranian learners of English showed differences with native English speakers
regarding the directness level of the refusals they applied. Impacted by language
learners‟ L1 – Persian, the level of directness of refusals in using English was higher
in refusing invitations and offers than requests and suggestions.
The findings of the study supported findings from the previous studies (Scarcella,
1983; Takahashi & Beebe, 1987) on L2 speech acts, which showed that even
advanced proficient language learners‟ speech acts contained non-native pragmatic
38
features arising from pragmatic transfer. Learners‟ limited target language
knowledge prevented them from transferring their pragmatic knowledge from their
native language (Blum-Kulka, 1982; Olshtain & Cohen, 1989; Cohen, 1997; Hill,
1997). It was found that students seemed to be selective about the types of semantic
formulas they chose to transfer from their native language to the target language.
Acquiring and practicing different sets of sociolinguistic rules in the target culture
was vital to language learners. Although the results of the study were persuasive, a
range of different instruments for data collection may yield different results. The
present study applied different instruments, including DCTs in different speech act
situations, for data collection. Language learners‟ L1 and first culture are also
considered an important aspect in analyzing the data of the current study.
Takahashi (2001) conducted a study examining the effects of input enhancement on

the development of English request strategies in EFL learning. One hundred and
thirty-eight Japanese college EFL students, who all majored in science (freshmen or
sophomores), took part in the study. Four intact general English classes were set up
and taught by the researcher, and four input conditions were assigned: explicit
teaching, form comparison, form search, and meaning focused conditions. A quasi-
experimental, pre-test/post-test design was used. Questionnaires, discourse
completion tests and written retrospection were used to collect both quantitative and
qualitative data.
It was observed that explicit teaching led to greater use of the target forms than the
form comparison, form search and meaning focused conditions. Meanwhile, learners
in the form comparison condition provided more target request forms than those in
the form search and meaning focused conditions, and their confidence in formulating
request expressions was influenced by the levels of input enhancement. The findings
highlighted that under the condition of a relatively high degree of input enhancement
with explicit metapragmatic information, the target pragmatic features were
effectively learned. It could be suggested that providing metapragmatic information
on the target features is most likely to improve learners‟ L2 pragmatic competence
(Takahashi, 2001). Pragmatic information/knowledge can facilitate language learners
in improving their pragmatic competence, and it is an important research aspect of
the current study. Acquiring sufficient pragmatic knowledge in the English language
39
teaching and learning process can help learners achieve pragmatic competence in an
effective way.
While a number of past studies were conducted by applying DCTs to reveal

ESL/EFL learners‟ pragmatic competence in different speech acts (see Table 2.3),
the current study was carried out in the Chinese context and applied three selected
speech acts: refusals, compliment responses, and apologies in DCTs to explore
students‟ levels of pragmatic competence. Influenced by the Chinese culture and L1,
Chinese language users might employ different functions in these three speech acts
from native English speakers. The inappropriate use of the language causes
pragmatic failures that result in communication failures. Thus, it was necessary for
the present research to understand how Chinese College English students used both
language factors and social factors in achieving pragmatic competence.
40
Table 2.3 Summary of past studies of pragmatic failure and speech acts in ESL/EFL learning and teaching
Farghal & Al- 268 Jordanian undergraduate college students at Compliment response played an important role in Lack of varieties in participants‟
Khatib (2001) Yarmouk University managing „face‟ in Jordanian communication. majors.
Takahashi (2001) 138 Japanese EFL learners at a Japanese university The target pragmatic features were found to be most Gender of participants was
effectively learned. unbalanced.
Bataineh & 100 Jordanian undergraduate EFL students from Male and female respondents were different in choosing Only one instrument – Discourse
Bataineh (2006) Yarmouk University and Jordan University of to use apology strategies: Female respondents chose non- Completion Tasks (DCTs), was used
Science and Technology apology strategies; male respondents used those that in the study, and gender was the only
veered towards blaming the victim. variable examined.
Félix-Brasderfer 20 Mexican male university students at the Social factors, such as power and distance, played a vital Only male students were involved in
(2006) Universidad Autónoma de Tlaxcala role in determining appropriate degrees of politeness in the study.
Mexican society.
Keshavarz, 40 Iranian native speakers of Persian of Tehran, 111 Iranian native speakers of Persian and EFL learners were Only one instrument – DCTs, was
Eslami, & Iranian EFL learners, and 37 native speakers of different from English native speakers in terms of used to collect data in the study.
Ghahraman American English in Washington, DC directness level of the refusal they use, and there was the
(2006) need for L2 learners to develop awareness and sensitivity
for their own L2 use.
Afghari (2007) 100 native Persian-speaking students in different Persian apologies were as formulaic in pragmatic Ten fixed discourse situations in
academic fields at Isfahan University structures. DCTs were close to students‟ daily
interactions.
Hou (2007) 12 College English teaching classes at Taiyuan College English students‟ low level of pragmatic The sample number was large and
University of Technology, China competence led to pragmatic failures in communication. could generalize the whole group.
Nureddeen 110 Arabic college students in Khartoum area The selection of apology strategies in the study reinforced Different social groups needed to be
(2008) majoring other than English or linguistics the culture-specific aspect of language use. examined.
Rose (2009) Students in Lai King Catholic Secondary School, Students made pragmalinguistic development, particularly Participants were middle- to lower-
Hong Kong in what appeared to be the beginning of pragmatic middle language proficient learners
expansion, but they made little sociopragmatic and could not generalize the high
development. proficient learners.
41
42

Tang & Zhang 30 Mandarin Chinese native speakers from Mainland No universal pattern could be generalized concerning the Only four situations were included in
(2009) China and 30 Australian English native speakers at use of compliment responses by Mandarin Chinese and DCTs to collect data.
Curtin University of Technology in Western Australian English speakers. Chinese and Australians had
Australia different expectations and followed different linguistic
and cultural protocols that may cause communication
breakdowns.
Chen & Yang 160 undergraduate students at Xi‟an International Chinese students accepted compliments as much as do The study was possibly the first
(2010) Studies University, China speakers of many Western languages, such as English and longitudinal study in pragmatics.
German.
Zheng & Huang 68 Chinese College English students at Zhejiang Cultural differences, negative pragmatic transfer, The qualitative data collected from
(2010) University, China teaching-induced errors and native English speakers‟ the study was not presented in detail.
tolerance towards Chinese speakers‟ pragmatic failures
caused Chinese College English students‟ pragmatic
failures.
Jebahi (2011) 50 male and 50 female third year university students Tunisian university students used a statement of remorse Only a discourse completion test was
at the Higher Institute of Humanities, Medenine, most frequently in the situations. Strategies of self- used in the study.
Tunisia castigation, offer of repair, blaming the victim,
intensification, minimization, and humor were less used,
which influenced intercultural communication.
2.2.4 Pragmatic competence
Pragmatic competence is an indispensable component for language learners to

achieve in developing their language competence (Bachman, 1990). Pragmatic
competence will develop with sufficient input containing enough models of the target
feature (Bialystok, 1993). There are a number of studies that highlight the
importance of pragmatic competence and language learners‟ pragmatic competence
development (Alcón-Soler, 2005; Du, 2004; Hou, 2007; Riddiford & Joe, 2010;
Rose, 2009; Ruan, 2007; Schauer, 2006; Takimoto, 2009; Wang, 2004; Wang, 2005;
Xu, 2003) and these will be discussed below.
Hou (2007) conducted a survey to examine the pragmatic competence development

of Chinese College English learners and the implications of these levels of
competence for pragmatic English teaching. College English students from 12
teaching classes at Taiyuan University of Technology participated in the survey.
Questionnaires were used to collect data. The collected data were analyzed by
Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS). The study showed that Chinese
College English students‟ levels of pragmatic competence were much lower than
their levels of linguistic competence because their teachers paid too much attention
to linguistic competence and neglected pragmatic competence. Therefore, the
students‟ low level of pragmatic competence frequently resulted in pragmatic failures
in communication in English.
The study concluded that that pragmatic failures would generate misunderstandings,
and even extreme emotions (e.g., prejudice and resentment) in cross-cultural
communication as communication failures or obstacles to harmonious interpersonal
relationships may arise through such misunderstandings. If the objective of language
learning is to communicate successfully in the cross-cultural context, then it is
necessary to recognize and reduce College English students‟ pragmatic failures and
to effectively develop their pragmatic competence. As one focus of the current
research, data collected on College English students‟ levels of pragmatic competence
were investigated to provide empirical evidence for developing a tentative model of
learning pragmatics in the Chinese context.
43
In terms of the relationship between Chinese College English learners‟ pragmatic and
linguistic competence, Ruan (2007) conducted a study to examine the relationship as
well as individual differences in pragmatic competence and learning strategy choices
in pragmatic competence development. Two hundred and seventy-nine Chinese
College English students completed the questionnaire, and 14 students from this
group were invited to attend a follow up interview. Quantitative and qualitative data
analysis showed that Chinese College English students‟ pragmatic competence was
closely related to their English linguistic competence. There existed a distinct gender
difference in that the female students were better language users than the male
students, but there was no notable personality differences in English pragmatic
competence of these College English students.
It was observed that there was no significant difference between students with high
English pragmatic competence and those with low English pragmatic competence in
the use of learning strategies for pragmatic knowledge learning. The data revealed
that understanding utterances in proper contexts was an important factor in the
development of pragmatic competence.
The two studies discussed above were conducted in a Chinese context with Chinese
College English learners as participants. The findings of these two studies
highlighted the importance of understanding the appropriateness of utterances in a
variety of contexts, especially in the cross-cultural context. Thus, the present
research has combined theories of intercultural communication in order to better
clarify College English students‟ pragmatic competence. In addition, it used more
diverse instruments than the questionnaire, which was the only research instrument
used in the above two studies, to gain a better understanding of the pragmatic
competence of College English students.
Another study, which monitored language learners‟ pragmatic competence

development, was conducted by Rose (2009) in Hong Kong, which was a follow up
of Rose‟s (2000) first phase study. Participants in the study were students in Lai King
Catholic Secondary School in Hong Kong. Students were from middle- to lower-
middle class social backgrounds, who completed a questionnaire.
44
Unlike the first phase study (Rose, 2000), this study provided evidence of language
learners‟ considerable pragmalinguistic development. All students made frequent use
of the popular, conventionally indirect, request strategy, which indicated they had
moved past earlier pre-basic and formulaic stages. The study also showed that
students had made little progress in the development of sociopragmatics, particularly
in foreign language contexts as students used more alerters in hearer-dominant
situations and the use of supportive moves remained at a very low level. The study
found that language learners had huge pragmalinguistics development but lacked
sociopragmatic development, particularly in foreign language contexts. It suggested
further exploring the relationship between grammatical and pragmatic development,
and instrument effects that might prevent the development of sociopragmatic
competence.
Research conducted by Riddiford and Joe (2010) followed development of skilled

migrants‟ sociopragmatic performance from the classroom to the workplace.
Sociopragmatic skills are regarded as important aspects of communicative
competence in the workplace (Candlin, 2002; Clyne, 1994; Geluykens &
Pelsmaekers, 1999) because they help people become accepted as members of
workforce (Holmes, 2005) and to maintain good relationships with colleagues.
Eleven migrants from mainland China, Taiwan, Russia, and the Philippines living in
New Zealand with a minimum English language proficiency of IELTS 6.0
(International English Language Test System, which is the world‟s proven English
language test) took part in the research. An IELTS score of 6.0 in 2008 and 2009
indicated a good level of English language proficiency. Their professional
backgrounds involved accounting, business analysis, insurance, public relations,
office management, mechanical engineering, and information systems. DCTs, role-
plays, retrospective interviews and workplace recordings were used as data. The
study focused on the speech act of requests in workplace interactions.
It was found that the participants had developed an advanced ability to precisely
analyze and correctly negotiate requests through classroom instruction and they
applied this learning to their workplaces. Participants‟ perceptions of the significance
of status differences and their levels of imposition of the request changed after
45
classroom instruction and workplace experience. It was suggested that incorporating
a carefully designed workplace communication program in the classroom would
benefit learners in their future employment and enhance their sociopragmatic
competence and performance. The study found that there was a necessity to develop
these learners‟ sociopragmatic competence because social interactions occurred in
the participants‟ daily life and so they needed abilities to deal with them. As one
aspect of pragmatics, sociopragmatics has an impact on the use of English in social
interactions. This is examined in the current study as social factors.
Schauer (2006) conducted a similar study to investigate the development of learners‟

pragmatic competence during their stay in the L2 target environment. The pragmatic
development of ESL learners was examined in two aspects – pragmatic awareness
and productive pragmatic competence. Participants of the study included 16 German
ESL learners and two control groups: 17 German EFL learners, and 20 British
English native speakers. The instruments used for investigating pragmatic awareness
were a video-and-questionnaire task, which was developed by Bardovi-Harlig and
Dörnyei (1998), and a semi-structured interview. The Multimedia Elicitation Task
(MET), a 16-scenario multimedia production questionnaire focusing on requests
developed by the researcher was used to collect data on the learners‟ productive
pragmatic competence. Two different kinds of statistical analysis were used to
examine the data: paired sample t-tests, and one-way analyses of variance
(ANOVA). The External and Internal Request Modification frameworks developed
by House and Kasper (1987), Blum-Kulka, House Kasper and (1989), and Trosborg
(1995) were applied to analyze the data of the learners‟ pragmatic competence.
It was observed that the temporal effects of exposure to the L2 and individual learner
differences were two major factors that affected learners‟ interlanguage pragmatic
development. The ESL learners‟ pragmatic development in the study showed that a
sojourn in the L2 context promoted the development of learners‟ pragmatic
awareness. In order to achieve pragmatic competence, the study found that there was
a need to combine learners‟ pragmatic development with contextual, personal and
temporal factors.
46
Compared with many other studies, this study showed the close connection between
learners‟ pragmatic awareness and their pragmatic competence, and explored the
process of learners‟ pragmatic development. Therefore, it was essential for the
current study to include social factors and individual differences in the research
because of their potential impact on language learners‟ development of pragmatic
awareness and pragmatic competence. The following table (see Table 2.4) gives a
summary of critical overview of past studies on ESL/EFL learners‟ pragmatic
competence.
47
48
Table 2.4 Summary of past studies of pragmatic competence in ESL/EFL learning and teaching
Xu (2003) 1000 College English students and 45 College There was a low degree of correlation between College The number of participants was
English teachers English students‟ English language level and their large and could provide reliable
pragmatic competence. The exam results could not truly data for the study.
represent learners‟ English language proficiency.
Du (2004) 91 newly registered non-English major graduates in There was no significant correlation between pragmatic The questionnaire could not provide
China competence and attitude toward pragmatic study. adequate data for the study.
Interests in target culture demonstrated a significant
correlation with pragmatic competence.
Wang (2004) 15 Chinese College English students and their There was an imbalance between the development of The number of participants of the
diaries pragmatic competence and linguistic competence, and study was small and limited that
various learning and teaching strategies could help to could not make generalization.
cultivate learners‟ pragmatic competence.
Wang (2005) 50 Chinese College English students‟ compositions Chinese culture and language greatly influenced the Investigating samples were limited.
students‟ development of pragmatic competence.
Ruan (2007) 279 Chinese College English students Chinese College English students‟ pragmatic Elaborately designed questionnaires
competence was closely related to their English were used to ensure the reliability
linguistic competence. of the data collection.
Takimoto Three treatment groups (N=45) and one control Input-based tasks could work efficiently when they The number of control group was
(2009) group (N=15) offered an emphasis on forms and meanings in teaching small.
pragmatics in an EFL context.
Riddiford & Joe 11 migrants with minimum English language Participants developed a greater ability to precisely The number of participants was too
(2010) proficiency of IELTS 6.0 in New Zealand analyze and properly negotiate requests, and careful small and could not make
attention in program design could improve generalization.
sociopragmatic competence and performance.
Past studies, especially those conducted in the Chinese context, indicated the
importance of developing language learners‟ pragmatic competence, which helped
them become communicative competence. The purpose of this study was to
investigate Chinese College English students‟ pragmatic competence as well as
factors influencing the development of their pragmatic competence.
The following is a summary of major findings and arguments of previous studies

discussed above:
(a) Raising language learners‟ pragmatic awareness, which is influenced by the
learning environment, helps them obtain information about pragmatic features
of language (Bardovi-Harlig & Dörnyei, 1998; Niezgoda & Röver, 2001).
(b) Instruction in pragmatics, particularly explicit instruction, could facilitate
language learners to acquire adequate pragmatic knowledge and encourage the
development of pragmatic competence (Bardovi-Harlig & Griffin, 2005;
Martínez-Flor & Alcón-Soler, 2007; Takahashi, 2001; Tateyama, 2001).
(c) Pragmatic knowledge of speech acts, cultural knowledge, pragmatic routines,
metalanguage information, metapragmatic information as well as pragmatic
strategies are teachable (Afghari, 2007; Alcón-Soler, 2005; Jebahi, 2011; Ji,
2008; Liddicoat & Crozet, 2001; Rose & Kwai-fun, 2001; Takahashi, 2001;
Tateyama, 2001).
(d) Social factors, and cultural and individual differences influence language
learners‟ development of pragmatic competence (Bataineh & Bataineh, 2006;
Chen & Yang, 2010; Du, 2004; Félix-Brasderfer, 2006; Keshavarz, Eslami &
Ghahraman, 2006; Nikula, 2008; Nureddeen, 2008; Savignon & Wang, 2003;
Schauer, 2006; Tang & Zhang, 2009; Wang, 2005; Zheng & Huang, 2010).
(e) Pragmatically oriented tasks help language learners practice pragmatic
knowledge and become pragmatically competent (Alcón-Soler, 2005; Ji, 2008;
Riddiford & Joe, 2010; Takimoto, 2009).
(f) It is necessary to keep a balance between pragmatic competence and linguistic
competence as even grammatically advanced language learners might not be
able to properly use the target language in appropriate contexts (Bardovi-Harlig
& Dörnyer, 1998; Nikula, 2008; Rose, 2009; Ruan, 2007; Wang, 2004; Xu,
2003; Xu, Case &Wang, 2009).
49
(g) Language learners‟ low level of pragmatic competence and other factors, such
as cultural differences and negative pragmatic transfer, lead to their pragmatic
failures in communication (Hou, 2007; Tang & Zhang, 2009; Zheng & Huang,
2010).
Research on pragmatics in ESL/EFL learning has indicated that it is necessary to

help language learners to develop pragmatic awareness and ability with instruction in
pragmatics so as to achieve pragmatic competence. Findings of the above previous
studies provide rich evidence to support the need for learners to develop pragmatic
competence, yet further studies need to be conducted in different contexts, with
diverse samples to gain a deeper understanding of how learners can develop such
competency efficiently and effectively. It is also worth exploring strategy-instruction
for learning pragmatics as research has shown that strategy-based instruction has
been effective for learners to develop macro skills of listening, speaking, reading and
writing (Mendelsohn, 1998). The following section discusses past studies focusing
on language learning strategies in learning a language in general, and pragmatics in
particular.
2.3 Research on language learning strategies in ESL/EFL learning
Language learning strategies are described as behaviors, techniques, steps or actions

used in learning a language (Oxford, 1993; Rubin, 1981). Strategies are often
referred to as techniques that learners use to remember what they have learned
(Oxford & Nyikos, 1989), and they also help learners promote their own
achievement in language proficiency (Bremner, 1998; Green & Oxford, 1995;
Oxford, 1990).
Many researchers have conducted studies to investigate the importance and influence
of learning strategies on language learning. Green and Oxford (1995) believe that
“more proficient language learners use more learning strategies and more types of
strategies than less proficient language learners” (p.285). Thus, language learning
strategies not only help learners become competent in learning and using a language,
but they also increase learners‟ self-directed learning (Hong-Nam & Leavell, 2006).
50
Research shows that all learners consciously or unconsciously employ different
kinds of learning strategies, and successful language learners apply more purposeful
language learning strategies than less successful ones (Hong-Ham & Leavell, 2006).
In general, studies on English language learning strategies have been conducted in
order to find out the answers to the following questions:
(a) What language learning strategies are most frequently used in ESL/EFL
learning?
(b) Are there any differences in the use of language learning strategies according
to learners‟ different backgrounds, such as gender, language proficiency and
study major?
(c) How do monolingual and bilingual foreign language learners differ in their use
of language learning strategies while learning a language?
(d) Can some of the strategies preferred by language learners be explained with
reference to the cultural and/or educational background in which they learn the
language (Chen, 2009; Ersözlü, 2010; Sheorey, 1999; Tuncer, 2009; Yılmaz,
2010)?
In response to the general questions above there seems to have been limited research
on strategy training for learning English pragmatics, particularly in an EFL context.
This gap in the literature highlights a need for research in this specific area. The
current research investigated Chinese College English students‟ perceptions and
practice of language learning strategies in learning English and pragmatics. What
follows is an overview of studies on learning strategies in language learning, as they
provide insights into the process of learning and the nature of learning strategies.
Such studies may also shed light on how learners go about their learning of
pragmatics in the language classroom.
Yılmaz (2010) conducted a study to examine English majors‟ learning strategies at

Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University in Turkey. The study investigated the
relationship between preferred language learning strategies, gender, proficiency, and
self-efficacy beliefs. One hundred and forty English majors (23 males and 117
females) participated in the study. A questionnaire with a 5-point Likert scale was
used to collect data. Oxford‟s (1990) 50-item Strategy Inventory for Language
Learning (SILL) was used in the study.
51
Data showed that the English majors employed compensation strategies (e.g., using
other clues, and switching to their mother tongue) as their preferred language
learning strategy, and affective strategies (e.g., lowering anxiety by use of music,
encouraging oneself and discussing feelings with others) least often. Compensation
strategies include filling knowledge gaps of language through guessing, repeating,
using gestures and taking notes, while affective strategies are used for handling
feelings, attitudes and motivations of L2 learners (Yılmaz, 2010). These findings
were consistent with a study of Chinese students with a high use of compensation
strategies (Chang, 1991).
The findings indicated that students‟ use of particular language learning strategies
depended on their cultural and educational experience. The research also suggested
that gender and language proficiency influenced language learners‟ strategy use;
however, more research was needed in the area of gender influence as there was a
huge gender imbalance in Yılmaz‟s (2010) study.
A similar study investigating bilingual learners‟ language learning strategies was

carried out by Purdie and Oliver (1999). The study examined students‟ language
efficiency beliefs and their attitudes toward English in relation to the use of language
learning strategies. It comprised 58 participants drawn from four schools in
Australia. Participants belonged to three main cultural groups: Asian (N=25),
European (N=23) and Arabic (N=10). A structured interview was designed to gather
information about each participant‟s family, educational and cultural background,
attitude toward English, English efficiency beliefs, and the use of language learning
strategies. A 5-point Likert scale questionnaire was employed to investigate learners‟
language learning strategies in detail.
The study found that the degree of differences between strategies was important in
finding out what students did when they were strategic in their language learning
behaviors. The most frequently used strategies were cognitive strategies (e.g.,
repeating, analyzing, quickly acquiring the idea and taking notes). Social strategies
(e.g., cooperating with others, and developing cultural understanding) were the least
used strategies. It was observed that different cultural backgrounds and educational
backgrounds significantly influenced students‟ strategy use, and the type of
52
knowledge required for a given task may also have affected students‟ use of
strategies (Bialystock, 1978; Purdie & Oliver, 1999). This study only applied a
questionnaire and a structured interview to collect data. More instruments, such as
observations, might help provide insights into other related aspects and process of
learning.
Research on bilingual or monolingual students‟ use of language learning strategies

has been conducted all over the world. Tuncer (2009) conducted a study to examine
the difference between monolingual and bilingual language learners‟ use of language
learning strategies. A total of 246 participants, 162 females and 84 males, studying
EFL at the English Language Teaching Department of Mersin University in Turkey
took part in the study. The SILL scale prepared by Oxford (1990) with 50 Likert-type
statements was used in the study.
The results of the study showed that bilingual learners made more use of language
learning strategies than monolingual learners, and bilinguals were more likely to
employ cognitive and meta-cognitive skills. The rate of males‟ and females‟ use of
learning strategies was different. Female learners seemed to be more successful and
positive in the use of language learning strategies. Moreover, more proficient
language learners used more learning strategies than less proficient learners. The
study suggested that the conditions, culture or previous language learning experience
may have had an influence on learners‟ use of language learning strategies for
language learning.
It is essential to consider the influence of learners‟ first culture as well as their

educational background when researching language learning strategies in learning
the target language and pragmatics. Learners‟ different language proficiency levels
and genders may be factors in employing language learning strategies, which were
also considered in analyzing the data of the present study.
Yang (1999) conducted a study to investigate college EFL students‟ beliefs about
language learning and their language learning strategies. Five hundred and five
students from 14 English classes of six public and private universities in Taiwan
participated in the study. A questionnaire with a Likert-type scale and open-ended
53
questions was employed in the study. Forty-nine items of the SILL (Oxford, 1990)
were adapted for the questionnaire.
It was found that students in this study had some contradictory beliefs that were
reflected in their use of language learning strategies. Students‟ self-efficacy beliefs
about learning English were strongly relevant to their use of all types of language
learning strategies, particularly functional practice strategies. Furthermore, students‟
beliefs about the value and nature of learning spoken English were closely related to
the use of formal oral-practice strategies (Yang, 1999). Appropriate beliefs may have
improved their effective use of language learning strategies and this is an area worthy
of further study.
More recently, Hong-Nam and Leavell‟s (2006) study examined the overall language
learning strategy of ESL learners, and the relationship between language learning
strategy and L2 proficiency. Fifty-five ESL students enrolled in an Intensive English
Program at a large Southwestern university in the US participated in the study. The
SILL (Oxford, 1990) self-report questionnaire was used to judge the frequency of use
of language learning strategies, and an individual background questionnaire was
applied to collect demographic information about the students.
The study found that students were aware that learning strategies were a part of their
language learning process. Meta-cognitive strategies were the most preferred
strategy, which helped in directing, organizing, and planning language learning.
Affective and memory strategies were the least used strategies. Female students
tended to employ affective and social strategies more often than male students.
Meanwhile, students at the intermediate level applied more strategies than beginning
or advanced level students regarding teacher intervention in the learning process.
More strategic language learners progressed along the proficiency continuum faster
than less strategic ones. Thus, this thesis included an exploration of overall language
learning strategy use and its relationship with the language proficiency to better
understand College English students‟ learning situations.
Sheorey (1999) conducted a study to investigate strategy use among Indian college
students. A total of 1,261 students enrolled in the first year of their three-year
54
undergraduate degree program in Indian colleges participated in the study. These
students learned an „indigenized‟ form of English (Shridhar & Shridhar, 1986, 1994),
in other words, they learned English in their native settings with little or no support
from native English speakers. A questionnaire, which was an English Language
Learning Strategies Inventory (ELLSI), was employed to collect data, particularly
information about their language learning.
The study concluded that Indian female students used language learning strategies
more frequently than male students. Students showed strategy usage that was similar
in some aspects to those studying in other settings, despite their learning of an
indigenized form of English. Students with higher language proficiency in English
more frequently used learning strategies than those with lower language proficiency,
especially functional practice strategies, such as reading authentic materials,
watching original English movies, imitating native English speakers‟ pronunciation
and intonation, etc.
It was observed that functional practice strategies helped these Indian students
improve their practical, communicative performance in English. It was also found
that examination-oriented memory strategies helped them become more successful in
their examination-driven educational system. The results of the study also indicated
that students‟ cultural and educational backgrounds influenced some of the strategies
they used. This study provided quantitative evidence to examine Indian English
learners‟ learning strategy use in the environment of an indigenized form of English.
The findings are relevant to the current study because cultural and educational
backgrounds as well as the strategy (and types of strategies) used in learning English
and pragmatics are examined in the present study.
Li (2010) conducted a study to examine the pragmatic strategies and syntactic forms
used by Cantonese students in the speech act of making suggestions in English (their
L2), compared with native English-speaking Australian students and other Cantonese
students in Cantonese (their L1). The study was conducted because an increasing
number of Hong Kong students were going to study in Australia and the chances of
intercultural communication between these two cultural groups were growing.
55
Three groups, 18 students in each group, were involved in the study. The first two
groups were Cantonese speakers from different high schools in Hong Kong. One
group carried out the task in English (their L2), and the other in Cantonese (their L1).
The third control group was native English-speaking Australian students from a high
school in Sydney. Students were paired up to perform an open role play which was
taped and transcribed for analysis.
It was found that in terms of syntactic forms the L2 Cantonese students used fewer
syntactic types in making suggestions and their suggestions were more likely to be
followed by textual themes and interpersonal metaphors compared with the
Australian students. The Cantonese students preferred to use simple sentences rather
than complex ones, and they employed paratactic complex sentences when they did
use complex ones. In terms of pragmatic strategies, the L2 Cantonese students
preferred less implicit strategies. With respect to the level of directness, both the L2
Cantonese students and Australian students preferred direct strategies. However, they
exhibited significant differences in choosing suggestion strategies and redressive
actions on the issue of politeness.
The study indicated that due to the lack of pragmalinguistic knowledge and ability,
the L2 Cantonese students were not able to effectively apply pragmatic strategies in
language practice. This study investigated pragmatic strategies of ESL learners
through a speech act. The present research compared results derived from this study
in an EFL context of learning English in China to explore if language learners might
have different perceptions and competence and use different strategies in language
practice. Therefore, the current study examined Chinese College English students‟
pragmatic strategies in the use of the language in communication, which in some
aspects, shows the influence of the L1 and the first culture in learning the target
language of English.
The following table (see Table 2.5) shows a summary of previous studies on
language learning strategies in ESL/EFL learning.
56
Table 2.5 Summary of past studies of language learning strategies in ESL/EFL learning
Purdie & Oliver 58 bilingual students in Australia Different places of birth, cultural backgrounds and The questions of the questionnaire
(1999) educational backgrounds influenced students‟ strategy and the interview were not
use. elaborately designed.
Sheorey (1999) 1261 Indian college students Indian female students employed language learning The study only provided
strategies more frequently than male students, and their quantitative data for analysis, and
cultural and educational backgrounds influenced some of including qualitative data could
the strategies they used. Higher language proficient make the study more substantial.
students more frequently used learning strategies than
those lower language proficient ones.
Yang (1999) 505 university students from six public and private Students held some conflicting beliefs that were reflected Elaborately designed questionnaire
universities in Taiwan in their use of language learning strategies. ensured the validity of the data
collection.
Griffiths (2003) 348 students from 21 different countries in a private Higher level students made highly frequent use of a great A large number of participants and
language school in Auckland, New Zealand number of language learning strategies, particularly different research instruments
strategies relevant to interaction with others, vocabulary, ensured the reliability of the
reading, the tolerance of ambiguity, language systems, collected data.
the management of feelings and learning, and the
utilisation of available resources.
Hong-Nam & 55 ESL students enrolled in a university Intensive Students preferred to use meta-cognitive strategies most, The sample number was small, and
Leavell (2006) English Program at a large Southwestern university but affective and memory strategies least. Students at the EFL samples needed to provide a
in the US intermediate level more frequently used learning different perspective.
strategies than beginners and advanced learners.
Bonney, 694 students from 36 foreign language classrooms Compared to the cognitive strategies, social strategies Gender of participants was
Cortina, Smith- in a large high school in a rich Midwestern city were most helpful in developing students‟ foreign unbalanced.
Darden & Fiori language proficiency and ability to interact with native
(2008) speakers successfully.
Chen (2009) 390 junior high school students in southern Taiwan Taiwanese EFL students used compensation strategies Participants had low levels of
most frequently, but hardly used cognitive and affective language proficiency so that the
strategies. results could not make
generalization.
57
58

Tuncer (2009) 246 students at English Language Teaching Bilinguals employed more learning strategies than Only SILL scale was used to collect
Department of Mersin University, Turkey monolinguals. Males used some more specific learning data in the study.
strategies than females. More proficient learners used
more learning strategies than less proficient learners.
Ersözlü (2010) 190 teacher students at Education Faculty of There existed differences between males and female Qualitative data were necessary
Gaziosmanpaşa University, Turkey students in employing learning strategies, but not for a deeper analysis of strategy
significant. Levels of possessing and using learning instruction.
strategies are various relying on the departments of
education.
Li (2010) 2 groups from different high school in Hong Kong The L2 Cantonese students preferred less implicit Participants were only paired up to
and 1 group from a high school in Sydney (18 strategies. Both the L2 Cantonese students and perform an open role play, and
students in each group) Australian students preferred direct strategies, but they employing other instruments for
showed significant differences in choosing suggestion data collection could make the
strategies and redressive actions of the issue of results more substantial.
politeness.
Yan, Chye, Lin 480 pupils at Edgefield Primary School, Singapore Female pupils did better than male pupils in all Oxford‟s All participants were beginners and
& Ying (2010) (1990) six strategies. Male and female pupils had could not represent intermediate
significant differences in using cognitive, compensation, and advanced learners.
meta-cognitive, and affective strategies.
Yılmaz (2010) 140 English majors at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart Students preferred to use compensation strategies most Gender of participants was very
University, Turkey but affective strategies least. much unbalanced.
Cheng (2011) 15 native English speakers, 15 Chinese ESL Compared to native English speakers, Chinese ESL Data collection might be too
speakers, and 15 Chinese EFL speakers in a mid- speakers used different sets of strategies in responding to complex to control, and authentic
size state university in south-western US compliments. Chinese EFL speakers had difficulties in situations in data collection were
mastering strategies in responding to compliments. Both hard to achieve.
Chinese ESL and EFL speakers had difficulties in
responding to personal compliments.
The following is the summary of major findings and arguments of past studies on
language learning strategies in ESL/EFL learning discussed above:
(a) Different educational backgrounds and cultural backgrounds affect language
learners‟ use of language learning strategies (Ersözlü, 2010; Li, 2010; Purdie &
Oliver, 1999; Sheorey, 1999; Yang, 1999).
(b) Gender differences exist in employing learning strategies in language learning
(Ersözlü, 2010; Sheorey, 1999; Tuncer, 2009; Yan, Chye, Lin & Ying, 2010).
(c) More proficient language learners use language learning strategies more
frequently than less proficient language learners (Griffiths, 2003; Sheorey,
1999; Tuncer, 2009).
(d) Language learners are likely to employ meta-cognitive and compensation
strategies most, but affective strategies least (Chen, 2009; Hong-Nam &
Leavell, 2006; Yılmaz, 2010).
(e) Social strategies are helpful in developing learners‟ language proficiency and
improving their intercultural communication (Bonney, Cortina, Smith-Darden
& Fiori, 2008; Griffiths, 2003; Sheorey, 1999).
(f) Bilingual learners make more use of language learning strategies than
monolingual learners (Tuncer, 2009).
Research on learning strategies in language learning has indicated that language

learning strategies are helpful to students in improving their language proficiency,
particularly in ESL/EFL learning contexts. The effective use of language strategies
can contribute to successful language learning (Griffiths, 2003). The findings of the
above previous studies are convincing, however, few studies on pragmatic learning
strategies, which play an important role in achieving learners‟ pragmatic
competence, have been conducted. Therefore, further studies on pragmatic learning
strategies in the language learning are expected.
2.4 Summary
This chapter has discussed the development of pragmatics as a discipline in a new

field of linguistics, as well as its definitions and features. It has examined studies on
pragmatics in ESL/EFL learning and teaching as well as learners‟ language learning
59
strategies in ESL/EFL learning. The literature presents a consensus that pragmatic
knowledge can be taught and instruction in pragmatics in ESL/EFL learning and
teaching helps language learners in their development of pragmatic competence. It
also has been observed that learners‟ different language learning strategies may have
helped them achieve optimal language learning outcomes. However, this overview
also shows that more research needs to be conducted in different contexts and
cultures to identify factors that may impact on the way learners go about developing
pragmatic competence as well as the strategies they use to acquire pragmatic
knowledge. In the following chapter, the theoretical perspectives applied in the
current study are clarified in detail for theorizing and enhancing the arguments.
60
CHAPTER 3: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Chapter 2 provided a detailed literature review on the development of the field of

pragmatics and past studies on the teaching and learning of pragmatics in ESL/EFL
contexts, as well as language learning strategies for learning English in general and
pragmatics in particular. Informed by SLA theory and research, theories of
pragmatics, intercultural communication and ELF are discussed in detail in this
chapter. The three theoretical strands form a typology (see Figure 3.1) for examining
College English students‟ perceptions and learning of English and pragmatics in a
Chinese context. The discussion involves key concepts such as intercultural/cross-
cultural pragmatics, pragmatic competence, communicative competence,
interculturality and ELF and their links with the arguments of this thesis.
Pragmatics
Second language
acquisition (SLA)
Intercultural communication English as a lingua franca
Figure 3.1 Typology of the theories
61
3.1 Second language acquisition (SLA)
First language acquisition is the study of the development of a person‟s mother

tongue (Richards, Schmidt, Platt & Schmidt, 2002). People are born with special
language learning abilities, and they learn their mother tongue through exposure to
people around them. Their linguistic rules develop unconsciously (Chomsky, 1969).
Ellis (1994) indicates SLA is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon. The field of
SLA studies is concerned with how learners learn an additional language after they
have acquired their native language (Ellis, 1985).
In the process of language acquisition, both L1 and L2 learners pass through

sequences of development. Many of these developmental sequences are similar for
L1 and L2 learners. Lightbown and Spada (1999) have argued that developmental
sequences are similar even among some L2 learners who have different L1
backgrounds and different learning environments. However, it is widely accepted
that SLA is strongly influenced by learners‟ L1 (Ellis, 1985), and that the L1 plays a
decisive and negative role in SLA (Larsen-Freeman & Long, 1991).
The process of SLA is often regarded as the process of overcoming the influence of
the L1, which can be seen as a slow process to replace the features of the L1 in
developing the L2. During the process of SLA, errors made by learners in both
comprehension and production cannot be avoided (Ellis, 1994). Where the L1 and L2
share a meaning but express it in different ways, an error is likely to arise in the L2
because learners will transfer their L1 into the L2 (Ellis, 1985). L1 learning habits
will also inhibit the L2 learning process. Ellis (1985) proposed that SLA is “the
subconscious or conscious processes by which a language other than the mother
tongue is learned in a natural or a tutored setting. It covers the development of
phonology, lexis, grammar, and pragmatic knowledge, but has been largely confined
to morphosyntax” (p.6).
The major aim of SLA research is to explore learners‟ primary knowledge of the L2,
and to describe and explain their competence (Ellis, 1994). Chomsky (1965) points
out that competence is made up of the mental demonstration of linguistic rules that
comprise the speaker-hearer‟s internalized grammar. An SLA study is interested in
how competence is developed. Communicative competence is a major focus in SLA
62
research because language plays an institutional and social part in the community. In
contrast, foreign language learning only occurs in settings where the language plays
no main role in the community and is generally learned in the classroom (Ellis,
1994). However, according to past studies (Jenks, 2007; Sakui & Gaies, 1999; Zhang
& Cui, 2010; Zhong & Shen, 2002), research theories applied in SLA can be
transferred to examine language acquisition in foreign language learning contexts,
such as the theory of communicative language teaching (CLT) (Feryok, 2008; Kuo,
1995; Rao, 2002). Conceptions of foreign language learning are changing among
foreign language learners. Indeed, some use their foreign language as an L2 in some
contexts. For example, Chinese students use English as an L2 when they study in
English-speaking countries though English is a foreign language to them. Thus, this
study employs SLA theory and those theories informed by SLA to explore
pragmatics learning in Chinese College English as all participants were EFL learners
in a Chinese context.
In the SLA process, pragmatics has two roles: “It acts as a constraint on linguistic
forms and their acquisition, and it represents a type of communicative knowledge
and object of L2 learning in its own right” (Kasper & Rose, 1999, p.81). It is clear
that the first role of pragmatics is in functionalism (Tomlin, 1990) and interactionism
(Long, 1996) views of SLA, which allows powerful functionalist explanations of
linguistic phenomena in using an L2 in social interactions (Levinson, 1983). The
second role combines pragmatics with morphosyntax, lexis, and phonology that
concentrates on learners‟ knowledge, use and acquisition of L2/foreign language
pragmatics (Kasper & Rose, 1999).
However a word of caution is needed as new developments in SLA show that the L1
could be helpful in the development of the L2, particularly for more advanced
learners who often transfer their L1 knowledge and thinking skills creatively to the
learning of a second or foreign language. This is particularly so in the context where
English is used as an international language (Kachru, 1997; Karsten, 1993) and the
development of pragmatic competence plays a key role. The following section
describes theories of pragmatics as a backdrop to the current research.
63
3.2 Theory of pragmatics
This thesis utilizes Bardovi-Harlig and Mahan-Taylor‟s (2003) working definition to

pragmatics as “the ability of language users to match utterances with contexts in
which they are appropriate” (p.37), and explores language users‟ abilities in using
appropriate utterances in corresponding contexts to effectively complete
communication in English. The following sections describe various perspectives of
pragmatics featuring this definition.
3.2.1 Interlanguage pragmatics
Selinker (1972) first coined „interlanguage‟ as the continuum that L2 learners

construct when they are learning L2 grammar systems on their way to the target
language norms. In the SLA literature, Ellis (1985) described it as “the systemic
knowledge of language which is independent of both the learner‟s L1 and the L2
system that he is trying to learn” (p.42). Interlanguage pragmatics (ILP) is a subfield
of both interlanguage studies, which belong to the realm of SLA, and pragmatics.
Interlanguage pragmatics, which originated from pragmatics theory and
developments in L2 pedagogy, is a comparatively new area. It brings the study of
acquisition to a mix of structure and use (Bardovi-Harlig, 2010), and applies
pragmatic theories, principles and frameworks to study how L2 or foreign language
learners encode and decode meaning in their L2 or foreign language (Schauer, 2009).
Kasper (1989), and Kasper and Blum-Kulka (1993) defined ILP as the study of non-
native speakers‟ use and acquisition of linguistic action patterns in an L2. Kasper and
Rose (2002) described ILP as a second-generation hybrid that belongs to both
pragmatics and SLA by definition as follows:
As the study of second language use, interlanguage pragmatics examines how

nonnative speakers comprehend and produce action in a target language. As the
study of second language learning, interlanguage pragmatics investigates how
L2 learners develop the ability to understand and perform action in a target
language. (Kasper & Rose, 2002, p.5)
Interlanguage pragmatics is concerned with both pragmatic competence and

language performance of second or foreign language learners (Ji, 2008) and the
64
development of pragmatic competence by non-native speakers. Second or foreign
language learners must not only be able to produce utterances that are appropriate to
the context of their target language, but also must be aware of what constitutes
suitable linguistic behavior in a range of social situations in their L2 or foreign
language (Schauer, 2009).
Second or foreign language learners often employ the norms, strategies and phrases,
which are used in their native language, to achieve a certain purpose in a translated
form of their L2 or foreign language to achieve the same purpose (Schauer, 2009).
Coulmas (1981) described this behavior as „transfer‟. Kasper (1992, 1998) divided
„transfer‟ into „positive transfer‟ where the pragmatic norms, forms and strategies of
L1 and L2 match and L1 knowledge can be transferred to L2, and „negative transfer‟
where the pragmatic norms, forms and strategies of the L1 and L2 do not match and
L1 knowledge cannot be transferred to L2. As the notion of „transfer‟ has become
central to the term „interlanguage‟, interlanguage pragmatics research has frequently
concentrated on the concept of „negative transfer‟ (Schauer, 2009). The present
research examines how Chinese College English students use English, including the
transference of the phrases, norms and strategies of their L1 to the use of English,
which is within the research scope of interlanguage pragmatics.
3.2.2 Intercultural/cross-cultural pragmatics
Communication in many contexts is becoming increasingly cross-cultural. It involves

people who have different cultures, different first languages, and different
conceptualizations. Although use of a grammatically common language, or lingua
franca such as English, that language is a pragmatically diversified instrument of
communication because it represents different cultures and different norms and
values. For example, many non-native English speaking cultures use English as a
common language of communication with each other and native speakers of English.
Intercultural/cross-cultural pragmatics explores interactions between insights from
pragmatics and from intercultural communication for these diverse speakers to come
to a common understanding in relation to the roles and functions of language and
communication in a world-wide communication network (Pütz & Neff-van
Aertselaer, 2008).
65
Yule (1996) has pointed out that “the study of differences in expectations based on
cultural schemata is part of a broad area of investigation generally known as cross-
cultural pragmatics” (p.87). Kasper and Blum-Kulka (1993) defined cross-cultural
pragmatics as the study of linguistic acts conducted by language users with different
cultural backgrounds. In a pragmatic view, there is no culture without a user (Mey,
2008). Cross-cultural pragmatics aims to define the systematic relationships between
the sociocultural contexts and the functions and structure of language in use, so it
belongs to applied sociolinguistics (Boxer, 2002).
Cross-cultural pragmatics reveals language users‟ values, beliefs, cultural

assumptions and communication strategies in using the language (LoCastro, 2003). It
holds the point of view that “individuals from two societies or communities carry out
their interactions (whether spoken or written) according to their own rules or norms,
often resulting in a clash in expectations and, ultimately, misperceptions about the
other group” (Boxer, 2002, p.151). These misperceptions are normally two-way with
each group misunderstanding the other (Singh, Lele & Martohardjono, 1988).
Three domains most relevant to cross-cultural pragmatics are the spheres of social
interaction, educational encounters, and work life (Boxer, 2002). Cross-cultural
discourse plays an important role in social interactions, for social encounters set the
steps for perceptions and misperceptions of people from societies whose norms of
speaking are different from their own. In educational interactions it is an important
domain to examine (Boxer, 2002).
As language and culture are closely interrelated, the ability to efficiently interact with
people who are from different cultures is the key to achieving successful cross-
cultural communication. College English Curriculum Requirements (2007) clearly
indicates that College English aims to enhance students‟ abilities to use English
effectively in intercultural communication. Investigating College English students‟
abilities of using English in (intercultural) communication is an important aspect of
this study that is within the domain of intercultural pragmatics.
66
3.2.3 Sociopragmatics
Leech (1983) described sociopragmatics as “the sociological interface of pragmatics”

(p.10). It mainly “concerns itself with any aspect of social context that is specific to
the pragmatic meanings of particular language use” (Culpeper, 2011, p.1).
Sociopragmatics involves speakers‟ and hearers‟ beliefs built on relevant social and
cultural values and social actions, which are considered to be of prime importance.
Many scholars comment that if L2 speakers do not have knowledge of relevant social
and cultural values and do not know how to vary their speech strategies in cross-
cultural communication, sociolinguistic failure occurs (Harlow, 1990; Holmes &
Brown, 1987; Kasper, 1997; Thomas, 1983). Sociopragmatics is very much about
applying appropriate social behavior and aims to teach people what functions to
apply in corresponding social interactions. The assumption is that L2 learners must
be made aware of the results of making pragmatic choices (Rose & Kasper, 2001).
Social variation, social context and social behavior are regarded as part of
metapragmiatic knowledge, and have great influence on second, foreign or language
teaching and learning (Ji, 2008). „Sociopragmatic competence‟ is the ability to adjust
speech strategies appropriately according to different social variables, such as the
degree of imposition, social dominance and distance between participants of
conversation, and participants‟ rights and obligations in communication (Harlow,
1990). The nature of pragmatic knowledge, competence levels, patterns of interaction
and contexts are examined in the thesis.
3.2.4 Pragmatic competence and communicative competence
Pragmatic competence is “the ability to act and interact by means of language”

(Kasper & Röver, 2005, p.317). Taguchi (2009) broadly defined pragmatic
competence, as “the ability to use language appropriately in a social context, has
become an object of inquiry in a wide range of disciplines including linguistics,
applied linguistics, anthropology, sociology, psychology, communication research,
and cross-cultural studies” (p.1).
67
Pragmatic competence is also defined as “the ability of the second language learner
to use language according to the pragmatic rules that govern the use of linguistic
utterances as used by native adult speakers” (Nureddeen, 2008, p.280). In essence,
having pragmatic competence means that culture is a decisive factor in encoding and
decoding utterances. The cultural context of discourse plays a key role in
understanding meaning, so cultural awareness is crucial in achieving a successful
intercultural communication.
Pragmatic competence is regarded as part of communicative competence and

demonstrated through communicative abilities in English (Savignon, 1991). In
relation to this view, this thesis focuses on examining Chinese College English
students‟ pragmatic knowledge and competence in the EFL context that facilitates
them in achieving communicative competence.
Pragmalinguistic competence and sociopragmatic competence are described as two

types of pragmatic competence (Leech, 1983). Pragmalinguistic competence refers to
the linguistic resources available to perform pragmatic functions, while
sociopragmatic competence refers to the correctness of the linguistic resources in a
given cultural context (Leech, 1983; Taguchi, 2009; Thomas, 1983).
In order to have sociopragmatic competence, people need to have knowledge about

how to interpret interactions in which power and social distance are involved (Brown
& Levinson, 1987), and the knowledge of mutual rights, obligations, taboos, and
traditional practices (Thomas, 1983). In order to have pragmalinguistic competence,
learners need to have the ability to apply conventions of both means and forms for
organizing knowledge in real communication. Learners also need to have a range of
linguistic forms to perform their language functions and understand sociocultural
norms and rules that direct the usage of these forms (Taguchi, 2009). Thus, this
research examines students‟ pragmalinguistic and soicopragmatic competence
through three selected speech act situations to obtain their pragmatic competence.
The importance of pragmatic competence has been strengthened both in theory and
practice. Theoretical models of L2 communicative competence (Bachman, 1989,
1990; Bachman & Palmer, 1996; Canale & Swain, 1980), interactional competence
68
(Young, 2000; Young & He, 1998) and “symbolic competence” (Kramsch &
Whiteside, 2008), have advanced the field by situating pragmatic and sociolinguistic
competencies as distinct, essential components within L2 proficiency. Meanwhile,
these models have served as a tool in the investigation of pragmatic competence
(Taguchi, 2009).
Pragmatic competence development has become one of the important aims in SLA
because the emphasis changes from grammatical competence to communicative
competence in L2 teaching pedagogy (Trosborg, 1987). Grammatical competence is
important for developing overall competence in communication, but communicative
competence extends the learning into the realm of authentic language learning.
The conventional „grammar-translation‟ approach in language teaching only focuses

on the development of learners‟ grammatical and linguistic competence and restricts
development of language functions, which, to a certain degree, prevents language
learners from achieving their communicative competence. The communicative
approach in language teaching pedagogy, in contrast, can help learners attain global
language competence. In relation to the current study, College English Curriculum
Requirements (2007) indicates that the focus of College English teaching and
learning needs to shift from developing students‟ linguistic competence to pragmatic
competence in order to facilitate their achievement of communicative competence,
which is in accordance with the key focus of this study.
Chomsky (1965), who based linguistic theory on an ideal speaker-listener with

perfect linguistic knowledge, introduced the so-called “linguistic competence”. He
defined his conception of competence as the knowledge of a language and could not
serve in real-life communication. Habermas (1970) pointed out that:
communicative competence relates to an ideal speech situation in the same way

that linguistic competence relates to the abstract system of linguistic rules...
Communicative competence is defined by the ideal speaker‟s mastery of the
dialogue constitutive universals irrespective of the actual restrictions under
empirical conditions. (pp.140-141)
69
In other words, communicative competence depends on the speaker‟s mastery of the
L2 functions and features. Milroy and Milroy (1990) defined communicative
competence as “the capacity of persons to select and recognize the type of language
appropriate to the occasion” (p.503).
Hymes (1972) related his notion of communicative competence both to theoretical

needs and practical needs. In other words, communicative competence is not only the
knowledge of a language but also the ability to apply that knowledge (Barron, 2003;
Widdowson, 1992). Hymes (1972) proposed that communicative competence
contributes to other aspects of competence that a language learner needs to have.
From this perspective, the core concern of communicative competence is speech
communication and the interaction between language and culture. Thus,
communicative competence is “relative, not absolute, and depends on the
cooperation of all the participants involved” (Savignon, 1983, p.9).
Communicative competence might be thought of as a kind of „mixer‟ that performs

the function of balancing available linguistic forms chosen by the linguistic
competence of the user, against available social functions housed in some kind of
social competence (Thomas, 1983). A certain amount of communicative competence
is needed in social interactions at an interpersonal level and organizational and public
levels, and for intercultural exchanges (Rickheit, Strohner & Vorwerg, 2008). Many
communicative failures arise in our societies because of the lack of communicative
competence among people. Based on these conceptualizations, some detailed models
of communicative competence have been developed and are briefly described below.
Models suggested by Canale and Swain (1980, and revised by Canale, 1983) and
Bachman (1990) are the most influential ones to be examined in relation to this
research.
3.2.4.1 Canale and Swain’s model
Canale and Swain (1980) developed a theoretical model of communicative

competence, which was further extended by Canale (1983). The key features of this
model include four types of competencies to consider:
70
(a) grammatical competence, knowledge of vocabulary, such as syntax, semantics,
phonology, etc;
(b) sociolinguistic competence, knowledge of appropriate language use in different
contexts;
(c) discourse competence, the knowledge of applying correct coherent devices to
achieve a unified spoken or written text in different genres; and
(d) strategic competence, knowledge of how to use communication strategies
appropriately to deal with breakdowns in communication and enhance the
effectiveness of communication.
In this model, pragmatic competence is represented as sociolinguistic competence,

which includes both “appropriateness of meaning” and “appropriateness of form”
(Canale, 1983, p.7). Sociolinguistic competence challenges L2 learners, for they need
to obtain cultural knowledge and sensitivity, as well as linguistic knowledge, so as to
achieve communicative competence. Appropriateness of meaning involves an
interlocutor‟s knowledge of pragmatic conventions and the ability to evaluate
situational context and speech intentions (Leech, 1983), and appropriateness of form
involves the planning of a linguistic realization of a speech intention to a situation
(Niezgoda & Röver, 2001). These are relevant to the study of learners‟ pragmatic
competence through a detailed analysis of responses derived from DCTs, which were
used in the present study. DCTs require language learners to provide responses to
various social situations and so are a measure of their pragmatic competence. That is,
responses to DCTs identify not only a learner‟s level of language competency but
their awareness of the pragmatic features of that language. A more thorough
discussion of DCTs used in this research is provided in Chapter 4.
3.2.4.2 Bachman’s model
Bachman (1990) proposed a model of language competence (see Figure 3.2).

Language competence is regarded as the “knowledge of language” (Bachman, 1990,
p.85). Pragmatic competence and organizational competence are described as two
main components of language competence. In order to be organizationally
competent, people need to have grammatical competence (vocabulary, syntax,
71
morphology and phonology) and textual competence (cohesion/coherence and
rhetorical organization) (Niezgoda & Röver, 2001).
Language
Competence
Organizational Pragmatic
Competence Competence
Grammatical Textual Illocutionary Sociolinguistic

Competence Competence Competence Competence
Sensitivity to
Ideational
Vocabulary Cohesion Dialect or
Functions
Variety
Rhetorical Manipulative Sensitivity to

Morphology
Organization Functions Register
Heuristic Sensitivity to
Syntax
Functions Naturalness
Phonology Imaginative Cultural

References and
Graphology Functions Figures of Speech
(Source: Bachman, 1990, p.87)
Figure 3.2 Bachman’s model of language competence
Pragmatic competence consists of illocutionary competence and sociolinguistic

competence. Bachman (1990) indicated that “illocutionary competence enables us to
use language to express a wide range of functions, and interpret the illocutionary
force of utterances or discourse” (p.94), which can be introduced by reference to the
theory of speech acts (described below). Illocutionary competence includes four
functions: ideation, manipulation, heuristic and imagination. To be illocutionary
competent, people need to develop the abilities of all these functions.
72
“Knowledge of ideational functions enables us to express or interpret meaning in
terms of our experience of the real world. Knowledge of manipulative functions
enables us to use language to affect the world around us. Knowledge of heuristic
functions enables us to use language to extend the knowledge of the world around us.
Knowledge of imaginative functions enables us to use language to create an
imaginary world or extend the world around us for humorous or aesthetic purposes”
(Bachman & Palmer, 2010, pp.47-49). According to sociocultural features, the
performance of these functions varies in different language use contexts.
Sociolinguistic competence refers to sensitivity to dialect or variety, register and

naturalness, and cultural references and figures of speech. It includes the ability to
correctly perform language functions in the corresponding context (Bachman, 1990).
In almost every language there are variations in language use in different geographic
areas or with different social groups.
The regional and social varieties or dialects represent different conventions and the
appropriateness of that language use will be different, depending on the different
contexts. Sensitivity to register enables us to distinguish variation in language use
within a single dialect or variety. Sensitivity to naturalness refers to the ability of
language learners to formulate and interpret an utterance which is not only
linguistically accurate, but which is also phrased in a „native-like‟ way (Pawley &
Syder, 1983). The ability to interpret cultural references and figures of speech
enables us to use and interpret cultural references and figures of speech in certain
contexts (Bachman, 1990; Bachman & Palmer, 2010).
Communicative competence is considered to be the global language proficiency of a

language learner, and pragmatic competence is an essential component of this.
Without pragmatic competence, language competence would be incomplete and
assessment of language proficiency would be inexact. This study focuses on
researching College English students‟ pragmatic competence that facilitates them in
becoming language competent.
73
3.2.5 Speech act theory
Speech act theory has aroused the widest interest of all the issues in the general
theory of language usage (Levison, 1983). It plays a core role in the field of
pragmatics. Philosophers, such as Wittgenstein, Austin and Searle, proposed the
foundations of speech act theory. Wittgenstein (1953, cited in Bach, 2004) made a
significant contribution to the field of pragmatics by stating that language was a
social activity and “the meaning of a word is its use in the language” (Bach, 2004,
p.463). Austin was regarded as the father of pragmatics (Mott, 2003) and founded
speech act theory (Austin, 1962, 1975), which was later elaborated by Searle (1969,
1971, 1975, 1976, 1979).
3.2.5.1 Austin’s speech act theory
Austin (1962) introduced the concept of the “speech act”, and his speech act theory
was built on the basis of his belief that speakers do not only use language to say
things, but to do things. Therefore, utterances are regarded as speech acts. Austin
developed a system to distinguish three components of speech acts, which was
regarded as seminal work:
(a) the locutionary act: the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense
and reference
(b) the illocutionary act: the making of a statement, offer, promise, etc. in
uttering a sentence, by virtue of the conventional force associated with it
or with its explicit performative paraphrase
(c) the perlocutionary act: the bringing about of effects on the audience by
means of uttering the sentence, such effects being special to the
circumstances of utterance. (Levison, 1983, p.236)
The concept of illocutionary force is closely associated with the notion of the
illocutionary act, “which is the communicative plan or design behind a speaker‟s
remark” (Leech, 1983, p.200). Yule (1996) pointed out that “of these three
dimensions, the most discussed is illocutionary force. Indeed, the term „speech act‟ is
generally interpreted quite narrowly to mean only the illocutionary force of an
utterance” (p.49).
74
3.2.5.2 Searle’s speech act theory
Searle developed Austin‟s speech act theory further and indicated that the
illocutionary force of an utterance and the perlocutionary effect an utterance has on
the hearer relies on the speakers‟ choice of words and expression in their utterance
(Schauer, 2009; Searle, 1969, 1975, 1976). Although Searle‟s (1969) theory of
speech acts is Austin‟s theory systematized, it has had most of its influence on
linguistics (Levinson, 1983).
Searle (1976) advanced Austin‟s notion of speech acts and classified five categories
of illocutionary force:
(a) representatives, which commit the speaker to the truth of the expressed
proposition (paradigm cases: asserting, concluding, etc.)
(b) directives, which are attempts by the speaker to get the addressee to do
something (paradigm cases: requesting, questioning).
(c) commissives, which commit the speaker to some future course of action
(paradigm cases: promising, threatening, offering).
(d) expressives, which express a psychological state (paradigm cases:

thanking, apologizing, welcoming, congratulating).
(e) declarations, which effect immediate changes in the institutional state of

affairs and which tend to rely on elaborate extra-linguistic institutions
(paradigm cases: excommunicating, declaring war, christening, firing
from employment). (Levison, 1983, p.240)
These five categories clearly suggest the basic kinds of action that one can perform
in speaking as well as paradigms of different speech acts. With these categories, the
researcher can better understand language users‟ discourse meaning and
communicative intention in social interactions. The current study has explored three
selected speech acts: refusals that belong to commissives, and compliment responses
and apologies which are expressives, in examining College English students‟ levels
of pragmatics as these categories can assist the researcher in understanding students‟
levels of communication competence.
75
Trosborg (1995) indicated that speech act theory “has exerted great influence on
functional aspects of pragmatic theory” (p.18). It has been applied in a large number
of empirical studies on intercultural/cross-cultural pragmatics. Speech act theory also
has a great impact on second or foreign language learning and teaching. In this study,
it provides a tool for the analysis of College English language learners‟ perceptions,
understanding and strategies of pragmatics in using English as a foreign language.
The present research on selected speech acts often focuses on the appropriateness
with which language is used in different contexts, and politeness theory is often
applied to examine interactions between people (Bravo & Briz, 2004; Eelen, 2001;
Félix-Brasdefer, 2006; Locher, 2004; Locher & Watts, 2005; Mills, 2003; Watts,
2003). Politeness theory indicates that “politeness makes communication
possible…because it seeks to neutralize the potential for aggression present in social
interaction” (Brown & Levinson, 1987, p.1).
In the course of social interactions, pragmatic skills are employed to express a series
of communicative acts in conversation, such as refusing, offering compliment
responses, and apologizing. These three selected speech act skills are the focus of
this research on Chinese College English students‟ pragmatic competence. The
following sections discuss the three selected speech acts used in the study to collect
data about College English students‟ pragmatic knowledge and competence.
Refusals
Refusals are face-threatening acts (Brown & Levinson, 1987) and only happen when
a speaker directly or indirectly says no to a request or an invitation. Refusals belong
to the classification of commissives, for they commit speakers to future action
(Searle, 1977). Chen (1996) indicated that refusals are opposite to the interlocutor‟s
expectation, and they are often achieved through indirect strategies. Refusals are
important as they are sensitive to social variables, such as gender, age, education
level, power and social distance (Brown & Levinson, 1987; Fraser, 1990; Smith,
1998).
76
Refusals are also complex speech acts, for they require both long sequences of
negotiation, and cooperative achievements and face-saving strategies to adapt to the
perceived „disobedient‟ nature of the act (Félix-Brasdefer, 2006; Gass & Houck,
1999) (e.g., the interlocutor does not expect the refusal). Therefore, to execute them
successfully, refusals need a high level of pragmatic competence (Chen, 1996). This
study employed the refusal speech act to examine Chinese College English students‟
levels of pragmatic competence as well as strategies in using English as a foreign
language.
Compliment responses
Holmes (1988) stated that “a compliment is a speech act which explicitly or

implicitly attributes credit to someone other than the speaker, usually the person
addressed, for some „good‟ (possession, characteristic, skill, etc.) which is positively
valued by the speaker and hearer” (p.446). Compliments are viewed as positive
speech acts but can also be regarded as face-threatening acts (Holmes, 1988; Tang &
Zhang, 2009). They serve as a serious sociocultural linguistic function which reflects
agreed ways of behaving (Doohan & Manusov, 2004; Tang & Zhang, 2009).
Whether a compliment is a positive or a negative speech act relies on a number of
factors, such as context, cultural courtesy, and a person‟s interpretation of what has
been said (Tang & Zhang, 2009).
As compliments are an act of judgment on another person, people may feel uneasy or
defensive regarding the compliments they receive, and they may have difficulty in
appropriately making responses to these compliments (Knapp, Hopper & Bell, 1984).
Compliment responses are intricate speech acts as they are multifunctional and
ubiquitous (Yu, 1999), and they can reflect the social-cultural values and politeness
diversity of the speakers (Cheng, 2011).
The acceptance of compliments is commonly adopted by native English speakers

(Chen, 1993; Herbert, 1986; Holmes & Brown, 1987), while downgrading and
rejections are often used by speakers of other languages, particularly those from
Asian countries such as China, Japan and Vietnam (Chen, 1993; Tran, 2006; Yu,
2004). Thus, compliment responses are worth studying (Yu, 2003). Accordingly, by
77
using the compliment response speech act in data collection, the present study was
able to investigate Chinese College English students‟ pragmatic knowledge,
competence and skills in using the target language and trace the social and cultural
influences in using English.
Apologies
Olshtain (1989) proposed that an apology was “a speech act which is intended to
provide support for the hearer who was actually or potentially malaffected by a
violation” (pp.156-157). When a person apologizes, he/she shows a willingness to
disgrace himself/herself to the person/s being apologized to. Apologizing is a face-
saving act for the hearer and a face-threatening act for the speaker (Bataineh &
Bataineh, 2006).
Márquez-Reiter (2000) further described that an apology is a “compensatory action

for an offense committed by the speaker which has affected the hearer” (p.44).
Apologies are acts that express negative politeness (Brown & Levinson, 1987;
Nureddeen, 2008), and belong to the classification of expressives. The person who
offers an „appropriate‟ apology admits “the wrong doing, accepts ultimate
responsibility, expresses sincere sorrow and regret, and promises not to repeat the
offense” (Gooder & Jacobs, 2000, p.237). An apology is issued to resolve a conflict
(Takaku, Weiner & Ohbuchi, 2001) where the wrongdoer needs to show the so-
called three Rs, regret, responsibility, and remedy, for the offended to accept the
apology as sincere (Bataineh & Bataineh, 2006). This research employed the apology
speech act to examine students‟ pragmatic knowledge, levels of competence, and
strategies in using English in corresponding situations.
3.3 Theory of intercultural communication
3.3.1 Culture and language
Culture makes human beings unique (Byrne, Barnard, Davidson, Janik, McGrew,
Miklósi & Wiessner, 2004) but is one of the most elusive words to define. Culture is
dynamic rather than static (Pinto, 2000). Cultures are created and recreated through
shared interactions (Gudykunst, 1983). People often move between cultures.
78
Understanding culture is critical for educators because cultural orientation is present
in every interaction.
Geertz (1973) described culture as “a historically transmitted pattern of meaning

embodied in symbols, a system of inherited conceptions expressed in symbolic forms
by means of which men communicate, perpetuate, and develop their knowledge
about and attitudes toward life” (p.89). Hofestede (1991) described culture as “the
collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one group
or category of people from those of another” (p.5). Further, Grant (1997) defined
culture at a more tangible level:
How we do things, what things we do and how we think about them. It includes
„high culture‟ – a highly subjective catalogue of things we choose, and other
more widely accepted, like language, religion, folklore and myths, beliefs,
values, rituals and observations, family and kinship structures, history, political
structures and conventions, etiquette and patterns of impersonal behavior,
sexual norms, diet, economic activity and leisure. (p.16)
Culture covers every aspect of human life, and influences our values, beliefs, and
behaviors. Samovar, Porter and Stefani (1998) defined culture as “the deposit of
knowledge, experience, beliefs, values, actions, attitudes, meanings, hierarchies,
religion, notions of time, roles, spatial relations, concepts of the universe, and
artifacts acquired by a group of people in the course of generations through
individual and group striving” (p.36). From these definitions it can be deduced that
culture can include everything from rites of passage to concepts of the soul.
For a long time, there was a view that the best way to learn about a foreign culture
was to be „exposed‟ to it, for instance, to study abroad (Crozet & Liddicoat, 1999).
However, there is no evidence showing that study overseas can lead to a better
knowledge of culture or improved cross-cultural understanding (Kramsch, 1991).
Culture is not learned by osmosis. It needs an intellectual effort because culture is not
readily accessible to be noticed, analyzed and taught. Culture is inserted into
language as an intangible, all-pervasive and highly variable force (Crozet &
Liddicoat, 1999; Liddicoat, Papademetre, Scarino & Kohler, 2003). The following
figure (Figure 3.3) shows points of articulation between culture and language:
79
Culture Language
grammar/lexicon
world spoken/written pragmatic norms of /prosody
knowledge genres norms interaction pronunciation/
kinesics
Culture in the Culture in

Culture in
Culture in culture within organization and linguistic and
general text
context utterances selection of units paralinguistic
structure
of language structures
(Source: Liddicoat, Papademetre, Scarino & Kohler, 2003, p.9)
Figure 3.3 Points of articulation between culture and language
Language and culture are tightly interwoven and neither should be studied in
isolation from the other (Ahearn, 2001). Language is “the primary symbolic medium
through which cultural knowledge is communicated and instantiated, negotiated and
contested, reproduced and transformed” (Garret & Baquedano-Lopez, 2002, p.339).
Culturally based practices, settings and interactions are the main vehicles which
“powerfully and necessarily affect both language teaching and learning processes”
(Poole, 1992, p.610; Shi, 2010, p.2476).
Understanding the culture of the target language is helpful in learning a language.

Hoebel and Frost (1976) indicated that culture can be learned both consciously and
unconsciously. Thus, culture is an indispensible aspect in College English learning in
this study. The following sections discuss different aspects of culture that impact
language learners‟ use of the target language in intercultural communication that
influence Chinese College English students‟ use of English in communication.
3.3.2 Interculturality
With increasing interaction and communication of people, different cultures begin to

blend with each other, that is, one culture begins to adopt and adapt different aspects
of culture with its own. The term „interculturality‟ is linked to language use and
explorations of differences and similarities between cultures. It indicates recognition
and reflection of the learner‟s own culture as well as the target culture and
80
concentrates on a point of critical observation and understanding of both home and
target cultures.
Interculturality can be defined as the development of mutual understanding between

members of different cultural groups, involving “an awareness and a respect of
difference, as well as the socioaffective capacity to see oneself through the eyes of
others” (Kramsch, 2005, p.553). It helps people achieve intercultural competence in
social interactions.
To practice effective interculturality, people need to be aware of cultural differences,

make comparisons between cultures and acquire cultural knowledge in a situated
context. Through reflection and interaction, a critical understanding of the target
culture can be developed (Paltridge, Harbon, Hirsch, Shen, Stevenson, Phakiti &
Woodrow, 2009). Understanding different cultures in language learning facilitates
communication between learners of diverse cultures. Understanding both the target
language and the target culture can help people to be communicatively competent in
social interactions. Therefore, interculturality can help the researcher in this research
better examine and understand the data about Chinese College English students‟
pragmatic knowledge and their use of English.
3.3.3 Intercultural communication
With the development of technology and science, the world is becoming more
connected and a place where no nation, group or culture can remain in isolation
(Samovar & Porter, 1991). On the one hand, modern technology makes it easier for
people living in different parts of the world to communicate with other people
throughout the world. On the other hand, such interactions can be difficult if people
do not know how to deal with other cultures.
Samovar and Porter (1997) have pointed out that communication practices and
behaviors of people from different cultures will unavoidably vary due to their
different perceptions of the world and the contexts in which they live. It occurs
“whenever a person from one culture sends a message to be processed by a person
from a different culture” (Samovar, Porter & McDaniel, 2009, p.7). Intercultural
communication is characterized as “a transactional, symbolic process involving the
81
attribution of meaning between people from different cultures” (Gudykunst & Mody,
2002, p.165).
Some errors or misunderstandings undoubtedly occur in the process of

communications or dealing with other cultures, even with two native-English
speaking countries (Jandt, 2001). These misunderstandings can be minimized if
people have a better knowledge and understanding of other cultures. Miller (1974)
stated that most of our misunderstandings of other people are not due to any inability
to hear them, to parse their sentences or to understand their words (a focus on
linguistics). A far more important source of difficulty in communication is that
people often fail to understand a speaker‟s intention. This difficulty could be better
explained by the study of pragmatics.
Intercultural communication is defined as “acts of communication undertaken by

individuals identified with groups exhibiting intergroup variation in shared social and
cultural patterns. These shared patterns, individually expressed, are the major
variables in the purpose, the manner, the mode, and the means by which the
communicative process is affected” (Damen, 1987, p.23). Lustig and Koesters (2003)
pointed out that intercultural communication is “a symbolic process in which people
from different cultures create shared meanings” (p.49).
People with different cultural backgrounds share information at different levels of

awareness and control. Different cultural backgrounds include both national cultural
differences and differences existing in the different activities within a national unit
(Allwood, 1985). The similarity of the cultures decides the amount of influence a
culture puts on communication. Learning cultures is of great importance in achieving
communication competence. Liaw (2006) indicated that culture learning required
“gaining insights into how the culture of the target language interacts with one‟s own
cultural experiences” (p.50). It is necessary to consider people‟s cultural perception,
beliefs and values when using the target language in social interactions as this may
help them achieve successful intercultural communication.
82
3.3.3.1 Perception
Perception comes from Latin meaning, “receiving, collecting, action of taking

possession, apprehension with the mind or senses” (Flanagan & Lederman, 2001,
p.390). It can also be defined as “the internal process by which we select, organize
and interpret information from the outside world” (Klopf & Park, 1982, p.26).
People‟s perceptions of the world are what they tend to notice, reflect on and respond
to in the surroundings which are meaningful and important to them. Everyone is
unique. What people tend to perceive and the ways they perceive the world are
different. It is impossible for two people to have the same perceptions of the world,
especially when people interact with others who come from different cultural
backgrounds. Interculturality suggests that people should try to learn how others
perceive the world together with their cultural experiences. People‟s perceptions are
culturally determined and affect the way they communicate with others.
3.3.3.2 Beliefs
The term belief refers to the psychological state in which an individual holds a
proposition or premise to be true (Schwitzgebel, 2006). Beliefs are the judgments
about what people believe to be true or probable (Samovar & Porter, 1997). For
instance, people keep religious beliefs. Many Western people prefer to believe in
God, while a number of Asian people believe in Buddha. Many beliefs are concerned
with unpredictable or mysterious explanations. Price (2000) indicates that most of
people‟s beliefs are the ideas about why things work, how they work and where they
come from. Beliefs are also determined by a person‟s cultural experiences and
background. People are taught through their culture what is considered to be true and
worthy when they are young. Their behaviors or interactions may follow these taught
beliefs. Step by step, their belief systems form their value systems, which greatly
influence their behaviors.
3.3.3.3 Values
Klopf and Park (1982) define values as an everlasting set of beliefs that guide or
direct people‟s behaviors. In other word, values are a set of emotional rules that
83
people often apply to help them make the right decisions in their lives. Values, which
represent morals of cultures, provide people with rules for their decisions and
behaviors. Although values are related to the norms of a culture, they are more
general and abstract than norms (Samovar & Porter, 2003). They usually represent
what is right or wrong, good or evil. Different types of values, including moral
values, religious values, political values, social values and aesthetic values are
applied by people in different aspects of their life. They help people solve problems
and become the roots of people‟s traditions (Samovar & Porter, 2003). Like
perception and beliefs, values are also learned by people through their cultural
experiences. People apply values in their everyday decision making at work and at
home. Therefore, values, which are important in every culture, can help people better
understand others‟ cultural beliefs and become more adept in communication.
Thus, by understanding people‟s perceptions of the world, their beliefs and values,
others can better understand their ideas, predict potential misunderstandings in
communication, and achieve intercultural communication. This view is in agreement
with the argument of this study that considers culture or cultural knowledge as a key
component of the study of College English learners‟ pragmatics.
3.3.4 Intercultural competence
Intercultural competence refers to effective skills for achieving successful

intercultural communication (Xiao & Petraki, 2007). Intercultural competence
includes knowledge of and ability in another language and culture that enables
people to effectively interact with others who are from that culture and having the
skills to negotiate between that culture and their own (Guilherm, 2004). It is the
ability of people with different cultural and social backgrounds to reach a shared
understanding and to deal with multiple cultures (Byram, Nichols & Stevens, 2001).
Intercultural competence can be identified as four skills: personality strength,
communication skills, psychological adjustment and cultural awareness (Jandt, 1998,
2001, 2004).
Several models are applied to intercultural competence. Byram‟s (1997) model is the
most distinctive and widely accepted in foreign language teaching and learning
(Deardorff, 2006; Liaw, 2006), especially in Europe because of his work with the
84
Council of Europe (Byram, Gribkova & Starkey, 2002; Corbett, 2003). There are
five components to Byram‟s model. These can be explained as follows:
(a) Intercultural attitudes (savoir être): curiosity and openness, readiness to

suspend disbelief about other cultures and belief about one‟s own.
(b) Knowledge (saviors): of social groups and their products and practices in
one‟s own and in one‟s interlocutor‟s country, and of the general processes of
societal and individual interaction of distant peoples and cultures converging
within shared geographies and common political scenarios.
(c) Skills of interpreting and relating (savoir comprendre): ability to interpret

a document or event from another culture, to explain it and relate it to a
document or events from one‟s own.
(d) Skills of discovery and interaction (savoir apprendre/faire): ability to

acquire new knowledge of a culture and cultural practices and the ability and to
operate the knowledge, attitudes and skills under the constraints of real-time
communication and interaction.
(e) Critical cultural awareness (savoir s‟engager): an ability to evaluate,

critically and on the basis of explicit criteria, perspectives, practices and
products in one‟s own and other cultures and countries. (Byram, Gribkova &
Starkey, 2002, pp.12-13)
These five components interconnect each other and work together to achieve
significant intercultural competence; however, they can be assessed independently
(Deardorff, 2006). The notion of intercultural competence is important for this thesis
in regards to the role of a person‟s source culture in the interactive language learning
process.
85
3.4 Theory of English as a lingua franca (ELF)
3.4.1 Kachru’s three circle model of English
Kachru (1992, 2005) divides the English-using world into three concentric circles.
The uses and users of English internationally can be discussed in terms of these three
concentric circles (see Figure 3.4).
Figure 3.4 Kachrun’s model of world Englishes
The inner circle refers to countries where English is spoken as a first or dominant
language, such as the United States, Britain, Canada, and Australia. Although other
languages are spoken in these countries, English has a dominant place.
The outer circle refers to countries where English has a long history of
institutionalized functions and has important roles in education, governance, literacy
creativity and popular culture (Kachru, 2006; Kiong, Pakir, Choon & Crope, 2001),
for example, India, Singapore, Pakistan, and Philippines, in most cases former
colonies of Great Britain.
86
The expanding circle comprises countries in which English has various roles and has
acquired cultural or commercial importance, but it is used in a more restricted way
(Kachru, 2006; Kiong, Pakir, Choon & Crope, 2001), for instance, China, Japan,
Korea, and Indonesia.
Contrary to the theory of ELF used in this study, Kachru‟s three circles may be
misinterpreted as showing the different status of the English used by people from the
three circles. In the current study, language is fundamentally seen as a tool of
communication. ELF underpins the notion that there are a good variety of Englishes,
each enjoying the same status in the process of communication, regardless of the
different accents typical of each of the varieties, as long as they are comprehensible.
However, the varieties of English used in these three circles are known as “world
Englishes” (WEs). This term indicates that English shows differences in form,
function, creativity, and acculturation in different contexts (Čeh, 2008).
3.4.2 World Englishes and world standard English
With the development of English, new Englishes have appeared, which have resulted
from British English. In North America, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa,
English is spoken as a native or L1. In these countries English developed differently
from English in Britain, partly because of the original mixtures of dialects and
accents among the early settlers in these areas, and partly because of the influence of
the languages of the native populations (Jenkins, 2003).
In some countries or areas, where English is taught as an L2 or as one language in a

wider multilingual repertoire of requisition, for example, India, Singapore,
Philippines, etc., Englishes are also called new Englishes. The term “world
Englishes” is used to refer to links between them. Bolton (2004) has pointed out that
there are three possible interpretations of the expression “world Englishes”.
First, it covers all varieties of English worldwide and the different ways used to
describe and analyze them. Second, it is used in a narrower sense to indicate the so-
called new Englishes in Asia, Africa and the Caribbean. Third, it is used to represent
the multi-linguistic approach to the study of English associated with the
87
„Kachruvian‟ approach: English is used locally as a lingua franca and is the basis for
local identity (Modiano, 2009).
Therefore, there exist great differences amongst the different types of English used
worldwide. Different types of English have unique internally consistent vocabulary,
grammatical innovations and tolerances, pronunciations, idioms and discourse
(Burns, 2001), because they are influenced by the different cultures, customs, mother
tongues, and so on. However, these Englishes, including British English, share
certain features, for instance, the very basic grammatical rules.
“Standard English” is a variety of English. Standard English is an unusual

combination of linguistic features in matters of grammar, vocabulary, spelling and
punctuation. Standard English carries a prestige that has an influence on desirable
educational targets for English language learners. Standard English is widely
understood, but it is not widely produced outside of academic study (Crystal, 2010).
English in a standard form is used as a world language. Crystal (1995) has indicated
that from a linguistic point of view, it is no longer adequate to call one American
English and the other British English, instead they are part of “world standard
English”. World standard English acts as a strongly unifying force among all kinds
of existing variations of English.
Crystal (2003), Görlach (1990) and McArchur (1987, 1998) has pointed out that the
so-called phenomenon of “world standard English” was a hypothetical and
monolithic form of English which, they anticipated, would develop of its own
accord. However, this “single monochrome standard form” (Quirk, 1995, p.6) is built
on the basis of native English speakers rather than non-native English speakers and
does not consider the communicative context (Jenkins, 2006).
English has indeed become a world language with differently developed varieties. To
achieve communicative competence between people whose native languages and
cultures are different could be difficult if communication is conducted based only on
that of native speakers of English. Rubdi and Saraceni (2006) claimed that:
An alternative viewpoint to English as an international language (EIL)/ELF …

is one which acknowledges the polymorphous nature of the English language
88
worldwide, identifying such different varieties under a World Englishes
paradigm. The emphasis, in this case, is not on prescribing either a reduced or
extended form of standard English, but on questioning the very concept of
„standard‟, and on advocating a pluricentric model rather than a monolithic one.
(p.13)
Rajagopalan (2004) indicated that “„World English‟ (WE) belongs to everyone who
speaks it, but it is nobody‟s mother tongue” (p.III). Further, it has been suggested
that “how English develops in the world is no business whatever of native speakers
in England, the United States, or everywhere else” (Widdowson, 1994, p.385).
Therefore, this study of pragmatics for College English learners must take into
consideration these issues about different Englishes and the context of learning
English.
3.4.3 English as a lingua franca
A lingua franca is the common language used by people of different language

backgrounds to communicate with each other, and lingua francas can be used both
intranationally and internationally (Canagarajah, 2006a, 2006b; Kirkpatrick, 2007).
The notion of lingua franca has been used to characterize the global functions of the
English language (James, 2000; McArthur, 2001; Seidlhofer, 2001) and there are
attempts to define the core (Jenkins, 2000) of this lingua franca English. The term
„English as a lingua franca‟ (Canagarajah, 2006a, 2006b; Jenkins, 2007; Seidlhofer,
2001) has emerged as a way of describing communication in English between
speakers with different first languages (Seidlhofer, 2005).
ELF researchers do not believe any monolithic variety of English will ever exist
(Jenkins, 2006), that is, there will not be only one version of English that all people
in the world will use. ELF is part of the more general phenomenon of English as an
international language or “world Englishes” (Jenkins, 2003; McArthur, 1998;
Melchers & Shaw, 2003; Seidlhofer, 2005). ELF is not a language for specific
purposes or a pidgin, but a language showing full linguistic and functional range
(Kachru, 1997).
89
Karsten (1993) offers a definition that characterizes ELF as follows:
There is no consistency in form that goes beyond the participant level, i.e., each
combination of interactants seems to negotiate and govern their own variety of
lingua franca use in terms of proficiency level, use of code-mixing, degree of
pidginization, etc. (p.108)
The most important components of a lingua franca for House (2003) are
“negotiability, variability in terms of speaker proficiency, and openness to an
integration of forms of other languages” (p.557). ELF has been defined as “a „contact
language‟ between persons who share neither a common native tongue nor a
common (national) culture, and for whom English is the chosen foreign language of
communication” (Firth, 1996, p.240). House (1999) emphasizes that ELF
interactions occur between speakers with different language backgrounds, none of
which is English. In other words, ELF is “a language for communication, and a
medium that can be given substance with different national, regional, local, and
individual cultural identities” (House, 2010, p.365). However, with the
unprecedented spread of English throughout the world and the unpredictable settings
in which English is used, it is now recognized that ELF interactions also occur with
English native speakers (Seidlhofer, 2004).
In its conceptualization, ELF could be distinguished from the concept of EFL, and
ELF users could be distinguished from English language learners. The ultimate goal
of EFL is native linguistic and cultural proficiency. In contrast, ELF learners acquire
English as a foreign language at school and use English as a means of
communication for their own purpose and in their own way. In terms of form, EFL
and ELF appear to be the same, but they serve different purposes of language use
(Seidlhofer, 2001, 2004). Native speakers, their Englishes, and their ownership of
English do not maintain a core role in ELF, for English is the language for
international communication and nowadays it is used by more non-native speakers
than native speakers (Kuo, 2006).
In relation to ELF not being a pidgin, pidgins are “languages that are born after
contact between at least two other languages” (Kirkpatrick, 2007, p.13). Pidgins are
restricted in function and are often used in specific areas and surroundings. There is
90
no such restriction for ELF as it can be used for all purposes (Lichtkoppler, 2010). In
addition, ELF is not limited in its linguistic form and offers every possible
opportunity for linguistic expansion and creativity (Hollander, 2002).
ELF encourages learners to learn and use their local variety of English in a range of
communicative contexts, regardless of whether it is an inner, outer or expanding
circle of English. Furthermore, any participants in international communication need
to be familiar with, and have in their linguistic repertoire for use when suitable,
certain forms (lexicogrammatical, phonological, etc.) that are widely used and
accepted across groups of English speakers with different mother tongues (Jenkins,
2006) to aid in communicative competence.
Since native speakers are no longer a privileged group in the global spread of
English, non-native speakers are now entitled to share the „privileges‟ that have until
now been reserved for native speakers. These include a claim to ownership, a right to
use English without others passing judgment, an equal footing with speakers of other
English varieties, and, more profoundly, a right to shape the future of English (Kuo,
2006; Melchers & Shaw, 2003).
Comprehensibility remains a central concern in developing learners‟ communicative

competence. Accordingly, while it is justifiable to use a native speaker‟s English
variety as a benchmark to assess learner English or English in development, there are
other elements that need to be taken into consideration in the process such as
learners, contexts and cultural and intercultural issues. Even though English is taught
and learned in the bilingual context of China, there is a misconception that we need
to learn „standard native-like English‟. Thus, this study examined Chinese College
English students‟ perceptions of various Englishes which, to great extent, influence
the achievement of pragmatic competence in communication.
As language learning strategies could be applied in every aspect of the language

learning process, such as learning pragmatics, intercultural communication and ELF,
they are described in theories of language learning and teaching. The following
section describes various strategies that have been associated with learning English
to develop communicative competence.
91
3.5 Theories of language learning and teaching
3.5.1 Language learning strategies
„Learning how to learn‟ has been regarded as a critical and necessary component of
the language learning process from which the idea of learner training and strategy
instruction has emerged (Ellis & Sinclair, 1989; Hurd & Lewis, 2008; Weaver &
Cohen, 1997). Strategies are the tools for active, self-directed involvement that is
essential for developing communicative ability (O‟Malley & Chamot, 1990; Wenden
& Rubin, 1987). Oxford (1996) pointed out that “strategies are not a single event, but
rather a creative sequence of events that learners actively use” (p.x).
Learning strategies are commonly defined as “the operations or processes which are
consciously selected and employed by the learner to learn the target language (TL) or
facilitate a language task” (Hurd & Lewis, 2008, p.9). They are connected with
learning styles, personality, gender, and culture (Ehrman & Oxford, 1995; Cohen,
1998). Strategies offer a set of choices for learners, which promote more effective
learning (Kaplan, 2002; Rubin, 1987). Successful learners have developed a series of
strategies from which they are able to choose for given contexts and subsequently
adapt flexibly to meet the needs of a given situation (Nisbet & Shucksmith, 1986).
There is a distinction among three types of strategies: production, communication,

and learning. A production strategy is an effort to use one‟s linguistic system
effectively and clearly with a minimum of effort. Communication strategies refer to
attempts to cope with problems of communication that have arisen in interaction. A
language learning strategy consists of an effort to develop linguistic and
sociolinguistic competence in the target language (Tarone, 1980). Although these
distinctions are important, they are not easily applied when they rely on learners‟
intentions that are often not clear or easy to set up (Ellis, 1994).
It is also helpful to distinguish two types of learning strategy: language learning

strategies and skill learning strategies. Language learning strategies are concerned
with the learners‟ attempts to master new linguistic and sociolinguistic information
about the target language (Tarone, 1980). Skill learning strategies engage the
92
learners‟ efforts to become skilled listeners, speakers, readers, or writers (Ellis,
1994).
Strategies characterize the relationship between intention and action, and are built on
the basis of the insights of learners who are aware of their needs, preferences, goals
and problems (Hurd & Lewis, 2008). One aim of this study was to investigate
College English students‟ language learning strategies in learning English and
pragmatics. To do this, Oxford‟s (1990) SILL was used in analyzing the collected
data. The SILL divides language learning strategies into direct strategies (memory,
cognitive and compensation strategies) and indirect strategies (metacognitive,
affective and social strategies) (see Figure 3.5).
Memory strategies
Direct strategies Cognitive strategies
Compensation strategies
Learning strategies
Metacognitive strategies
Indirect strategies Affective strategies
Social strategies
(Source: Oxford, 1990, p.16)
Figure 3.5 Overview diagram of the strategy system
Direct strategies consist of “strategies that directly involve the target language” and
“require mental processing of the language” (Oxford, 1990, p.37). Indirect strategies
provide “indirect support for language learning through focusing, planning,
evaluating, seeking opportunities, controlling anxiety, increasing cooperation and
empathy and other means” (Oxford, 1990, p.151).
93
Language learning strategies focus on developing an understanding of how to tackle
learning a language in a variety of contexts, including independent settings. Learners
must be aware of the learning task and the appropriate strategies to use in a given
context in order to develop a meaningful boundary within the learning environment
(Hurd & Lewis, 2008).
L2 learning strategies are very important, because conscious and modified use of
learning strategies is closely associated with language achievement and proficiency
(Oxford, 1996). A capacity to use strategies flexibly in accordance with task
requirements is one of the five major aspects of successful language learning (Ellis,
1994). Strategies or combinations of strategies are effective in promoting language
learning (O‟Malley & Chamot, 1990; Oxford, 1996; Wenden, 1983). In terms of this
study, Chinese College English students‟ perceptions and practice of language
learning strategies in learning English and pragmatics were examined.
3.5.2 Task-based language teaching and learning
Task-based teaching (TBT) and task-based learning (TBL) appeared in the late 1980s
(Willis, 1996). In the language teaching and learning process, a task is a classroom
activity with a concentration on meaning. It includes real communication between
teachers and students, or between two or more students communicating with one
another, and producing something as a result (Willis & Willis, 2009). Nunan (1999)
proposed the effectiveness of tasks for organizing the learning of an L2:
A task is an activity or action which is carried out as the result of processing or

understanding language (i.e., as a response). For example, drawing a map while
listening to a tape, listening to an instruction and performing a command, may
be referred to as tasks. Tasks may or may not involve the production of
language. A task usually requires the teacher to specify what will be regarded as
successful completion of the task. The use of variety of different kinds of tasks
in language teaching is said to make language teaching more communicative.
(p.25)
A task-based approach uses meaningful tasks to organize the learning of an L2. In

language teaching, TBL has gained great importance over the last few decades (İlin,
İnözü & Yumru, 2007). It requires students to engage in interaction so as to
94
accomplish a task, and it is claimed that the principal language systems will develop
while students concentrate on the process of performing tasks (Bygate, Tonkyn &
Williams, 1994). Brown (2001) characterizes TBL as follows:
Task-based curricula differ from content-based, theme-based, and experiential

instruction in that the course objectives are somewhat more language-based.
While there is an ultimate focus on communication and purpose and meaning,
the goals are linguistic in nature. They are not linguistic in the traditional sense
of just focusing on grammar or phonology; but by maintaining the centrality of
functions like greeting people, expressing opinions, requesting information, etc.,
the course goals center on learners‟ pragmatic language competence. (p.244)
Long and Crookes (1991) stated that tasks have a clear pedagogic relationship to out-
of-class language use. Task development is based on needs analysis. In the TBT-
process, students play a central role. In the language teaching class, students are
provided with plenty of opportunities to be engaged in activities, and the teacher is
more like a patient listener rather than a talkative speaker. Therefore, TBT is both
student-centered and task-based (Yu, 2007).
TBL recognizes both the importance of knowing how to do something and the need
to know and understand the principles underlying the required action (Halloran,
2001). Rather than developing native-like, communicative competence, TBT may
lead to the development of some sort of non-native competency which is full of
communication strategies that make communicative task completion possible
(Salmani-Nodoushan, 2007).
Salmani-Nodoushan (2007) has indicated the goals in TBT are to help language
learners become more native-like in performance in a second or foreign language,
develop more effective communicative efficiency in difficult performance
circumstances, and become more accurate and fluent in communication. Willis
(1996) emphasized that “tasks are always activities where the target language is used
by the learner for a communicative purpose” (p.23). That is to say, communicative
tasks are the core of TBT.
95
TBT is a well-integrated approach to language teaching which requires language
teachers to organize classroom teaching with practical tasks so as to engage language
learners in the „out there‟ in the real world (Brown, 2001). TBL as a teaching and
language learning strategy provides a framework to explore the pragmatic tasks
involving in the classroom teaching and learning as well as in textbooks in this
research.
3.5.3 Communicative language teaching
Teaching is an indispensable part of the language learning process. The origins of

CLT can be traced back to the late 1960s and early 1970s. Current understandings of
CLT can be traced back to Hymes (1972), who suggested that knowing a language
should involve more than knowing a set of grammatical, lexical, and phonological
rules. Language learners need to develop communicative competence, which is the
ability to use the language they are learning properly in a given social encounter so
as to use the language efficiently (Hiep, 2007).
Breen and Candlin (1980) viewed CLT in terms of syllabus and methodology.
Stelma (2009) indicated that the central aspect of CLT is how to understand the
concept of communication and how it should inform language teaching. A concern
for communication, particular in functional practice, is one of the chief aspects of
successful language learning (Ellis, 1994). CLT is based on a broad theoretical
position about the nature of language and language learning and teaching (Brown,
1994). Richard and Rodgers (1986) described their understandings of CLT as
follows:
Communicative Language Teaching is best considered an approach rather than

a method. Thus although a reasonable degree of theoretical consistency can be
discerned at the levels of language and learning theory, at the levels of design
and procedure there is much greater room for individual interpretation and
variation than most methods permit. (p.83)
Understanding communicative competence is one way of understanding CLT.

Halliday‟s (1973) work on the semantic potential of language, Hyme‟s (1972)
investigation of the relationship between language as a system and communication in
96
social situations, and Wilkins‟ (1976) development of the analytical functional
syllabus have great influence on the understanding of communicative competence.
Oller (1983) indicated that communicative competence include grammatical

competence, sociolinguistic, discourse and strategic competence. Speakers need to
draw on a variety of competencies when they use language for communication. Any
definition of communicative competence indicates that communicative competence
attempts to represent “in a few abstract constructs the complex realities of language
use across an unforeseeable range of variation and situational contingency” (Lee,
2006, p.351). The range of changeability extends both to real-time situations and to
variation in patterns of communication across and within not only small cultures but
also large national cultures (Stelma, 2009).
Comprehending what is included in the process of communication is another way of

understanding CLT. It is apparent that there is much correspondence between
communication processes and language teaching, but there is also practical evidence
that challenges as to which communication as process can inform language teaching.
Understanding the contexts in which communication takes place can help to

understand CLT. CLT in language teaching has been carried out worldwide.
Communication is universal; how we understand communication, how it is
influenced by changes in society and technology, and how it is intertwined with
context and cultures is complex (Stelma, 2009). Communication happens in different
contexts, and the situational and cultural dynamic cannot be ignored in any context.
CLT explores communication not only in its own language teaching situations, but
also in small or large cultural contexts.
CLT theory suggests a focus on learning, and learning is likely to happen when
classroom practices are made real and meaningful to learners. CLT requires more
than attention to strategies for presenting the structures and functions of language; it
requires the involvement of learners in the dynamic and interactive process of
communication (Savignon, 1987). The aim CLT sets for language learning is to teach
language learners to be able to use the language efficiently for their actual
communicative needs, rather than merely to provide learners with knowledge about
97
the grammar system of the language (Hiep, 2007). Thus, CLT provides an essential
aspect to investigate current College English teaching and learning in this study.
3.6 Summary
The three strands of theory, particularly their related key concepts, definitions, and
arguments informed by SLA theory and research: Pragmatics, Intercultural
communication, and ELF form a typology for a detailed examination of College
English students‟ perceptions and learning of English and pragmatics. The theory of
SLA provides a broad framework for a deep analysis of learner behaviors such as
perceptions, processes, strategies, learning tasks and materials. Theories of
pragmatics, intercultural communication, and ELF allow for a focused study of
issues that are related to the treatment of specific cultural assumptions, the
relationship between different cultures, an understanding of English as an
international language, as well as the relationship between the language use and its
specific context.
98
CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Informed by the theoretical framework presented in the previous chapter, this chapter
describes the research methods employed for data collection and analysis in this
study as well as the detailed design of the study. The four instruments: a
questionnaire, DCTs, semi-structured focus group interviews and a textbook tasks
analysis, provide empirical evidence of Chinese students‟ perceptions of pragmatics,
their language learning strategies of learning English and pragmatics as well as their
pragmatic competence relating to selected speech acts in College English learning.
Procedures and processes of sample and data selection and analysis, as well as
ethical considerations are also described.
4.1 Design of the study
Informed by Crotty (1998), the four basic elements in any research process are:
Methods – the techniques or procedures used to gather and analyze data related
to some research questions or hypothesis; methodology – the strategy, plan of
action, process or design lying behind the choice and use of particular methods
and linking the choice and use of methods to the desired outcomes; theoretical
perspective – the philosophical stance informing the methodology and thus
providing a context for the process and grounding its logic and criteria;
epistemology – the theory of knowledge embedded in the theoretical
perspective and thereby in the methodology. (Crotty, 1998, p.3)
The four elements inform one another, and their relationship is shown in Figure 4.1.
99
epistemology
theoretical perspective
methodology
methods
(Source: Crotty, 1998, p. 4)
Figure 4.1 Four elements of research design
This research is designed as a case study conducted at a second-tier university in

Shanghai, China. A case study focuses on “one (or just a few) instances of a
particular phenomenon with a view to providing an in-depth account of events,
relationships, experiences or processes occurring in that particular instance”
(Denscombe, 2007, p.36). A case study is typically discussed under the label of
qualitative research, and allows for a variety of research data collection methods
(Bryman, 2001; Dörnyei, 2007), including quantitative data collection instruments
(Verschuren, 2003). The case study has played an important role in applied
linguistics research, particularly in studying first and second language acquisition
(Nunan & Bailey, 2009). It encourages researchers to use multiple methods in order
to maximize their understanding of characters of the social being or object studied
(Denscombe, 2007; Dörnyei, 2007; Silverman, 2005).
As case studies have been used for a wide range of purposes in social research, they
can be categorized into three specific types: exploratory, explanatory, and descriptive
(Yin, 2003). The present study was exploratory in that the purpose was to explore
College English students‟ English pragmatics learning in the Chinese context, and to
explore the issues students had in learning pragmatics. This study opens new
research possibilities because there is a relative lack of research in this area,
especially in China.
100
The case study approach allows the researcher to use a variety of sources, a variety
of data and a variety of research methods as part of the investigation (Denscombe,
2007). Combining qualitative and quantitative methods to collect, analyze and mix
data in a single study can help one understand research questions and gain a better
understanding of a complex phenomenon (Creswell, 2005; Dörnyei, 2007; Johnson
& Christensen, 2004). Mixed methods research also improves the validity of the
research and reaches multiple audiences (Dörnyei, 2007).
Both quantitative and qualitative methods were applied in this study and data were
collected and analyzed with quantitative techniques embedded into a primarily
qualitative research framework. It was believed that a combined quantitative and
qualitative approach was better than only one approach in discovering Chinese
university students‟ deeper perceptions and practice of pragmatics, as well as the
language learning strategies used in their College English learning.
The combination of qualitative and quantitative approaches can assist to achieve a

fuller understanding of a target phenomenon and improve the validity of the research
(Sandelowski, 2003). Quantitative and qualitative methods were used in a sequential
order where the results of the first method informed the development of the second
(Dörnyei, 2007). Quantitative approaches usually helps to map the major trends or
features across a group under study, and then the subsequent qualitative approaches
enable the researcher to present a more realistic picture of the reality of the situation
and reveal more complexities (Erickson, 1991).
The study is informed by SLA theory and research, particularly the theoretical
frameworks of Pragmatics, Intercultural communication and ELF. Theory of
Pragmatics (Interlanguage pragmatics, Intercultural/Cross-cultural Pragmatics,
Sociopragmatics, Pragmatic competence, Communicative competence, and Speech
acts) are combined with theories of Intercultural communication (Interculturality,
Intercultural communication, and Intercultural competence) and ELF to explore and
theorize College English students‟ perceptions of their language learning and
pragmatic knowledge, their pragmatic competence as well as language learning
strategies in learning pragmatics and English in general. Thus, the research design of
this study can be presented in the following table.
101
Table 4.1 Design of the study
Theoretical
Epistemology Methodology Methods
perspective
- Language learned - SLA - Case study - Questionnaire

through - Pragmatics - Mixed methods - Discourse
interaction, use completion tasks
and engagement in - Intercultural
(DCTs)
meaningful communication
contexts - Interviews
- English as a
lingua franca - Textbook tasks
analysis
(adapted from Crotty, 1998, p.5)
There are two levels of universities or colleges in China: the university level (four-
year study program for undergraduates) and the college level (three-year study
program for undergraduates). This study was conducted at one university because
College English teaching and learning at the university level has unified curriculum
requirements and focuses on the students‟ language development. In contrast,
College English teaching and learning at the college level in China concentrates on
professional development and curriculum requirements vary to suit different
disciplinary studies.
After the researcher completed the design of the study, he contacted the Heads of the
College English Department or Associate Deans of the Faculty of Foreign Languages
of eight universities in Shanghai to request permission to conduct the research. Seven
of them politely declined the request as they were worried that the study might
disturb their normal classroom teaching and learning, and might cause psychological
burdens to both students and teachers. One university agreed to the request to carry
out the study. The university believed that it might be a good opportunity for them to
learn about potential deficits in their teaching and learning processes and the results
could promote their College English teaching and learning reform.
102
4.2 Participants
Participants in the study were first-year university students from one university in
Shanghai studying College English courses in the second semester. The first-year
students are usually streamlined into the College English classes at two levels (Level
1 and 2) according to the results of the English proficiency test given at the
beginning of the first semester in second-tier universities in China. Data were
collected after students had completed one-semester of study. This allowed for them
to have adapted to study at university and to have acquired enough English language
proficiency to participate in the research. Thus, the participants in this study were
studying College English at levels 2 and 3.
Students were invited to participate in the study voluntarily and anonymously. They
were fully informed of the aims and significance of the study by the researcher
before the commencement of the study, and made their decisions independently as to
whether to participate or not. They were also informed that they had the right to
withdraw from the study at any time.
A total of 237 first-year university students were invited to complete the

questionnaire on a voluntary basis. Upon completion of the questionnaire, a sub-
group of 55 students, who had completed the questionnaire were invited to
voluntarily complete the DCTs two weeks after the questionnaire. From this group,
18 students volunteered to participate anonymously in focus group interviews one
week after the DCTs.
4.3 Data collection
Quantitative data was gathered from closed-ended questions on the questionnaire and
textbook tasks analysis, while the qualitative data was gathered from responses or
transcripts of responses to open-ended questions on the questionnaire, the DCTs
responses, and the transcripts from focus group interviews. The data collection
procedures of this research took place in the following chronological order. First,
approval was sought from the Human Ethical Committee of Queensland University
of Technology. Then, data collection comprising a questionnaire, DCTs and semi-
103
structured focus group interviews occurred between February and March 2011 in
Shanghai, China
In order not to disturb students‟ study routines, the study was conducted outside of
normal teaching hours. The questionnaire, which took 30 minutes for students to
complete, was conducted at a fixed time and place. Regarding DCTs, participants
were organized into two groups to complete the 30 minute DCTs and different times
were negotiated so as to avoid inconvenience. Participants of focus group interviews
were arranged in two groups of nine in each, and times outside of normal teaching
hours were negotiated in order not to disrupt participants‟ study routines. Each group
interview lasted for 60 minutes. Table 4.2 shows the details of the timeline and
places for data collection.
Table 4.2 Data collection timeline and place
Time Data collection Place
Room 1A 301, Teaching

24th February 2011 Questionnaire
Building 1
Discourse Completion Room 1A 301, Teaching

8th March 2011
Tasks (Group 1) Building 1
Discourse Completion Room 1A 301, Teaching

10th March 2011
Tasks (Group 2) Building 1
Focus group interviews Room 304, Building of Foreign

16th March 2011
(Group 1) Languages College
Focus group interview Room 304, Building of Foreign

22nd March 2011
(Group 2) Language College
4.4 Data analysis
The process of data analysis is to obtain information that lies behind the surface
content of the data. The researcher needs to interpret and analyze the collected data
in a logical way in order to identify the crucial components used to explain the nature
of the thing being studied (Denscombe, 2007). The raw quantitative data collected
from the questionnaire and textbook tasks analysis in this study were used for
104
quantitative analysis, which is more straightforward than qualitative analysis to
address research issues (Dörnyei, 2007). These data were transformed into numbers
by the process of coding and applied to the Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences (SPSS) Version 17 for analysis.
The qualitative data collected in this study were transformed into textual forms and
used for qualitative analysis. The analytic process followed the four basic principles:
(a) the analysis of the data and the conclusions drawn from the research must be
rooted in the data;
(b) the researcher‟s explanation of the data should come from a detailed study of
the data;
(c) unwarranted perceptions of data analysis should be avoided; and
(d) the data analysis should include an iterative process (Denscombe, 2007).
The process of interpreting and analyzing the qualitative data in this study included:
1) coding the data; 2) categorizing the codes; 3) identifying themes and relationships
among the codes and categories; and 4) developing some generalized statements.
The triangulation approach was used to examine and compare the data gathered from
the different sources as this allows a better understanding of the phenomenon being
studied by viewing it from different positions, which can enhance the validity of the
data (Denscombe, 2007). “Interpretations that are built upon triangulation are certain
to be stronger than those that rest on the more constricted framework of a single
method” (Denzin, 1997, p.319).
Data from the questionnaire were used to identify overarching themes for the
research. These themes were refined through analysis of the DCTs data, focus group
interview data and textbook tasks analysis data. The collected data were coded
according to the identified themes with the additional emerging themes noted. The
four broad themes from the research included:
(a) students‟ perceptions of pragmatics knowledge and pragmatic competence;
(b) pragmatics in College English learning and teaching;
(c) students‟ levels of pragmatic competence; and
105
(d) students‟ perceptions and practice of language learning strategies in learning
English and pragmatics.
The process of data analysis is shown in the following figure.
Data collected
Coding the data
Categorized RQ 1 RQ 2 RQ 3
Identified Four broad themes:

themes - Students‟ perceptions of pragmatics knowledge and
pragmatic competence
- Pragmatics in College English learning and teaching
- Students‟ levels of pragmatic competence
- Students‟ perceptions and practice of language
learning strategies in learning English and
pragmatics
Generalized
A tentative model of learning pragmatics
conclusions
Figure 4.2: Analysis of the data
The following sections describe the research data collection and analysis methods
used in the study.
4.5 Questionnaire
A questionnaire is one of the quantitative data collection instruments that can obtain
a broad perspective from the research subjects (Denscombe, 2007). Questionnaires
are defined as “any written instruments that present respondents with a series of
questions or statements to which they are to react, either by writing out their answers
or selecting from among existing answers” (Brown, 2001a, p.6). In addition, a
questionnaire is one of the research techniques that can be classified as
106
„introspective‟ as it facilitates recollecting past experiences, analyzing current
sensations, thinking about problems and planning for the future (Delamillieure,
Doucet, Mazoyer, Turbelin, Delcroix, Mellet, Zago, Crivello, Petit, Tzourio-Mazoyer
& Joliot, 2010).
A questionnaire is easy to arrange and provides standardized answers because all

respondents are exposed to the same questions (Dörnyei, 2003, 2007; Denscombe,
2007). Moreover, a questionnaire encourages pre-coded answers which allow for the
fast collation and analysis of data by the researcher. Respondents do not need to
spend a lot of time working out how to express their opinions (Dörnyei, 2007). A
questionnaire also provides accurate collected data for the researcher (Denscombe,
2007).
The questionnaire designed for this study consisted of multiple choice closed-ended,
Likert-type questions, and three concluding open-ended questions to explore
students‟ perceptions of pragmatic knowledge in familiar situations and consisted of
two sections. Questions were adapted from previous studies or were modified
questions from the literature (for example, see Ji, 2008; Keshavarz, Eslami &
Ghahraman, 2006; Nureddeen, 2008; Yuan & Shen, 2009). One example was derived
as an authentic situation from the researcher‟s life experience. In this section, there
were 12 Likert-type questions with 5-point multiple choice answers ranging from: 1
= strongly disagree; 2 = disagree; 3 = neutral; 4 = agree; 5 = strongly agree. The use
of Likert-type scales can avoid loading participants with immense work and ensure
an accurate report of the reality under study. A sample closed-ended question used in
the research was: I prefer my English class to be focused on communicative language
teaching and practice, with grammar explained when necessary. (The full
questionnaire can be found in Appendix A.)
Three open-ended questions were included in the questionnaire. A sample of an

open-ended question on the questionnaire was: What kind of tasks do you think is
necessary to improve students‟ communicative ability in English language teaching
and learning? Open-ended questions let respondents decide the wording of the
answer, the length of the answer and the kind of matters to be raised in the answer.
The information gathered from open-ended questions was more likely to reflect the
107
full richness and complexity of the views held by the respondent. At the same time,
respondents were given space to express themselves in their own words (Denscombe,
2007).
The questionnaire was in English, but students were allowed to answer the open-
ended questions in English or in Chinese, whichever they felt would enable them to
express themselves better. This method was used to ensure that the collected data
were as accurate and precise as possible, however the researcher has acknowledged
that because there is a difference in language and culture between Chinese and
English there was a possibility that a fully accurate translation might not occur.
Language users‟ L1 and first culture are sure to influence the use of their L2 or
foreign language as they might transfer their L1 knowledge and thinking skills as
well as their first culture to the use of an L2 or foreign language (Karsten, 1993;
Liaw, 2006). Every effort was made by the researcher to ensure that translation of
data was as accurate as possible. As the collected data were analyzed in English, a
„back translation‟ approach, that is, translating from Chinese to English, and back to
Chinese, was used to ensure the reliability of the data. All transcripts were translated
by professional translators to maintain validity as much as possible.
The first section of the questionnaire provided demographic information about the
students. The information was analyzed to explore the implications of the
relationship between the demographic features and students‟ perceptions of
pragmatics in College English learning in the Chinese context. The raw data were
grouped and statistically transformed into a table reporting frequency and
percentages.
In the second section of the questionnaire, 12 items used a 5-point Likert rating scale.
They were used to rate students‟ perceptions of pragmatics in College English
learning and teaching. According to the criteria of mean (Oxford, 1990), a mean
score equal or above 3.50 was interpreted as having a strong degree of impact (3.50 ≤
M ≤ 5.00 = strong); a mean score equal or above 2.50 but below 3.50 was interpreted
as having a moderate impact (2.50 ≤ M < 3.50 = moderate), and a mean score below
2.50 was considered as having a weak degree of impact (M < 2.50 = weak).
108
Percentages, means, and standard deviations were used to analyze these statements.
Results were presented in tables and figures, as well as described in words. The
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) Version 17 was used to obtain
statistical analysis of the data. The results of other questions were presented by bar
charts, which are an effective way of presenting frequencies in research (Denscombe,
2007).
Open-ended questions in the second section aimed to draw out the students‟ personal
responses. Students were free to answer these questions by providing any
information of their language learning experiences that was relevant. They were also
encouraged to provide extra information. More than 75% of the answers to the open-
ended questions were written in Chinese as the students were allowed to use
whichever language they felt comfortable with when providing the answers.
However, responses in English were an important means of exploring a confident
and accurate representation of language learners‟ identity in their L2 (Kramsch &
Lam, 1999). The overlapping data were presented in word descriptions in one voice,
and the unrelated and unnecessary information was not included in the data report.
The raw data collected from the second section of the questionnaire was coded into
three themes: students‟ perceptions of pragmatics in College English learning and
teaching; students‟ levels of pragmatic competence, and students‟ perceptions and
practice of language learning strategies that were reported in the next chapter.
4.6 Discourse Completion Tasks (DCTs)
First employed by Blum-Kulka (1982) to explore pragmatic speech acts, DCTs have
become one of the most commonly used research instruments in pragmatics research
(Kasper & Rose, 2002; Roever, 2010). Zuskin (1993) highlighted that a DCT is a
data collecting device particularly designed to obtain responses to problematic,
contextually-specific prompts. To some degree, DCTs have become essential tools in
eliciting language responses. In interlanguage and cross-cultural pragmatics research,
DCTs are used as the standard way of gathering data because they allow a fast and
targeted collection of a large amount of data (Roever, 2010). Blum-Kulka, House and
Kasper (1989) and Parvaresh and Tavakoli (2009) have indicated that DCTs, as
109
pragmatics tools, are not only used for examining the L2 pragmatic knowledge, but
also for pragmatic research in the L1.
This research used a WDCT, which requested students to read a written description
of a situation and then asked them to write down what they would say in that
situation (Blum-Kulka, 1982; Brown, 2001b; Parvaresh & Tavakoli, 2009). Cohen
and Olshtain (1994) suggested that discourse completion “is a projective measure of
speaking and so the cognitive processes involved in producing utterances in response
to this elicitation device may not truly reflect those used when having to speak
relatively naturally” (Cohen & Olshtain, 1994, p.13). WDCTs do not require
participants to interact conversationally, only to write responses which they would
use in certain situations. Such responses can indirectly reveal a participant‟s
accumulated experience within a given situation (Woodfield, 2008). Thus, WDCTs
represent highly constrained instruments of data collection.
The use of DCTs (see Appendix B) in this study aimed to collect data about students‟
pragmatic knowledge, levels of pragmatic competence and their strategies in using
English. A sub-group of 55 students who had completed the questionnaire were
invited to complete the DCTs. Students were provided with sufficient time and
privacy to consider whether to continue to participate in the DCTs or not. They were
allowed to withdraw from the study at any point of time. Twenty situations adapted
from previous studies (for example, see Allami & Naeimi, 2011; Bataineh &
Bataineh, 2006; Chen & Yang, 2009; Keshavarz, Eslami & Ghahraman, 2006;
Lorenzo-Dus, 2001; Schauer & Adolphs, 2006; Tanck, 2004) were used in the DCTs
and all of the situations were in English. For example, students were asked to write a
response in the blank after “you”:
You are wearing a new Rolex watch. You meet one friend at your office.
Friend: Wow! What a nice watch! I wish I had one like that.
You: ________________________________________________
The three selected speech acts of refusal, compliment response, and apology were
applied in DCTs. Students had to complete these questions in English rather than
110
having a choice of English or Chinese in order to analyze students‟ pragmatic
knowledge and pragmatic competence as well as strategies in using English.
The raw data were classified into three different groups in accordance with their
speech act types. In each group, short expressions relating to each different speech
act were reported in frequency and percentages in order to give a brief picture of
pragmatic knowledge and pragmatic competence, and followed by students‟
responses in each situation. The overlapping data was reported in one voice.
4.7 Semi-structured focus group interviews
Interviewing is a most often used data collection strategy to acquire people‟s insights
on social phenomena (Dörnyei, 2007). Interviews are an often-used tool for
researchers and involve a set of assumptions and understandings about the situation
that are not generally connected with a casual conversation (Denscombe, 1983;
Silverman, 1985). In a variety of applied linguistic contexts, interviews can help
acquire language learners‟ rich and complex experiences and the understanding of
the experience both inside and outside the classroom (Dörnyei, 2007; Tinto, 1995).
Interviews are especially good at producing data which deal with topics in depth and
in detail. The researcher can obtain valuable insights based on the depth of the
information gathered. Interviews need only simple equipment and build on
conversational skills that researchers already have. Meanwhile, informants have the
opportunity to expand their ideas and explain their views during the interview.
Interviews are probably the most flexible strategy, for some adjustments to the lines
of enquiry can be made during the interview itself. (Denscombe, 2007).
Interviews can be classified from “unstructured, semi-structured to structured on a

continuum” (Nunan, 1992, p.149) in accordance with the degree of formality of the
relationship between interviewer and interviewee. Semi-structured interviews are
useful as they fall between structured and unstructured interview formats. Moreover,
they are partially interviewer-led and informant-led (Arksey & Knight, 1999).
Interviews have a clear list of issues to be addressed and questions to be answered,
while interviewees can develop ideas and speak more widely on issues raised by the
111
researcher (Denscombe, 2007). Dörnyei (2007) highlighted the characteristics of
semi-structured interviews as follows:
The semi-structured interview is suitable for cases when the researcher has a
good enough overview of the phenomenon or domain in question and is able to
develop broad questions about the topic in advance but does not want to use
ready-made response categories that would limit the depth and breadth of the
respondent‟s story. (p.136)
In the interview, the interviewer offers guidance and direction and is also keen on
interviewee‟s emerging worldview of certain issues (Merriam, 1998). With this in
mind, semi-structured interviews were used in this research.
All participants of a focus group interview have similar knowledge or experience on

the topic and, as a group, they can channel the discussion onto something specific
and concrete. During a focus group session, participants are encouraged to discuss
the topic among themselves, which can lead to a consensus and shared viewpoint.
This interaction provides the researcher with a method of investigating the reasoning
behind the views and opinions that are expressed by group members. The ideal size
of focus groups is between six and nine people and the ideal length time is about one
and a half to two hours (Denscombe, 2007).
The aim of interviews in this study was to collect data about students‟ viewpoints on
their knowledge, competence, and language learning strategies for acquiring
pragmatic knowledge in the College English learning process. All the data collected
from interviews assisted in learning more about the students‟ understanding and
practice of the present College English learning and teaching, especially in
pragmatics.
A total of 18 students who had finished DCTs were invited to take part in the focus
group interviews. A sample interview question for the study was: How important do
you think it is to develop students‟ pragmatic competence (ability to use English
appropriately)? (The full interview protocol is attached as Appendix C.) During the
interview, the researcher recorded field notes to aid in the data analysis. Students
were asked a series of questions regarding pragmatic knowledge acquisition,
112
pragmatic competence and language learning strategies practice in their College
English learning process. Some clarifications to the questions were provided to avoid
misunderstandings between the interviewer and interviewees.
The interview questions were modified questions from the literature (for example,
see Chen, 2009; Ersözlü, 2010; Hudson, 2001; Martínez-Flor & Alcón-Soler, 2007;
Takahashi, 2001; Tuncer, 2009; Yılmaz, 2010; Zheng & Huang, 2010), from the
questionnaire data and from the DCTs data and were prepared in both English and
Chinese. Interviews were conducted in Chinese because participants could
understand the interview questions better and express themselves much more freely
and accurately in their L1. Using L1 in the interviews helped to produce a relaxing
and comfortable atmosphere for the participants. The intent was to facilitate the
interview process and generate more accurate data. Thus, all written records were in
Chinese and back translated as previously described.
During the interviews, the researcher tried not to interrupt the interviewees‟
responses. The questions were asked according to the flow of the conversation. Each
interviewee was able to take his or her time to respond and explore his or her ideas as
they related to the various questions. As the interviews were carried out in two
groups, it was very common that the students had the same opinion on the same
subject. Accordingly, it was essential for the researcher to compare the collected data
and remove the overlapping data so as to avoid redundancy.
The collected qualitative data were categorized into five themes in the data report:
(a) students‟ perceptions of pragmatic knowledge;
(b) students‟ perceptions of pragmatic competence;
(c) students‟ perceptions of pragmatics in College English learning and teaching;
(d) students‟ perceptions of pragmatic information in textbooks; and
(e) students‟ perceptions and practice of language learning strategies in learning
English.
These themes were used to clarify understanding about students‟ perceptions and
practice in regards to learning College English in general and pragmatics in
particular.
113
4.8 Textbook tasks analysis
Textbook tasks analysis is a method that allows the researcher to analyze the tasks
involved in textbooks. It is a technique for making inferences by objectively and
systematically identifying specified characteristics of the structure of learning tasks
in textbooks (Bazeley, 2003). Textbook tasks analysis provides a way for quantifying
tasks included in textbooks by using a means of measuring quantitatively the number
and kinds of tasks and presenting these as tables and graphs. The purpose of textbook
tasks analysis in this study was to explore the nature of learning tasks provided by
Chinese College English textbooks as it is proposed in this research that these
prescribed learning tasks may have effects on the development of students‟
New College English (Li, 2001, 2002, 2003), one of the four typical College English
set of textbook (New College English, New Horizon College English, Experiencing
English, and TAPESTRY English) recommended by the Ministry of Education of
China in 2004, was selected for the textbook tasks analysis in this study. This set of
textbooks is divided into six levels, and each level involves Integrated Course books,
Listening and Speaking Course books, Extensive Reading Course books, and Fast
Reading Course books. According to the information provided by Shanghai Foreign
Languages and Education Press, New College English is used nationwide by about
2.4 million university students every year and it is used more than the other three sets
of textbooks.
This study chose four main textbooks: Integrated Course book 1, 2, 3, and 4
(student‟s book), from the set of New College English for analysis. Most College
English classroom teaching and learning time concentrates on the study of Integrated
Course books, and the other books are for students‟ self-study or after-class
assignments. These four books are used over the four semesters of College English
classroom teaching and learning and provide a good scope of expected teaching and
learning that occurs in the classroom.
The data collected from textbook tasks analysis was quantitative data, which was
used to support the data collected from the questionnaire and interviews. The data
focused on the English language learning and teaching tasks provided by the College
114
English textbooks as language tasks helped learners practice the target language by
integrating corresponding content (Candlin & Murphy, 1987). Tasks provided by the
textbooks were analyzed according to different focuses, such as linguistic tasks and
pragmatic tasks. The results were statistically transformed into tables by reporting
frequency and percentage scores as well as word descriptions.
4.9 Validity and reliability
Validity and reliability are concepts closely related to the quality of a study. It is
often believed that there is no validity without reliability (Nunan & Bailey, 2009).
„Validity‟ is another word for truth (Silverman, 2005) and is “a property of the
conclusions, interpretations or inferences that we draw from the assessment
instruments and procedures, not the instruments and procedures themselves” (Lynch,
2003, p.149). It is a quality of the interpretations and a unitary concept that is
supported by different types of evidence (Bachman, 2004). By applying multiple
sources of data that demonstrated the convergence of data from different sources, and
setting up a chain of evidence to the research questions (Yin, 2003), increased
validity was lent to the current study.
Reliability refers to the “consistencies of data, scores or observations obtained using

elicitation instruments, which can include a range of tools from standardized tests
administered in educational settings to tasks completed by participants in a research
study” (Chalhoub-Deville, 2006, p.2). In other words, reliability has to do with
consistency (Nunan & Bailey, 2009), and indicates the degree to which measurement
instruments and procedures produce consistent results in a given population in
various circumstances (Dörnyei, 2007). In order to secure the reliability of this study,
specific procedures of the study need to be clarified and documented to avoid
inconsistencies or measurement error if other researchers follow the same procedures
to repeat the study (Bachman, 2004; Yin, 2003). This was achieved through careful
record keeping and data collection to ensure that a consistency of practices was
maintained through the course of the research.
115
4.10 Ethical issues
As human beings were involved in the study, ethical issues had to be considered in
conducting the study. The research project was conducted after the approval had
been obtained from the Human Ethics Committee of Queensland University of
Technology. All participants were informed by the researcher in advance, and they
were fully aware of their roles in the study and had adequate preparation for the
research. No participant was coerced into the study. Every participant could
withdraw from the study at any point of time without repercussions, such as
academic penalty. All the collected data were securely and confidentially kept. To
ensure anonymity, participants were identified with pseudonyms in all research
processes, including the questionnaire data collection and analysis, DCTs data
collection and analysis, and the questionnaire and focus group interviews transcripts.
Transcriptions were de-identified before translations took place.
4.11 Summary
This chapter has presented a detailed description of the research methodology of this
study, including the discussion of the procedures and processes of sampling, data
collection and data analysis. Students from a second-tier university in Shanghai,
China were invited to participate in the questionnaire (N=237), DCTs (N=55) and
interviews (N=18), and tasks in the New College English Integrated Course books
were examined. The questionnaire, DCTs, semi-structured interviews and textbook
tasks analysis were the primary instruments for gathering both quantitative and
qualitative data. The data from the different sources were cross-checked through a
process of triangulation. In the next chapter, a detailed data report is presented.
116
CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DATA REPORT
The previous chapter described the research methodology and, in particular, the four
research instruments: the questionnaire, DCTs, semi-structured focus group
interviews and textbook tasks analysis, used in collecting and analyzing the data in
this empirical study. In this chapter, both qualitative and quantitative data on how
College English students acquire pragmatic knowledge and practice pragmatic
knowledge in both language learning classrooms and daily life is reported. In
addition, how students apply language learning strategies in learning English and
pragmatics is presented. The collected data are reported and described by
categorizing them into different themes. Analyses of the data are presented in
Chapter 6.
5.1 Questionnaire data
This section reports on the findings of the questionnaire in regard to the three
research questions: 1) What are Chinese College English students‟ perceptions of
pragmatics in their English learning? 2) To what extent do College English students
focus on their pragmatic knowledge in their English learning? What are their levels
of pragmatic competence? 3) How do College English students apply their language
learning strategies in the learning of English and pragmatics? Quantitative data
gathered from 237 participants‟ responses to the questionnaire were analyzed by
means of descriptive statistics, while qualitative data were analyzed by matching text
to themes then collapsing these themes into categories.
5.1.1 Demographic data
In the first section of the questionnaire, students supplied their personal demographic
data. Approximately 90% of the students were males, and 10% were females; about
73% of the students were aged 20 years or over, with 27% under 20 years. Around
5% of the students majored in liberal arts, 7% in science, 44% in engineering, and
44% of the students specialized in other subjects. Around 80% of the students had
learned English for six to ten years; with 14% for more than ten years, and around
6% had learned English for less than six years. Only one student reported having an
117
overseas learning experience. Around 81% of the students had finished studying the
College English I course and were undertaking the College English II course, and
around 19% of the students, who took the College English III course, were involved
in the College English fast teaching class. Table 5.1 shows a summary of
demographic data of the students who participated in the questionnaire.
Table 5.1 Demographic data
Items Number Percentage

1. Gender
Male 213 89.87%
Female 24 10.13%
2. Age
Under 20 65 27.43%
20 or over 20 172 72.57%
3. Major
Liberal Arts 11 4.64%
Science 17 7.17%
Engineering 105 44.31%
Others 104 43.88%
4. Length of learning English
Less than 6 years 14 5.91%
6-10 years 190 80.17%
More than 10 years 33 13.92%
5. Overseas English language
learning experience
Yes 1 0.42%
No 236 99.58%
6. Course
College English II 192 81.01%
College English III 45 18.99%
5.1.2 Students’ perceptions of pragmatics in College English learning and

teaching
This section reports on the questionnaire findings regarding the research question:
What are Chinese College English students‟ perceptions of pragmatics in their
118
English learning? The questionnaire (see Appendix A) investigated how students
viewed pragmatics in learning English as a foreign language in China.
With respect to the relationship between linguistic knowledge and pragmatic

knowledge, students highlighted the importance of acquiring both linguistic
knowledge and pragmatic knowledge in a balanced way in the learning process (see
Table 5.2). Questions 7 and 8 looked at students‟ views on linguistic knowledge and
pragmatic knowledge, and a moderate degree of impact was reported for Question 7
(Mean=2.70) and Question 8 (Mean=3.37). Less than 40% of the students agreed that
learning English grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation meant learning English,
while nearly 60% of the students believed that they needed to acquire other
knowledge besides linguistic knowledge. More than 65% of the students believed
that the knowledge of how to use the language – pragmatic knowledge, was equally
important as linguistic knowledge in learning a language.
Table 5.2 Students’ views on linguistic knowledge and pragmatic knowledge
Question SD D N A SA Mean Standard

Deviation
Q7 40 96 14 70 17 2.70 1.13
Percentage 16.87% 40.51% 5.91% 29.54% 7.17%
Q8 26 50 6 120 35 3.37 1.27
Percentage 10.97% 21.10% 2.53% 50.63% 14.77%
Note: SD= Strongly Disagree, D= Disagree, N= Neutral, A= Agree, SA= Strongly Agree
Q7 I believe learning English grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation mean learning English.
Q8 I think that the knowledge of how to use the language is as important as linguistic knowledge
(e.g., vocabulary and grammar).
From the above data, it appears that students recognized that knowledge other than
linguistic knowledge is equally important in the language learning process. The data
suggest that students seemed to be aware of the importance of pragmatic knowledge
in the use of the English language. When asked to list the most preferred knowledge
that students desired in English classroom teaching, more than 50% of the students
responded that they liked to learn communication skills, less than 20% of the
students wanted to acquire the knowledge on how to use English, and around 13% of
the students indicated that they wanted to learn cultural knowledge. Only about 11%
119
of the students indicated that they preferred to learn linguistic knowledge (see Figure
5.1).
What kind of knowledge do you want to learn most

in your English classroom teaching?
56.54%
60%
50%
40%
30% 18.99%
20% 11.39% 13.08%
10%
0%
Linguistic knowledge Cultural knowledge Communicative skills Knowledge on how to
use English
Figure 5.1 Knowledge students want to acquire most in English classroom teaching
When it comes to the ability students want to gain most in their English learning,
around 66% of them indicated that they wanted to acquire the ability to communicate
with people. Around 17% of the students indicated that they wanted to obtain the
ability to do well in English examinations, around 12% of the students wanted to
acquire the ability to read materials related to their majors, and around 5% indicated
that they preferred to gain the ability to translate (see Figure 5.2)
What kind of abilities do you want to get most in learning English?

66.24%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
17.30%
20% 11.81%
10% 4.65%
0%
Ability to Ability to do well in Ability to read Ability to translate
communicate with English examinations materials related to
people my major
Figure 5.2 Ability students want to gain most in English learning
Being communicatively competent language users appeared to be College English

students‟ learning aim because a strong degree of impact was reported for Question
120
12 (Mean=3.84) and Question 18 (Mean=3.78) (see Table 5.3). Nearly 80% of the
students indicated that they would like to show their admiration to people who can
fluently and accurately communicate with others in English. More than 75% of the
students wished to speak like English native speakers and would like to imitate
native speakers‟ pronunciation and intonation. Question 9 (Mean=2.53) investigated
students‟ learning purpose (see Table 5.3). Only 30% of the students conceded that
the main reason for them to learn English was to pass the examination.
Table 5.3 Students’ views on English language learning outcomes

Deviation
Q9 43 122 1 46 25 2.53 1.28
Percentage 18.14% 51.48% 0.42% 19.41% 10.55%
Q12 18 32 1 106 80 3.84 1.24
Percentage 7.6% 13.50% 0.42% 44.73% 33.75%
Q18 27 29 3 88 90 3.78 1.36
Percentage 11.39% 12.24% 1.27% 37.12% 37.98%
Q9 The main reason I need to learn English is to pass the examination.
Q12 I admire the people who can communicate with others in English fluently and accurately.
Q18 I wish to speak like native English speakers and would like to imitate their pronunciation and
intonation.
As indicated by the responses to Question 18, most of the students wanted to imitate
native English speakers‟ pronunciation and intonation. Influenced by society and
classroom teaching, there are different kinds of Englishes the students want to learn
to use as a tool in communication. More than 50% of the students responded that
they would like to learn to use American English, about 26% of the students
indicated a preference to learn British English, around 16% of the students indicated
a preference to learn Chinese English, and only three students (1%) responded that
they wanted to learn other varieties of English (see Figure 5.3). These results show
that students might have a strong desire for classroom teaching to be focused on CLT
and practice.
121
What English would you like to learn to use most?
56.54%
60%
50%
40%
30% 25.74%
20% 16.46%
10% 1.26%
0%
Chinese English American English British English Other
Figure 5.3 Types of English students like to learn to use
Table 5.4 indicates students‟ views on communicative language and teaching

practices in College English classrooms and includes responses to Questions 11, 13
and 16 of the questionnaire. A strong degree of impact was reported for Question 16
(Mean=3.62) and Question 13 (Mean=4.00) (see Table 5.4). Around 70% of the
students showed a strong preference that English class activities should be
concentrated on CLT and practice, with grammar explained only when necessary,
and more than 81% of the students indicated that language teachers should teach
students how to communicate with people and how to use English appropriately in
classroom activities. A weak degree of impact was reported for Question 11
(Mean=2.08). Less than 20% of the students indicated that communicative activities
in the English class were a waste of time, while nearly 80% of the students held the
opposite view. These results indicate the importance to students of including CLT
and practices in the classroom.
122
Table 5.4 Students’ views on communicative language teaching and practice

Deviation
Q11 94 95 2 28 18 2.08 1.25
Percentage 39.66% 40.09% 0.84% 11.81% 7.60%
Q13 16 18 12 95 96 4.00 1.17
Percentage 6.74% 7.60% 5.06% 40.09% 40.51%
Q16 23 40 9 97 68 3.62 1.31
Percentage 9.70% 16.88% 3.80% 40.93% 28.69%
Q11 Communicative activities are a waste of time in the English class.
Q13 I think teachers should teach us how to communicate with people, and how to use English
appropriately.
Q16 I prefer my English class to be focused on communicative language teaching and practice, with
grammar explained when necessary.
Tasks, which are used for a communicative purpose, can help language learners
develop communicative competence in the target language effectively (Salmani-
Nodoushan, 2007; Willis, 1996). Students were provided with an opportunity to
respond to a series of open-ended questions to provide more information about their
perceptions in relation to developing and practicing pragmatics in their learning. The
first open-ended question investigated the tasks that students thought were necessary
to improve their communicative ability in English language learning.
Open-ended question 1
What kind of tasks do you think is necessary to improve students‟ communicative

ability in English language teaching and learning?
In each response, there were at least two tasks listed by student respondents. Thus,
tasks were classified and presented in a frequency table as follows (see Table 5.5):
123
Table 5.5 Necessary tasks to improve students’ communicative ability
Tasks Number Percentage

1. Watching original English films and videos 196 82.70%
2. Reading original English materials (e.g., newspapers,
182 76.79%
magazines)
3. Group discussions 178 75.11%
4. Debate 107 45.15%
5. Pair-work (e.g., practicing dialogues) 102 43.04%
6. Learning to sing English songs 97 40.93%
7. Role play 72 30.38%
8. Presentations 25 10.55%
As can be seen in the table above more than 82% of the students indicated that
watching original English films and videos was helpful in improving their
communicative ability. Around 77% of the responses showed that students preferred
to improve their communicative ability through reading original English materials
and participating in group discussions. Classroom tasks of debate, pair-work and
learning to sing English songs were close in preference by the students, 45%, 43%
and 41%, respectively. About 30% of the students indicated that role play was the
task that they would like to do to develop their communicative ability. Around 11%
of the students specified that doing classroom presentations was the preferred task
for them to do to improve their communicative ability.
Different explanations were given by the students in listing tasks they thought
essential in developing their communicative ability (see Appendix D). More than
half (N=136) of the respondents explained that it was very helpful to Chinese
university students to be exposed to original authentic English materials, such as
English movies and videos, English newspapers and magazines, English news
reports, English songs and so on. These were interesting and vivid teaching materials
through which students could learn native-like English. Meanwhile, while using
these materials, students could develop a feel of the language that could help them
improve their communicative ability (Cai, 2007).
124
Fifty-one students indicated that tasks, such as group discussions, role play, pair-
work and debate, would help them gain confidence in their use of English. Group
work helps build up students‟ confidence where individual differences can support
other‟s strengths and overcome shortcomings (Fushino, 2010; Hoegl & Gemuenden,
2001). Two students gave their responses to this question by indicating a preference
for group work over whole class presentations. They indicated that giving
presentations in front of the others in class made them feel nervous as they were
afraid of making mistakes, especially grammatical mistakes, which made them feel
embarrassed and lose face.
In regard to the pragmatically oriented tasks that College English teachers most often
used in the classroom teaching, respondents indicated that group discussion (27%),
debate (28%) and pair-work (28%) were used with a similar frequency in the
classroom. Role-play was the least used task in the classroom teaching at 16% (see
Figure 5.4).
What tasks do your teachers most often use in classroom teaching?
30% 27.43% 27.85% 28.27%
20% 16.45%
10%
0%
Group discussion Pair-work Role-play Debate
Figure 5.4 Pragmatically oriented tasks most often used in classroom teaching
Regarding classroom learning and teaching, although a moderate degree of impact

was reported for Question 17 (Mean=2.95) (see Table 5.6), more than 50% of the
students indicated their dislike of “grammar translation” and “vocabulary translation”
methodology. In terms of the tasks and textbooks used in the classroom, a moderate
degree of impact was reported for Question 10 (Mean=2.80) and Question 15
125
(Mean=2.59) (see Table 5.6). More than 67% of the students did not believe that the
tasks applied in the classroom would provide them with sufficient knowledge and
skills to improve their abilities to use English appropriately. Less than 40% of the
students responded that the College English textbooks they used in the classroom
could provide information about culture, conversation rules, usage, and pragmatic
knowledge.
Table 5.6 Students’ views on classroom learning and teaching
Standard
Question SD D N A SA Mean
Deviation
Q10 28 116 4 53 36 2.80 1.32
Percentage 11.81% 48.95% 1.69% 22.36% 15.19%
Q15 24 135 16 39 23 2.59 1.16
Percentage 10.13% 56.97% 6.74% 16.46% 9.70%
Q17 25 97 2 90 23 2.95 1.26
Percentage 10.55% 40.93% 0.84% 37.98% 9.70%
Q10 College English textbooks provide much information on culture, conversation rules, usage, and
how to use English correctly.
Q15 Tasks used in English class provide me knowledge and skills to improve my ability to use
English appropriately.
Q17 I like grammar and vocabulary explanation, and sentence drills in my English class.
Students gave their views on current Chinese College English teaching and learning
in answering the third open-ended question. This question was posed to better
understand students‟ perceptions, in particular, to the use of pragmatics.
Do you believe that the current College English teaching and learning will enable
you to improve your ability to communicate with people and to use English
appropriately? Why or why not?
One hundred and ninety-five students (82%) gave a negative response. The reasons
for these negative responses were summarized and are listed as follows:
126
(a) College English teachers spent most of the time in class explaining linguistic
knowledge in detail, such as grammar, vocabulary, sentence structures, and
so on.
(b) The current classroom teaching and learning was teacher-centered. Teachers
paid little attention to the development of students‟ pragmatic competence.
(c) Students were not given chances or time to practice their communicative
ability in the English class because College English was taught in large
classes; commonly 70 or more students in one classroom.
(d) College English teaching and learning was examination-oriented. Both
students and teachers focused their attention on passing the College English
Test (Band Four and Band Six).
(e) The texts selected in College English textbooks were out-dated and the tasks
provided by the textbooks focused on the development of students‟ linguistic
competence rather than pragmatic competence.
(f) It appeared hard for students to get updated authentic English language
learning materials that suited them well.
(g) Students had few chances to communicate with native English speakers either
in class or after class.
The students‟ positive responses are as follows:

(a) College English teachers sometimes conveyed knowledge of a few simple
communicative functions in the classroom teaching, such as asking the way,
booking a hotel, etc.
(b) Occasionally, students could apply these functions in their daily life, if
necessary.
(c) Teachers occasionally taught students skills and strategies on how to
correctly apply language communicative functions to appropriate contexts.
The results indicated that there was a perceived importance and necessity for
improving students‟ perceptions of pragmatics in learning EFL in China. Having
good perceptions of pragmatics can better help language learners develop their
pragmatic competence, and provide learning opportunities to develop pragmatics
through appropriately directed tasks. The next section presents the data about
students‟ levels of pragmatic competence.
127
5.1.3 Students’ levels of pragmatic competence
The questionnaire data reported in this section is in regard to the research question:
To what extent do College English students focus on their pragmatic knowledge in
their English learning? What are their levels of pragmatic competence? There are
five different situations designed in the questionnaire to examine students‟ levels of
pragmatic competence as well as their pragmatic knowledge. The situations were
adapted from the researcher‟s life experience and from previous studies (for
example, see Ji, 2008; Keshavarz, Eslami & Ghahraman, 2006; Nureddeen, 2008).
The first situation depicts an episode that occurred between a native English speaker
(ticket seller) and a non-native English speaker (customer Tom) in an English
speaking country. The customer was buying a ticket at the booking office of a theme
park and he requested a map of the theme park. He felt puzzled at the reply from the
ticket seller – “What‟s your post code?” Then, the ticket seller explained – “Where
are you from?” In actual fact, the ticket seller wanted to know the language the
customer used so that he could be given a map of the theme park in the appropriate
language.
This situation was included in this study to learn whether Chinese students, non-
native English speakers, could understand the question from the ticket seller. The
results showed that less than 20% of the students got the implied meaning of the
question from the ticket seller. More than 40% of the students believed that the ticket
seller wanted to get Tom‟s post code. Nearly 24% of the students thought that the
ticket seller wanted to find out Tom‟s post code on the map, and around 17% of the
participants thought that the ticket seller wanted to register Tom‟s address (see
Figure 5.5).
128
Tom is buying a ticket at the booking office of a theme park.
50%
40.93%
40%
30% 23.63%
16.88% 18.56%
20%
10%
0%
The ticket seller wants to record Tom's address.

The ticket seller wants to have Tom's post code.
The ticket seller wants to know the language Tom uses.
The ticket seller wants to find Tom's post code on the map.
Figure 5.5 Students’ pragmatic competence - situation 1
The second situation came from a movie where a conversation took place between
two native English speakers. A villain, Jack, met one of his acquaintances, Richard,
in the corridor in a hospital. When Jack told Richard that he was going to get a new
heart, the answer from Richard – “It is about time.” implied that Jack needed to
acknowledge his evil behaviors and totally change his actions. Less than 30% of the
students understood what Richard was indicating. Around 35% of the students
thought that Jack had become a good man. Approximately 20% of the students
believed that Jack had found a new heart to cure his heart disease. And around 16%
of the students considered that Jack had a serious heart disease and needed a new
heart (see Figure 5.6).
129
Jack, a villain, met an acquaintance, Richard, on the corridor in a
hospital.
40% 35.02%
28.69%
30%
19.83%
20% 16.46%
10%
0%
Jack has a serious heart disease and needs a new heart.
Jack has become a good man.
Jack has found a new heart to cure his heart disease.
Jack needs to realize his evil and totally change his

behavior.
The next three situations were adapted from past studies focusing on language
learners‟ competence in using English (for example, see Ji, 2008; Keshavarz, Eslami
& Ghahraman, 2006; Nureddeen, 2008). In the first of three situations, Mary put a
heavy bag on the bus shelf while travelling. The bus stopped suddenly and the bag
fell on a passenger. The passenger was scared and complained, and the reply from
Mary was, “It is my bag. It‟s all right.” The findings from the questionnaire showed
that more than 40% of the students believed that Mary had given an inappropriate
answer to the passenger, and around 28% of the students thought Mary‟s answer was
not at all appropriate. However, around 21% of the students thought Mary had given
an appropriate answer. Twenty students (8%) believed that Mary‟s response was
very appropriate (see Figure 5.7).
130
While traveling, Mary put a heavy bag on the bus shelf. The bus stopped
suddenly and the bag fell on a passenger.
50% 42.19%
40%
28.28%
30%
21.10%
20%
8.43%
10%
0%
Very appropriate Appropriate Inappropriate Not at all appropriate
In the second situation, a university student borrowed a book from his teacher, but he
forgot to return the book to the teacher on time. When the teacher asked whether or
not the student had brought the book, the reply from the student was “Sorry, I forgot.
Don‟t worry. I will bring it tomorrow.” The results indicated that more than 41% of
the students thought that it was not an appropriate answer. While more than 28% of
the participants believed that the student‟s answer was not at all appropriate. Around
21% of the students thought that the reply was appropriate, and 20 students (8.43%)
thought that the student‟s response was very appropriate (see Figure 5.8).
A university student borrowed his teacher's book and promised to

returned it that day. When he reached the university, he discovered that
he forgot the book at home.
50%
41.77%
40%
28.70%
30%
21.10%
20%
8.43%
10%
0%
131
In the last situation, Mary was at John‟s house, and she was offered dessert by John
after dinner. Mary was full and she refused the offer twice by saying “Thanks. I am
full” and “No more, thanks.” More than 40% of the students thought that Mary had
given an appropriate reply and more than 22% of the students believed that Mary‟s
answer was very appropriate. On the other hand, more than 26% of the students
thought Mary had not given an appropriate reply, and around 11% of the students
believed that Mary‟s response was not at all appropriate (see Figure 5.9).
Mary was at John's house. After dinner, she was offered dessert.
50%
40.51%
40%
30% 26.16%
22.36%
20%
10.97%
10%
0%
The data presented above indicated that College English students‟ levels of
pragmatic competence in this study was generally low because many of them were
not able to understand the implied meaning in the settings (see Situation 1 and 2) and
correctly use appropriate speech acts in corresponding situations (see Situation 3, 4
and 5). In order to be efficient language learners and become pragmatically
competent, students must learn how to apply language learning strategies in English
language learning process (Chinese College English Education and Supervisory
Committee, 2007) as language learning strategies can facilitate College English
students to better acquire language knowledge and achieve their learning outcomes in
efficient ways. The next section presents the data about students‟ perceptions and
practice of language learning strategies in learning English, particularly in learning
pragmatics.
132
5.1.4 Students’ perceptions and practice of language learning strategies
This section reports on the questionnaire findings concerning the research question:
How do College English students apply their language learning strategies in the
learning of English and pragmatics? The questionnaire examined how students
learned English and pragmatics by using different language learning strategies. As
College English students generally do not receive any professional education in SLA,
it is more than likely that they are not aware of specific terms used in language
learning strategies. Therefore, rather than using the specific language of SLA,
students were required to list different methods or activities they were involved in
while learning English. These methods or activities were categorized into specific
language learning strategies such as: direct strategies, which directly involve the
target language, and indirect strategies that support and manage language learning
without directly involving the target language (Oxford, 1990). A further explanation
of these strategies is discussed in Chapter 6 in the analysis of the data.
The second opened-ended question in the study required students to list essential
language learning strategies that they believe assisted them to improve pragmatic
competence in learning English. The results are as follows.
Open-ended question 2:
What kind of language learning strategies do you think is necessary to improve the
students‟ pragmatic competence in English language learning?
The students‟ responses suggested the different strategies they use in learning
English, particularly in learning pragmatics. The results are summarized below (see
Table 5.7).
133
Table 5.7 Language learning strategies to improve students’ pragmatic competence
Language learning strategies Number Percentage

1. Memorizing English words, expressions and texts 220 92.83%
2. Imitating native English speakers‟ pronunciation and
197 83.12%
intonation
3. Cooperating with others 183 77.22%
4. Note-taking 165 69.62%
5. Translation 156 65.82%
6. Preparing lessons in advance 132 55.70%
7. Guessing the meaning of (key) words and sentences
97 40.93%
from the context
8. Using some images and videos 86 36.29%
9. Self-management or self-monitoring 32 13.50%
10. Self-evaluation 27 11.39%
11. Transferring the knowledge and thinking skills of
17 7.17%
Chinese to learning English
12. Selective attention 16 6.75%
13. Contextualization 11 4.64%
The results above indicated that around 93% of the students preferred to use the
strategy of memorizing English words, expressions and texts in learning English.
More than 83% of them liked to imitate native English speakers‟ pronunciation and
intonation. One hundred and eighty-three students (77%) would like to work in
cooperation with others, and 165 students (70%) preferred note-taking skills while
learning English. More than 65% of the students preferred to use a translation
method. One hundred and thirty-two students (56%) indicated that they had a habit
of preparing for their lessons in advance. More than 40% of the students wanted to
apply the skill of guessing the meaning of (key) words and sentences from the
context, and around 36% of the students liked to use some images in learning
English. Thirty-two students (14%) indicated that self-management or self-
monitoring was necessary to improve students‟ pragmatic competence, and only 27
students (11%) believed that self-evaluation was necessary. Seven percent of
students wanted to use the skills of transferring the knowledge and thinking skills of
Chinese to learning English, selective attention was around 7% and contextualization
was about 5%.
134
The students listed various reasons why they thought it necessary to use different
language learning strategies to improve their pragmatic competence in learning
English. One hundred and eighty-seven students (79%) agreed that Chinese students
were asked to memorize English new words, expressions and texts by their teachers
when they started to learn EFL in primary school so they were used to applying
memory strategies in learning English. Students indicated that they were encouraged
to imitate English native speakers‟ pronunciation and intonation while learning
English. Ninety-seven students (41%) indicated that Chinese English teachers asked
students to do preview work before class, and this strategy helped students better
acquire knowledge in class. Students indicated that they were also required to do
note-taking during class as this could help them do revision after class.
More than 75% of the students indicated that the translation method was often used
to learn English, and that cooperating with other students helped them overcome
their fear in the English learning process and helped them gain confidence. Jesse in
the interview of this study (Jesse: 22 March, 2011) indicated that students might feel
safe in group work to overcome their fear of using English. More detail of the
interview data will be discussed below. Fifty-nine students (25%) pointed out that
they were encouraged by their English teachers to guess the meaning of (key) words
and sentences from the context of scenarios in their textbooks before looking the
words up in the dictionary to help them develop their reading skills.
Five students (2%) highlighted that they did not know how to conduct self-
management or self-evaluation although they were aware that self-management and
self-evaluation could help them in learning English. Sixty-five students (27%) agreed
that using images and videos in learning English made the learning more vivid. It
was much easier for students to take in new language knowledge when it was
provided in a natural context. Three students (1%) pointed out that selective attention
helped them improve their learning more efficiently, but they had not received any
specific instructions on how to use or develop this strategy. Only two students
(0.84%) indicated that learning English in China needed to consider the Chinese
context, and applying L1 knowledge and thinking skills in learning English could
help language learners better use English in the Chinese context (see Appendix D).
135
When asked to list the most effective way of learning English, nearly 30% of the
students indicated that they would like to imitate a language model and apply the
model in a new context. Other strategies included doing self-studying and self-
evaluation (24%), memorizing vocabularies and reciting texts (23%), and doing
sentence drills and translation exercises (23%) (see Figure 5.10).
What is the most effective way of learning English?

40%
29.54%
30%
23.21% 22.78% 24.47%
20%
10%
0%
Memorizing vocabularies and reciting texts
Doing sentence drills and translation exercieses
Imitating a language model and applying it in a new context
Self-studying and self-evluation
Figure 5.10 Most effective way of learning English
In a practical situation, a moderate degree of impact was reported for Question 14

(Mean=3.05) showing students‟ views on the practice of language learning strategies
in the English language learning process. More than 53% of the students indicated
that they knew how to obtain cultural knowledge and appropriateness of language
use in the English learning process. In contrast, around 46% of the students indicated
that they did not know the right way to gain the needed knowledge. It appeared that
nearly 50% of the students did not know the appropriate language learning strategies
to acquire cultural knowledge or knowledge of the appropriateness use of the
language (see Table 5.8).
136
Table 5.8 Students’ views on the practice of language learning strategies
Standard
Question SD D N A SA Mean
Deviation
Q14 28 82 2 101 24 3.05 1.28
Percentage 11.81% 34.60% 0.84% 42.62% 10.13%
Q14 I know how to obtain cultural knowledge and appropriateness of language use in my learning.
Classroom teaching and learning, and after class study are connected with each other.
They are indispensible processes in acquiring language competence. After class
learning is an extension of classroom teaching and learning. Students can consolidate
the knowledge they have learned in the classroom and try to find learning
opportunities to further enhance their language competence. As for the activities that
students indicated that they were usually involved in within the English class, around
57% of them reported that they often made presentations and around 52% of the
students were involved in group-discussions. The proportion of the students who
took notes (45%) or listened to the teacher‟s explanations only when necessary
(45%) was relatively the same. More than 43% of the students indicated that they
would like to listen to the teacher throughout the English class (see Figure 5.11).
What do you usually do in the English class?

56.96%
60% 51.90%
50% 45.15% 43.04% 45.15%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Note-taking Group-discussion Presentation Listening to the Listening to the
teacher all the teacher only
time when necessary
Figure 5.11 Students’ learning activities in the English class
When asked how they acquired English language competence after class, more than
51% of the students indicated that they preferred to read English newspapers and
137
magazines. Around 47% of the students indicated that they would like to do preview
and review work, and more than 40% of the students tried to memorize English
words and recite texts. More than 39% of the students indicated that they preferred to
watch English movies and listen to English broadcasts, and practice English with
classmates. Less than 20% of the students did language exercises such as sentence
drills or translation, and around 14% of the students conducted self-evaluation. Only
twelve students (5%) tried to practice English with English native speakers (see
Figure 5.12).
What do you usually do to learn English after class?
60% 51.48%
47.26%
50% 40.93%
39.24% 39.24%
40%
30%
18.14%
20% 13.50%
10% 5.06%
0%
Watching English movies and listening to English broadcasts

Doing preview and review work
Reading English newspapers and magazines
Doing exercises, such as translation, sentence drills
Practicing English with classmates
Practicing English with English native speakers
Doing self-evaluation
Memorizing English words and reciting texts
Figure 5.12 Students’ learning activities after class
There are a variety of methods or activities involved in the English language learning
process that are able to help students acquire language knowledge and language
competence effectively. Figure 5.13 shows the students‟ preference in ways to get
information about using the English language. Nearly 34% of the students preferred
to listen to radio programs/dialogues and watch TV programs/videos, and nearly
30% of the students wanted to get the related information from teachers‟
explanations. Less than 20% of the students indicated that they liked to get
138
information from a classroom discussion, while a similar proportion of the students
preferred to learn by themselves.
In which way do you want to get the information most on language use?
40%
33.76%
35%
29.11%
30%
25%
18.99% 18.14%
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%
Teacher's Classroom discussion Listening to radio Self-study
explanations programs and
watching TV
programs
Figure 5.13 Student’s preferable way to get information about the use of English
During the language acquisition process, there can be difficulties that are
unavoidable for language learners. Proficiently resolving difficulties can help
language learners obtain the language competence; therefore, it is important to
understand how students resolve such difficulties. As for the difficulties students
indicated that they met in College English learning, more than 35% of the students
chose to work out difficulties by relying on their own individual language
knowledge. Around 28% of the students used dictionaries or tried to find answers
from the Internet, and more than 21% of the students preferred discussions and
working with their classmates. Around 15% of the students indicated that they would
ask their English teachers or native speakers for help (see Figure 5.14).
139
If you meet some difficulties in English learning, what will you do first?
40% 35.44%
28.27%
30% 21.10%
20% 15.19%
10%
0%
Ask the English Discuss and work Try to solve the Look up a dictionary
teachers or other with your classmates. problem on your or try to find the
native speakers. learned language answer on the
knowledge by Internet.
yourself.
Figure 5.14 Ways of solving difficulties in English language learning
The results highlight the roles that language learning strategies have played in
acquiring English as a foreign language for participants in this research. Language
learning strategies are effective in promoting language learning, and help language
learners achieve better learning outcomes (Oxford, 1996). It is necessary for
language learners to efficiently apply language learning strategies to their language
acquisition process to facilitate successful language learning.
Another way to understand students‟ English pragmatic knowledge and competence

as well as strategies in learning and using English is to use DCTs. The following
section details and recounts the DCT data from the research.
5.2 Discourse Completion Tasks data
This section reports the results with regard to the second research question: To what
extent do College English students focus on their pragmatic knowledge in their
English learning? What are their levels of pragmatic competence? and the third
research question: How do College English students apply their language learning
strategies in the learning of English and pragmatics? DCTs used in this study
required students to read a written description of a situation and then asked them to
provide responses to each situation.
140
Twenty different situations in the DCTs covered three different speech acts: the
speech act of refusal, the speech act of compliment response and the speech act of
apology. Situations 1-7 focused on the speech act of refusal. Situations 8-14
concentrated on the speech act of compliment response, and situations 15-20 focused
on the speech act of apology. The following section reports on the collected data in
relation to the speech act of refusal.
5.2.1 Data of the speech act of refusal
The speech act of refusal occurs when a speaker directly or indirectly says no to a
request or an invitation, and can be seen as a face-threatening act to the requestor as
the response contradicts the speakers‟ expectations (Brown & Levinson, 1987).
Students were required to decline a request or an invitation in the seven situations for
speech acts of refusal. Table 5.9 shows the frequency of single lexical items and
basic formulaic sequences that were provided by the students to express refusal. The
items are presented as generalized responses from the respondents. These figures
only demonstrate lexical items and sequences that were used to make up a complete
turn on the basis of the results in the DCT data.
141
Table 5.9 Frequency of lexical items and basic formulaic sequences expressing
refusals
Expression of refusal Number Percentage

Sorry. 75 19.48%
I‟m sorry. 50 12.99%
I‟d like to, but… 36 9.35%
Thanks/Thank you. 31 8.05%
No. 29 7.53%
No, thanks/thank you. 28 7.27%
I‟d love to, but… 20 5.19%
I‟m glad to, but… 19 4.93%
I am so sorry. 19 4.93%
I want to, but… 17 4.42%
Thank you/Thanks, but… 14 3.64%
Well, but… 13 3.38%
It sounds good, but… 9 2.34%
I think I can‟t. 9 2.34%
I‟m afraid I can‟t. 8 2.08%
No way. 4 1.04%
Let me see. 2 0.52%
OK. 2 0.52%
To clarify their responses to the seven different situations, some of the students
provided a variety of subsequent explanations to their concise refusals. In each
situation, students were asked to write a refusal. For example, students provided
responses to social situations such as refusing a friend‟s invitation to a party by
saying, “I‟d like to, but I am sorry I cannot because I have three examinations next
Monday”. Refusals from the students in each situation are presented as follows. Each
situation is written as it was presented to the students in the study.
In Situation 1, a friend invites you to a party at his house on Saturday. However, you
cannot go to the party as you will sit three exams next Monday. In the meantime, his
house is very far from the place you live. Some replies from the students are listed as
follows:
 I‟m sorry. I‟d love to, but I have to prepare three exams next Monday.
142
 I‟m glad to, but I really have to do some revision of my lessons.
 I‟d like to, but I will have three exams next Monday and your house is a little
far from my home. How about next time?
 Oh, no. I‟m very busy with my exams this weekend. But you are welcome.
 Let me see. I think I will not go because I have exams to take.
 Sorry, I cannot go, for I have three exams next Monday and your home is far
from my home.
 No, I want to go but on Saturday I will have a meeting.
In Situation 2, you refuse the request from your boss of working overtime. Some of
the extended responses from students are listed as the following:
 I‟m sorry. I really want to finish it up today but I have to pick up my son.
 I‟m sorry. My daughter will have her five-year-old birthday party this evening.
 Sorry. I‟d like to, but I have to go to the hospital to see my wife.
 Sorry, I have an appointment with a friend.
 I‟d like to help, but it‟s really too late for me. I‟m very exhausted.
 No, I could not stand to stay at the office all day long.
 Oh, no, with no extra money I will not work.
In Situation 3, a friend offers you a cup of coffee, but you cannot drink because you
have an upset stomach. Only 30% of the students gave more extended responses to
this situation. A few replies are listed as follows:
 Thank you. I‟d like to, but I have an upset stomach and I cannot drink it.
 Thanks, it‟s very kind of you, but I have an upset stomach.
 No, thanks. I am not able to drink coffee because I have an upset stomach.
 No, my stomach is upset, but thank you all the same. How about next time?
In Situation 4, you are an English professor at a university. One of the students, on

behalf of others, comes to meet you and suggests that you should give students more
practice in conversation and less on grammar in class. Some extended responses
given by the students are listed as follows:
 Thank you for your suggestion, but I think that grammar is more important.
 Thank you for your advice, but all of you have to attend the exam.
143
 Thanks, but I think my teaching has no problem.
 Sorry, I have my own teaching plan.
 OK. But you know without grammar you cannot practise conversations.
 Thank you. I may give you more practice in both conversation and grammar.
 Thanks, your suggestion is good. But I have to teach you all the grammar in the
classroom. It is my duty.
 Thanks. Give me the time and I‟ll think about it.
In Situation 5, as a university freshman who always attends classes on time and

works hard, you do not want to lend your lecture notes to one of your classmates
once again, who often misses class. The following are some of extended responses
from the students in the research:
 I‟m sorry, I need to use my notes, too. Don‟t miss the class next time.
 I‟m sorry, I have lent it to others.
 Sorry, I have left my notebook at home.
 I‟m sorry. I will review the notes this evening, so…
 I‟m glad to, but as you know I want to prepare for tomorrow‟s exam. So I
can‟t.
 I‟m sorry I can‟t. If I lend you I will do you bad. I hope that you will take
lecture notes by yourself in the future.
 No way. You must pay for your action.
In Situation 6, one of the best workers in your restaurant requests an increase in pay.
As the owner of the restaurant, you refuse the request. Some extended refusals given
by the students are listed as follows:
 Well, I know you are one of the best employees here. But I have to say sorry
because I do not have extra money after I have paid every cost of the
restaurant.
 Sorry. I appreciate your work. As a matter of fact, your payment is higher than
others of the same position. So I cannot increase your salary.
 I‟m sorry. I cannot increase your pay. As you know, the restaurant has a
detailed principle about the increase of pay, but you do not match it.
144
 I‟m sorry. You should know the profit of the restaurant is very low. Thus, I
cannot agree with your request.
 No. The restaurant only has a little profit. If I increase your pay, I cannot earn
money at all.
 Sorry. I have paid the right money for you.
 Sorry. I want to pay you more, but you know that we have not earned so much.
In Situation 7, a salesman from a computer company invites you to one of the most
expensive local restaurants to have dinner. As the president of a very large research
centre, you kindly refuse the invitation from him. The following are several responses
from the students:
 Thank you. But our company does not need computers at the moment.
 I‟m so sorry. I have no time this evening.
 Well, but I have got an important meeting to attend.
 I‟m sorry. I have bought computers from another company.
 Thanks. But I have not time now.
 I‟m glad to, but you know I‟m very busy now. I cannot spare time to have
dinner with you.
 Sorry. I‟m busy now. How about another time?
 Sorry. My wife is ill and I cannot go with you tonight.
The above data indicate how students gave refusals in various situations. As can be
seen, when provided with an opportunity to extend their ideas, students in the study
were able to provide appropriate responses. However, not all of them provided
extended responses. A detailed analysis of these data is presented in Chapter 6. The
next section presents the collected data concerning the speech act of compliment
response.
5.2.2 Data of the speech act of compliment response
Compliment response is another important speech act that was examined in this
study to examine College English students‟ practical use of EFL. It is a complex
speech act that reflects sociocultural values and politeness differences of the speakers
(Cheng, 2011). The following table shows the frequency of single lexical items and
145
basic formulaic sequences that were applied by the students to express compliment
responses (see Table 5.10). The figures only demonstrate lexical items and sequences
that were used to make up a complete turn depending on the results in the DCT data.
compliment responses
Expression of compliment response Number Percentage

Thank you. 157 40.78%
Thanks. 79 20.52%
Thank you very much. 34 8.83%
I‟m glad to hear that. 33 8.57%
Thank you for… 14 3.64%
Yeah. 13 3.38%
Yes. 12 3.12%
OK. 11 2.86%
That‟s great. 10 2.59%
It‟s nice of you. 8 2.08%
Thanks a lot. 7 1.82%
You are welcome. 5 1.29%
Sorry. 2 0.52%
Students were asked to write a compliment response in each situation. For instance,
students provided responses to situations such as responding to a friend‟s
compliment on a new hairstyle by saying, “Thank you. It‟s nice, isn‟t it?” Only 20%
of respondents provided extended responses to their brief ones. Responses given by
the students in each situation are presented as follows.
In situation 8, a friend compliments you on your fashionable hair style. Some

compliment responses given by the students included:
 Thank you. It‟s cool, isn‟t it?
 Thank you very much. I like it, too. I had my hair done in the university
barber‟s.
 Thank you very much. I‟m glad you like it. I believe that you will look more
beautiful if you have a same one.
146
 Thanks. It‟s my style.
 Yeah, I want to have a different hair style.
 No, I don‟t like it very much.
In Situation 9, a friend compliments you on your new Rolex watch. The following are
some of compliment responses provided by the students:
 Thanks. If you want, you can buy one for yourself, too.
 Thank you. It‟s a birthday present from my mother. I like it very much.
 Thank you. It‟s inexpensive and I bought it on discount.
 Thank you. It‟s not too bad, is it?
 Yes. It‟s a Rolex watch. You will also look nice when you wear it.
 Thanks. Your dream will come true one day.
 OK. I do not want to have another same watch.
In Situation 10, a friend compliments you on the presentation you gave in English
class. Some compliment responses from the students are listed as follows:
 Thank you. I will have another presentation this weekend. You can come to
listen.
 I‟m glad to hear that. It is my luck.
 Thanks. It took me a whole week to make preparations for it.
 No, no. You can do better than me.
 I‟m glad to hear that. Thank you for your listening.
In Situation 11, a friend gives a compliment about your new sweater. The following
are some of extended compliment responses from the students:
 Thank you. I wanted to get rid of it several weeks ago.
 Thanks. I like it, too.
 Thank you. Your words make me happy.
 Thanks. You are dressing beautifully today, too.
 Thanks a lot. It‟s a gift from my mother.
147
In Situation 12, you invite a group of students to your house for a meal. After the
meal, a student praises your good cooking. Several compliment responses are listed
as follows:
 Thank you. It‟s great that you enjoyed it.
 You are welcome. I am happy that you like the food.
 Thanks. Enjoy yourself just as at your home.
 Thank you. Would you like to have any more?
 I‟m glad to hear that. If you like, I will cook more for you.
 Thanks. Wish you have a good taste.
 No. I am a new hand in cooking.
In Situation 13, your computer teacher praises your intelligence and talent in
learning how to use the computer. The following are some of extended compliment
responses that came from the students:
 Thank you. I enjoy your class very much, too.
 Thank you. I will spare no effort to do better.
 Thanks. I‟m very happy to take your class.
 Thank you for your encourage. I like this course and I will work harder.
 Thanks. It is my duty of a student.
 No. Thanks a lot. It‟s totally because of your good teaching.
 Yeah, computer is my love.
 Thanks. I‟m interested in your lessons and computer, and I have really learned
a lot from what you taught in class.
In Situation 14, you are a newly appointed sales manager of a large department
store. One of the employees praised your beautiful eyes when having coffee with a
group of colleagues. Several compliment responses provided by the students are
listed as follows:
 Thanks. I have heard of that many times.
 Thanks a lot. And is there anything else you want to say?
 I‟m glad to hear that. Your eyes are beautiful, too.
 Thank you. But I think that my hair is more beautiful.
 Thank you very much. But I more like blue eyes.
148
As one of the three speech acts examined in this thesis, compliment responses
provided by the students can help to understand students‟ level of pragmatic
competence and the practice of language learning strategies. Students appeared to
follow the classroom instructions to the related speech act to complete the DCTs (Ma
& Xu, 2010). That is, they did not appear to have enough pragmatic knowledge in
English to respond spontaneously to the various situations. The data indicated that
memory strategies and cognitive strategies were more often applied when completing
the speech act of compliment response in DCTs. Chapter 6 provides more details and
an analysis of these data. In the next section, the data from the speech act of apology
is reported.
5.2.3 Data of the speech act of apology
The final speech act, the speech act of apology, was applied to further examine
students‟ pragmatic competence in communication as well as the practice of
language learning strategies. It is a speech act that shows regret, an explanation or
defense of one‟s beliefs, and can be a face-saving act for the hearer and a face-
threatening act for the speaker (Bataineh & Bataineh, 2006). Table 5.11 shows the
frequency of single lexical items and basic formulaic sequences that were used by the
students in providing speech acts of apology. The figures demonstrate lexical items
and sequences that are used to make up a complete turn based on the results in the
DCT data.
149
apology
Expression of apology Number Percentage

I‟m sorry. 111 33.64%
Sorry. 91 27.58%
I‟m very/so sorry. 56 16.97%
Yes. 19 5.75%
It‟s my fault/mistake. 15 4.54%
Yeah. 10 3.03%
I apologize. 8 2.42%
I forgot. 7 2.12%
Please forgive me. 4 1.21%
I don‟t know. 3 0.91%
Excuse me. 2 0.61%
Don‟t worry. 2 0.61%
It doesn‟t matter. 2 0.61%
Students were asked to apologize for each situation. For example, students provided
responses to social situations such as apologizing for being late for a group trip by
saying, “I‟m terribly sorry. I got up late this morning, and I promise that it won‟t
happen again”. Nearly 50% of the students gave extended responses to brief
apologies according to different situations. Apologies from the students in each
situation are presented as follows.
In Situation 15, you rip the cover page of a magazine your best friend lent you by
accident. The following are some of apology responses that the students gave:
 I‟m sorry. I was so careless that I tore the cover.
 Sorry, my friend. I will buy a new one for you.
 Yeah. This book is really wonderful and I‟m sorry I have torn the cover.
 I‟m so sorry. I damaged the cover page of the book because of my carelessness.
 It‟s my fault. Can you forget it?
 I‟m very sorry. My carelessness leads to it. I won‟t make the same mistake
again.
150
In Situation 16, as an English teacher, you have realized the mistake that you
mistook one student‟s exam paper for another because of the similarity in their
names and failed him. The following are several apologies given by the students:
 I‟m sorry. I made a mistake that I mistook your name for another similar name.
You did a good job in the exam and I have already corrected it. Just to say
sorry to you.
 I‟m so sorry. I mistook your examination paper and your mark. I will handle it
soon.
 It‟s my fault. I have corrected it.
 Sorry, my student. I have made a silly mistake. Believe me, and I will resolve it
as soon as possible.
 Don‟t worry. It‟s just a small mistake. I have an idea how to deal with it.
In Situation 17, you were one hour late for a group trip because you slept in. The
following are some of apology responses that the students gave to criticisms from
classmates on the trip:
 I apologize. I got up late and I promise that it will not happen again.
 I‟m so sorry. I got up late this morning. I won‟t do next time. Please forgive
me.
 I‟m very sorry. Sorry to waste your time waiting for me.
 Sorry. It is god who plays jokes on me.
 I‟m so sorry. I set a wrong alarm clock.
 Sorry. I came here late because of the traffic jam.
 I‟m sorry. I was too tired last night so I got up late this morning.
In Situation 18, you went into the wrong office and interrupted another teacher‟s
writing. Some apologies given by the students are listed as follows:
 Sorry, Sir. I got the wrong room.
 Sorry. I want to know which office is my English teacher‟s room.
 I‟m sorry. I interrupt your writing.
 I‟m sorry, Sir. I went into a wrong office. Sorry to interrupt you.
 Sorry. I interrupted your writing. I want to see my English teacher.
 Excuse me, can you tell me Mr. Smith‟s office?
151
In Situation 19, you have forgotten to pass on a private message to your co-worker,
Tom, for a second time. Tom comes up to you to ask you for the message. Some of
responses provided by the students are listed as follows:
 Sorry. I forgot it again. I apologize for it.
 Yes, I got it. I will send it to you as soon as possible.
 I forgot, Tom. I will not do like this again.
 Yes. But I am sorry to give it to you so late.
 Sorry. I did not have time to pass it to you these days. I will do it another day.
 I‟m so sorry. Sit down, please. I will tell you about it.
 Yes. I am in a bad memory. I will send it to you as soon as possible. This is the
last time.
 Sorry. I won‟t make mistakes for a third time.
 I‟m sorry. Oh, my god, I forgot to pass it to you again. Can you forgive me
again?
In Situation 20, you insisted that your classmate, Mary, had borrowed money from
you and had not given it back. Finally, you found that you had made a mistake. Some
of apology responses that the students gave Mary are listed as follows:
 Yes. Much to my regret, I blamed you unfairly. I wish it would not hurt you.
I‟m very sorry.
 It‟s my fault. Now please accept my apology.
 I‟m sorry. It‟s a little thing for our friendship.
 Sorry. I should believe you all the time.
 I‟m so sorry. I felt ashamed at what I have done.
 Please forgive me, my good friend. Now, I make an apology for my
misunderstanding.
 Sorry, my friend. I did not mean to hurt you.
 I‟m very sorry, my god. Forgive me, Mary. What a bad memory I have!
The speech act of apology was valuable in exploring students‟ competence in using
English. The data collected from the three speech acts provided convincing
information for examining students‟ focus of pragmatic knowledge, their levels of
152
pragmatic competence as well as the practice of language learning strategies in
selected situations.
The DCT data supported those found from the questionnaire and deepened the
understanding of College English students‟ levels of pragmatic competence in China
by examining the students‟ responses provided in each social situation. In the next
section, the data collected from semi-structured focus group interviews is reported
with the categorized themes: students‟ perceptions of pragmatic knowledge;
students‟ perceptions of pragmatic competence; students‟ perceptions of pragmatics
in English teaching and learning; students‟ perceptions of pragmatic information in
textbooks, and students‟ perceptions and practice of language learning strategies.
5.3 Semi-structured focus group interview data
The data to be reported in this section is closely centered on all three research
questions of the study. Students‟ viewpoints on their pragmatic knowledge and
pragmatic competence, as well as language learning strategies for acquiring
pragmatic knowledge in the process of College English learning were examined.
The interview questions were prepared in both English and Chinese (as per the
attached Appendix C). In the following results, pseudonyms in place of the real
names were used. Students were given identification codes to ensure anonymity.
They were identified as Ann, Benson, Cindy, Edgar, Flora, Gilbert, Harlow, Jesse,
Kevin, Lindy, Martin, Norman, Oliver, Sunny, Tom, Victor, Wilson, and Yin.
5.3.1 Students’ perceptions of pragmatic knowledge
Regarding the importance of the development of language knowledge, a total of 16

participants indicated that it is important to learn both pragmatic knowledge and
linguistic knowledge in the English learning process, particularly at the university
level. Sunny gave his reasons for that. He said:
Both pragmatic knowledge and linguistic knowledge play the same important
role in the development of students‟ English language knowledge. First of all,
linguistic knowledge is the basis of pragmatic knowledge. Without rich
vocabulary and enough grammatical knowledge, people cannot carry out
153
effective conversations. Even people can organize conversations, they cannot
proceed smoothly without sufficient linguistic knowledge. Second, pragmatic
knowledge is more widely used in people‟s daily life. We can express ourselves
more accurately with our limited vocabulary if we can better master the flexible
use of the vocabulary. In summary, linguistic knowledge is regarded as the
building basis, while pragmatic knowledge is regarded as the building structure.
Pragmatic knowledge, together with linguistic knowledge, helps build the final
model. They support each other and help language learners achieve their
language competence. (Sunny: 16 March, 2011)
Ann indicated:
I think that learning pragmatic knowledge is very important. All university

students want to find decent jobs after graduation. Effectively communicating
with people in English can help find good jobs in China. Meanwhile, some
students plan to go abroad for further study after they graduate from the
university. In order to better communicate with people from other countries, we
need to learn pragmatic knowledge. These are the reasons why pragmatic
knowledge is more important than linguistic knowledge. Pragmatic knowledge
and linguistic knowledge support each other and progress together. (Ann: 22
March, 2011)
In contrast, Yin said:
Compared with pragmatic knowledge, linguistic knowledge is more important

because university students are not high level English language learners
although most of us have learned English for more than nine years. English is
regarded as a foreign language in China. We have few chances to use English
after class. We do not have a high level of using English. Therefore, developing
the linguistic knowledge at the present stage is the most important task for us
all. (Yin: 16 March, 2011)
Students provided different responses when they were asked what kind of English
they wanted to learn. Twelve students said that they wanted to learn American
English. Lindy explained:
Compared with British English, American English does not belong to pure
English, for it develops from British English and has borrowed so many words
154
from other languages. However, I still want to learn American English because
it is very popular among Chinese students. At the same time, the United States
of America is a leading developed country and its great impact to the whole
world will keep a relative long period of time. Thus, American English is more
likely to be accepted by people from different kinds of countries or areas.
English works as an international language for people from different countries
to communicate with each other in both international businesses and daily life.
Learning American English can let us better use English in wider fields. (Lindy:
16 March, 2011)
Sunny added:
I think that I was taught American English when I started to learn English in the
primary school. The first time for me to contact British English was to listen to
BBC news in the university. It is hard for me to change to learn British English
at present stage. (Sunny: 16 March 2011)
In contrast, six students wanted to learn British English. Gilbert stated:
I think that British English is the standard English. All kinds of Englishes
originated from British English. It is also the noble English. Therefore, it is
important for Chinese students to learn the standard English that can be
accepted by everyone in the world. (Gilbert: 16 March, 2011)
5.3.2 Students’ perceptions of pragmatic competence
When it came to the importance of the development of pragmatic competence, all 18

interviewees believed that it was very important to develop pragmatic competence in
the English learning process. They suggested that achieving pragmatic competence
could help English language learners achieve competence in communication.
Kevin said:
Enhancing pragmatic competence helps students get more opportunities and

create better developing space for their future study and careers. Students can
get chances to further their studies overseas or work in foreign investment
companies in China that offer high salaries. In addition, we can learn different
cultures through the communication with people coming from different
cultures. Cultural knowledge helps us improve our pragmatic competence.
155
Nevertheless, our English teachers spent most of the time in the classroom
teaching explaining the grammar and language points. We have very poor
listening and speaking abilities because of poor pragmatic competence. I believe
that only obtaining the knowledge of grammar and vocabulary is not sufficient
to help us become proficient English language users. (Kevin: 22 March, 2011)
Tom stated:
Practicing English with people coming from different cultural backgrounds can
help us learn different cultures, which can help English language learners
achieve pragmatic competence in communication. However, we have few
chances to practice English in class, let alone after class. Whenever I try to
speak English on campus or in the dormitory, my classmates or roommates will
laugh at me and I feel embarrassed and discouraged. I think I have poor
communicative competence. (Tom: 22 March, 2011)
5.3.3 Students’ perceptions of pragmatics in College English learning and

teaching
When asked questions concerning students‟ perceptions of the importance of

pragmatic or communicative tasks in developing students‟ pragmatic competence in
the classroom teaching and learning, students gave different responses with different
reasons. Ten students preferred the task of debate. Benson commented by saying:
Different tasks applied in the classroom teaching and learning can help improve
students‟ pragmatic competence. I think that debate can develop students‟
pragmatic competence. Students need to make enough preparations before the
debate and make prompt responses according to different happenings during the
debate. On the other hand, activities as presentation and role play can be
prepared in advance but do not need any instant reactions at all, which is on the
contrary to the principle of the flexible use of a language. Learning the
knowledge of a language, particularly the pragmatic knowledge, needs to learn
to make quick and accurate responses in many unexpected situations. At the
same time, debate can also encourage students‟ participation and enthusiasm.
(Benson: 16 March, 2011)
156
Flora stated:
I like role play because students can have enough time to prepare and rehearse.
Role play has a lively style that needs every student‟s participation. Group work
can bring confidence to every participant. Role play can also practice students‟
communicative abilities in corresponding situations. (Flora: 22 March, 2011)
Jesse said:
I prefer group discussion and pair work because students can help each other
when performing these tasks. Students do not need to worry about losing faces
when they make mistakes in communication. In addition, it is also a good
opportunity for students to exchange their different opinions on some issues.
(Jesse: 22 March, 2011)
Kevin added:
We do not like giving presentations at all. Although we can make preparations

in advance, we still feel very nervous when giving presentations. (Kevin: 22
March 2011)
In respect to the tasks that College English teachers often apply in classroom
teaching to develop students‟ pragmatic competence, interviewees gave a variety of
answers. Cindy responded that:
My College English teacher follows the very traditional teaching method. She
follows the flow of explaining new words and expressions, translating and
analyzing the texts, and checking answers to exercises. The only task she uses
in classroom teaching and learning is questions and answers. She raises some
questions regarding the text or exercises for students to answer. We can easily
find the keys from reference books. There is no need for the teacher to repeat
the same answers. I think it is helpless to the development of our pragmatic
competence. (Cindy: 16 March, 2011)
Benson added:
The classroom activities or tasks designed and used by College English teachers
are not interesting enough. Sometimes students have no interest in taking part in
these activities which limits the development of students‟ pragmatic
competence. (Benson: March 16, 2011)
157
Wilson described a different experience:
My College English teacher sometimes conducts group discussions, role play,

presentation, etc. in classroom teaching so as to practice students‟ spoken
English and develop their communicative abilities. However, due to the limited
time and large classes not every student can actively take part in these activities.
Moreover, some students are unwilling to speak aloud in front of others.
(Wilson: 22 March, 2011)
Tom said:
My College English teacher often conducts situational conversations. These

tasks can facilitate developing students‟ pragmatic competence. (Tom: 22
March 2011)
Kevin pointed out some problems existing in the current College English teaching
and learning by saying:
My English teacher only asks students to do some tasks, such as pair work,
group discussions and role play in class. He never gives pragmatic explanations
to these tasks and contexts. These tasks are not practical at all. We cannot apply
what we have learned in our daily life. (Kevin: 22 March, 2011)
Regarding the question of whether the current College English classroom teaching
and learning processes can help students develop their pragmatic competence, all 18
students said that current English teaching and learning provided little help to the
development of their pragmatic competence. Jesse stated:
The present College English classroom teaching and learning is not well
designed. The teaching and learning process cannot closely integrate with each
other, which, to some degree, hinders the development of students‟ pragmatic
competence. Pragmatic knowledge and pragmatic competence need to be taught
in class, and students need to do more practice to enhance their pragmatic
competence after class. (Jesse: 22 March, 2011)
When the students were asked the questions “In which way do you like to get
pragmatic information/knowledge?” and “What do you usually do to obtain
pragmatic information/knowledge after class?” they described similar methods. All
158
18 students expressed that they liked to watch original English movies, read original
English novels or magazines, and listen to English songs. Martin explained in detail:
Watching original English movies with English titles at the bottom of the screen
is a good way of gaining pragmatic information. It is an easy way for us to learn
English, particularly pragmatic knowledge, from the context in the movie and
develop the skill of guessing the meaning of new words or sentences in certain
contexts. We can learn to use English, especially the spoken English, in
appropriate situations. We can also learn to use the colloquial English language
from the movies. Reading original English novels or magazines is also a good
way of getting pragmatic information. While reading novels with fascinating or
charming plots, students can not only learn English but also keep the interest of
reading and get rid of the boredom of English learning. English magazines can
provide us with updated language. Both English novels and magazines present
us examples of English writings. We can learn authentic English from these
authentic learning materials. (Martin: 16 March, 2011)
Benson added:
I learn the use of English through playing computer games. Most of the
computer games are written in English. I have developed the skill of guessing
the meaning of new words in playing computer games. (Benson: 16 March
2011)
Edgar said:
Learning to sing English songs can help students gain pragmatic knowledge and
develop their pragmatic competence. Although the pragmatic knowledge that
students get from English songs might not be applied in very formal situations,
students can still develop their pragmatic competence by imitating singers‟
pronunciation and intonation. Classical English songs exhibit the ever-lasting
use of the language, while popular songs show the current language.
Meanwhile, students might have more interest to learn a language due to the
influence of singers. (Edgar: 22 March, 2011)
With respect to the question as to whether students felt that they could apply the
English knowledge they had learned in class to real situations or not, 13 students
gave a negative response. Flora explained:
159
It is really difficult for us to apply the bookish knowledge into practice. The
English language we have learned in class is totally different from everyday
English. The English language knowledge we have learned in the College
English classroom teaching and learning is not practical at all. Meanwhile, there
is no English-speaking context for us to practice English. (Flora: 22 March
2011)
Four students were more open in the response they gave to the question. Harlow said:
I can apply some English language knowledge I have learned in class to some
real situations. However, I am not sure whether it is appropriate or not due to
different contexts. Knowledge such as English literature cannot be used in daily
communication because it is not practical at all. (Harlow: 22 March, 2011)
Only one student thought that he could apply what he had learned in English class to
the daily life, but he did not give any explanation.
The students described a variety of difficulties in learning pragmatic knowledge. Ann

stated:
I have no chance to be involved in communication with native English speakers

in the real context. (Ann, 22 March 2011)
Tom said:
It is not easy for me to make prompt responses in English in communication. I

need time to fully understand people‟s words and organize responses in my
mind, which makes me feel very uneasy and nervous. (Tom: 22 March, 2011)
Benson pointed out:
A lot of words we have learned in class cannot be used in daily conversations.

Many of them are big words or very formal words that are seldom used in
conversations. (Benson: 16 March 2011)
5.3.4 Students’ perceptions of pragmatic information in textbooks
College English textbooks are the main teaching and learning materials for both
students and teachers. Students involved in the interviews used the New College
160
English. When asked questions such as “What do you think of the quantity of
pragmatic knowledge and pragmatically oriented tasks in the current College
English textbooks?” and “Do you believe that current College English textbooks can
help you develop your pragmatic competence?” students gave relatively similar
answers. Norman said:
I think that the percentage of pragmatic knowledge and pragmatically oriented

tasks involved in the College English textbooks at most occupies 30%. Most
tasks in the textbooks focus on the development of students‟ linguistic
competence, such as vocabulary, sentence structures and grammar. They can
help reinforce my linguistic knowledge, which consolidate the basis of the
development of pragmatic competence. However, textbooks do little help to
developing students‟ pragmatic competence. (Norman: 16 March, 2011)
Cindy agreed and added:
The design and the writing of current College English textbooks cannot keep up
with the needs of society, and cannot meet our needs. The teaching materials are
out-dated, and the learning tasks in textbooks do little help to the development
of students‟ pragmatic competence. It is hard for College English teachers to
well design their classroom teaching and learning to help students achieve their
optimal learning outcomes with these teaching materials. (Cindy: 16 March,
2011)
Kevin stated:
I do not like the current College English textbooks. Although many of them
have been published recently, texts were selected from very old stories. Easy
texts and difficult ones are mixed together, which makes hard for students to
develop linguistic competence or pragmatic competence step by step. There is
little cultural knowledge included in texts. The instruction to pragmatic
knowledge and routines is limited. The design of exercises to each text is
examination-oriented that overlooks the development of students‟ pragmatic
competence. These books have no new concept or are old-fashioned that cannot
help us improve our pragmatic competence. (Kevin: 22 March, 2011)
161
5.3.5 Students’ perceptions and practice of language learning strategies in
learning English
Language learning strategies are another important research aspect in this study, as
they can help language learners more effectively develop their language learning
(Kaplan, 2002). When the students were asked what language learning strategies they
believed important to improve their pragmatic competence, they raised different
strategies with a variety of reasons. Oliver stated:
I think that recitation and imitation are very important for students to improve
students‟ pragmatic competence. Though most university students have learned
English more than nine year, we, I think, are still low proficient language
learners. Remembering new words and reciting texts are helpful to low
proficient English learners, which can assist in accumulating their vocabulary
and cultivating the feel of the language. In my mind, imitation is the best way of
learning English. I think that trying to imitate the native speakers‟ pronunciation
and the way they express themselves is the most efficient way of learning
English, particularly in learning pragmatic knowledge. If students are familiar
with native speakers‟ pronunciation and the way they express themselves, they
can better understand their words and make responses in a more natural way.
(Oliver: 22 March, 2011)
Victor said:
I find that watching original English movies and listening to English songs do
great help to progress students‟ pragmatic competence. Original English movies
are visual materials that provide more vivid images while learning a language.
Students can better understand the target language used in certain contexts.
English songs are auditory materials that can arouse great interests among
students. Meanwhile, both movies stars and popular singers have great charisma
to young students. They have great influence on the youngsters. Some students
transfer their love to these stars to the interest of learning English. (Victor: 16
March, 2011)
Gilbert added:
Doing note-taking does great help to improve our English language proficiency.
It can help students get familiar with English native speakers‟ pronunciation and
162
intonation and practice the word spelling and sentence structuring. (Gilbert: 16
March, 2011)
When students were asked to list the language learning strategies they used in
learning English and pragmatics and how they chose to use these strategies, few of
them seemed to have their own ideas on appropriate language learning strategies.
Martin indicated:
Guided by our English language teachers, we make our options of using

language learning strategies. We follow teachers‟ requirements and words to
practice, such as finishing assignments, remembering new words and
expressions, and memorizing texts. (Martin: 16 March, 2011)
Benson added:
I often watch original English movies, read original English novels, and try to
find opportunities to communicate with native English speakers to improve my
English proficiency. These language learning strategies are recommended by
my English teacher. (Benson: 16 March, 2011)
Lindy expressed the same opinion:
I follow the words of my English teacher to read English newspapers, watch

English news and listen to English broadcast, such as BBC and VOA, to
improve my English proficiency. (Lindy: 16 March, 2011)
Harlow stated that:
It was a great pity for us to follow teachers‟ words all the time to choose
language learning strategies in learning English. Everyone needs to find
appropriate language learning strategies due to their individual different
learning situations. Students always believe that teachers‟ words are right.
Having been taught by the traditional methods for a long period of time, many
students might have lost their own ability of independent learning. They rely on
their teachers too much and do not know how to choose suitable language
learning strategies by themselves. (Harlow: 22 March, 2011)
The results from the focus group interviews supported those found in the data
gathered in the questionnaire and DCTs of the study, which indicated the importance
163
of the role of pragmatic knowledge and competence, as well as language learning
strategies, in helping language learners achieve communicative competence in
intercultural communication. The further discussion of the data will be provided in
Chapter 6. In the next section, the data collected from the College English textbook
tasks analysis is presented.
5.4 Textbook tasks analysis data
A textbook tasks analysis was performed to examine the nature of learning tasks
provided by Chinese College English textbooks. The learning tasks provided by
textbooks can have an impact students‟ development of pragmatic competence. Four
Integrated Course books, 1 to 4, chosen from New College English series were used
to understand what preferred students‟ learning tasks were provided in textbooks.
Quantitative data collected from the textbook tasks analysis were analyzed by means
of descriptive statistics. Results are presented below.
In the preface of the textbooks, the authors indicated that this series of textbooks was
designed in accordance with the principles of eclecticism, which combined the
advantages of various teaching methodologies from China and overseas countries. It
advocated for students‟ independent learning through a student-centered teaching and
learning approach. The stated aims of the textbook were to develop students‟ all-
around English linguistic knowledge and strong English integrated abilities by
combining reading, listening, speaking, writing and translation practice in and out of
class. Different types of texts were provided on the basis of themes that were
purported to be closely related to students‟ real life. The design of the tasks were said
to be based on the principles of interaction and a task-based approach that benefits
students in their progress of language competence.
There were around 382 pages in each of the four Integrated Course books. As the
textbooks were approximately of an equivalent length, a page-by-page scrutiny of the
textbooks was conducted to examine the amount and nature of the language learning
tasks, especially pragmatic tasks, provided.
164
Table 5.12 describes the distribution of tasks by the number of pages in each book.
According to the table, the average percentage of pages of learning tasks included in
the four textbooks was around 45%.
Table 5.12 Pages of tasks in New College English Integrated Course textbooks
Total number of Percentage of

Textbook Pages of tasks
pages tasks
Integrated Course Book 1 155 378 41.01%
Total 685 1531 44.74%
Table 5.13 shows the number of different types of tasks provided by each textbook.
It should be noted that metalanguage information, cultural information and
pragmatically oriented tasks belong to pragmatic knowledge and help language
learners develop their pragmatic competence. As can be seen from the table, these
three tasks together account overall for only about 20% of the tasks while tasks of
vocabulary, structure, translation, writing and text comprehension, which help
students develop their linguistic competence (Bachman, 1990), account for
approximately 80% of the textbook tasks.
In textbooks 1 to 4, linguistic tasks were ranked from high to low as follows:

vocabulary tasks, text comprehensive tasks, writing tasks, translation tasks, and
structure tasks. Of pragmatic tasks, pragmatically oriented tasks were ranked the
highest, followed by metalanguage tasks and cultural information tasks (see Table
5.13).
165
Table 5.13 Pages of task types in New College English Integrated Course textbooks
Book1 Book 2 Book 3 Book 4

Task types
(Pages) (Pages) (Pages) (Pages)
Vocabulary tasks 61 67 78 82
Percentage 39.36% 40.61% 44.07% 43.62%
Text comprehensive tasks 25 25 27 29
Percentage 16.13% 15.15% 15.26% 15.43%
Pragmatically oriented tasks 22 20 20 20
Percentage 14.19% 12.12% 11.30% 10.64%
Writing tasks 15 22 19 27
Percentage 9.68% 13.33% 10.73% 14.36%
Translation tasks 12 13 12 12
Percentage 7.74% 7.88% 6.78% 6.38%
Metalanguage tasks 10 8 8 6
Percentage 6.45% 4.85% 4.52% 3.19%
Structure tasks 8 8 9 10
Percentage 5.16% 4.85% 5.08% 5.32%
Cultural information tasks 2 2 4 2
Percentage 1.29% 1.21% 2.26% 1.06%
Table 5.14 demonstrates the descriptive statistics by percentage of different kinds of

tasks on pragmatic knowledge in the four New College English Integrated Course
textbooks. As shown, the percentages of each type of pragmatic tasks in the four
textbooks were ranked from high to low as follows: pragmatically oriented tasks,
metalanguage tasks and cultural information tasks. There were no tasks concerning
general pragmatic information, metapragmatic information, speech acts or
knowledge on how to learn pragmatic knowledge.
166
Table 5.14 Pages of pragmatic tasks in New College English Integrated Course
textbooks
Percentage of
Pragmatic tasks Pages Percentage tasks in the set
of textbooks
Pragmatically oriented tasks 82 66.13% 11.97%
Metalanguage tasks 32 25.81% 4.67%
Cultural information tasks 10 8.06% 1.46%
Total 124 100% 18.10%
According to Table 5.15, the percentage of each type of linguistic task in the four
textbooks were ranked from high to low as vocabulary tasks, text comprehensive
tasks, writing tasks, translation tasks, and structure tasks. The percentages of the
tasks in the set of textbooks were ranked from high to low as follows: vocabulary
tasks, text comprehensive tasks, writing tasks, translation tasks, and structure tasks
(see Table 5.15).
Table 5.15 Pages of linguistic tasks in New College English Integrated Course
textbooks
Percentage of
Linguistic tasks Pages Percentage tasks in the set
of textbooks
Vocabulary tasks 288 51.34% 42.04%
Text comprehensive tasks 106 18.89% 15.48%
Writing tasks 83 14.80% 12.12%
Translation tasks 49 8.73% 7.15%
Structure tasks 35 6.24% 5.11%
Total 561 100% 81.90%
Pragmatically oriented tasks included in the textbooks were in the form of listening
and speaking tasks. Answering questions was the only kind of listening task
presented in the textbooks. Speaking tasks included pair work, group work, group
discussions, oral presentation, debate, role play and speech contests. Table 5.16
demonstrates that pair work was ranked highest among all pragmatically oriented
tasks. The second to the fifth ranked tasks were group work, group discussions,
167
questions and answers, and debate. Oral presentation and speech contests were the
lowest ranked tasks.
Table 5.16 Pages of pragmatically oriented tasks in New College English Integrated
Course textbooks
Pragmatically oriented tasks Pages Percentage

Pair work 22 26.83%
Group work 20 24.39%
Group discussions 16 19.51%
Questions and answers 12 14.63%
Debate 6 7.32%
Role play 4 4.88%
Oral presentation 1 1.22%
Speech contest 1 1.22%
Total 82 100%
The data reported in this section indicated that both linguistic tasks and pragmatic
tasks were provided by the College English textbooks, both of which played
important roles in helping students become language competent.
5.5 Summary
The quantitative and qualitative data collected from four instruments – the
questionnaire, DCTs, semi-structured focus group interviews, and textbook tasks
analysis, were reported in this chapter. The results of the data highlighted that
College English students believed that it was important and essential for them to
learn pragmatics in their English language acquisition process, which could help
them achieve communicative competence in communication. They described that
applying effective language learning strategies could help them achieve optimal
learning outcomes. Students in the study held different perceptions about current
English classroom teaching and learning, English language learning tasks, and tasks
provided by College English textbooks, which played important roles in helping
them become pragmatically competent. In the next chapter, a detailed discussion and
168
interpretation of the data are presented by integrating the findings with the theoretical
perspectives of this study.
169
170
CHAPTER 6: RESEARCH DATA DISCUSSION
In the previous chapter, the collected research data were reported in detail. This
chapter describes the analysis of the data by way of triangulation to enhance the
accuracy of the study through corroborating evidence from different data sources.
The three research questions proposed by this research are addressed in relation to
College English students‟ perceptions of pragmatics, their levels of pragmatic
competence, and their perceptions and practice of language learning strategies in
learning English and pragmatics. The key findings are analyzed and discussed by
integrating the theoretical perspectives of this study with the findings of the previous
studies.
6.1 RQ1: What are Chinese students’ perceptions of pragmatics in their

English learning?
Research question 1 focused on College English students‟ perceptions of pragmatics

in their College English classroom learning and teaching, and after class English
learning. In the following sections, the findings of this thesis are examined and
discussed under four categories:
(a) students‟ perceptions of English language learning;
(b) the importance of pragmatics in College English learning;
(c) students‟ perceptions of learning and teaching pragmatics; and
(d) students‟ perceptions of pragmatics in College English textbooks.
6.1.1 Students’ perceptions of English language learning
English is taught as a foreign language in China (Crystal, 2003), and it is a

compulsory course from primary school to university across China (Hu, 2005; Zhao
& Campbell, 1997). As shown in Table 5.1 (p.118), around 94% of the participants
have studied English for more than six years, but only one of them had an overseas
English language learning experience. It could be surmised that Chinese College
English students are advanced language learners as they have been taught English in
the Chinese context for quite a long period of time, and therefore, they have
developed a high level of English language competency. However, English education
has unbalanced levels of teaching and learning in different regions in China. For
171
example, students from western areas of China tend to have a low proficiency in
English because most of them have learned English for less than six years due to a
shortage of qualified English language teachers, learning materials, and learning
environments (Su, 2011; Zhao, 2005).
As noted in Table 5.3 (p.121), nearly 70% of the participants indicated that the main
reason they needed to learn English was not to pass the examination. This may be
because, nowadays, Chinese society requires students not only to have relevant
English certificates, such as the College English Test (Band Four or Band Six), but
also to obtain practical abilities to communicate effectively in English. Motivation
plays an important role in helping L2 learners to achieve L2 competency (Yuan &
Shen, 2009) and is a powerful factor in SLA that helps determine the level of
proficiency achieved by different learners (Ellis, 1985).
MacNamara (1973) argues that the really important part of motivation is the act of
communication itself. Motivation relies on the learner‟s learning goal, and gaining a
sense of academic or communicative success can highly motivate students in their
language learning. Driven by different motivations, the majority of College English
students in the study indicated that they focused more attention on their development
of pragmatic competence in the English language learning process. This changing
trend in focus can be seen in the responses to Question 8 in the questionnaire where
more than 65% of respondents agreed or strongly agreed that “…the knowledge of
how to use the language is as important as linguistic knowledge”.
Regarding the type of English students wanted to learn, American English was
mostly preferred, followed by British English. Less than 20% of the students would
like to learn Chinese English (see Figure 5.3, p.122). One student indicated in the
interview, “…I still want to learn American English because it is very popular among
Chinese students. … American English is more likely to be accepted by people from
different kinds of countries or areas…” (Lindy: 16 March, 2011). While American
English was popular for its world-wide usage one student who preferred to learn
British English highlighted, “…British English is the standard English. … it is
important for Chinese students to learn the standard English that can be accepted by
everyone in the world…” (Gilbert: 16 March, 2011). Whether it was American
172
English or British English, more than 75% of the students wished to speak like native
English speakers, and they were keen on imitating native speakers‟ pronunciation
and intonation.
These findings indicated that students wanted to learn English they could use in
everyday settings and learning „native-like‟ English was preferred over more
traditional language learning. However, students who held the concept that they
would like to use English in the exact same way as native speakers did was contrary
to the notion of ELF that encouraged language learners to learn and use their local
variety of the language in the appropriate communicative context (Kirkpatrick, 2010)
(see 3.4.3). Excessive imitation of native speakers, to a great extent, limits non-native
speakers‟ development of pragmatic competence.
To Chinese College English students, the English they used was influenced by their
Chinese language, Chinese culture, and the Chinese learning context. These results
support the findings of a previous study conducted by Wang (2005). Influenced by
the speaker‟s L1, the target language the speaker uses is different from the language
used by native speakers, particularly in phonology and the use of vocabulary.
Language learners‟ L1 plays a decisive role in the L2 learning or foreign language
learning as learners‟ L1 affects their pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar in the
L2 or foreign language (Larsen-Freeman & Long, 1991). Meanwhile, some features
of the L1, such as lexis and grammar, are transferred to the L2 or the foreign
language (Kachru, 1997) (see 3.1). Therefore, it is extremely difficult for an L2 or
foreign language learner to speak, and generally use language, in the same way as a
native speaker does.
Foreign language learners often transfer phrases, strategies and norms of their L1 to
learning a foreign language (Schauer, 2009). Students indicated in the interviews:
“We often borrow Chinese phrases and norms to express our ideas in English.”
(Edgar and Oliver: 22 March, 2011), but they were not sure whether such
transference would be accepted or not. In order to be effective speakers in
communication, it is essential for Chinese students to be aware of the transfer in
pragmatics in College English learning as interlanguage pragmatics is closely related
to the pragmatic competence and performance of L2/foreign language learners (Ji,
173
2008; Schauer, 2009) (see 3.2.1). The following section discusses the role of
pragmatics in Chinese College English learning.
6.1.2 Importance of pragmatics in College English learning
Results of both the questionnaire and interviews identified that College English
students had strong desires to acquire pragmatic knowledge, and they believed that it
was essential to learn pragmatics either in their classroom or after class. In responses
to Question 7 and Question 8 of the questionnaire, nearly 60% of the students
indicated that learning English was much more than learning English grammar,
vocabulary, and pronunciation, and they indicated that pragmatic knowledge was as
important as linguistic knowledge in learning English. These data were supported by
the interview data in which students highlighted, “Pragmatic knowledge, together
with linguistic knowledge…support each other and help language learners achieve
their language competence.” (Sunny: 16 March, 2011; Ann: 22 March, 2011).
These findings indicated that College English students‟ perceptions of pragmatics

have changed. College English students reported that students who were impacted by
the traditional English language teaching and learning in China, were taught that
learning English meant developing their linguistic competence, such as grammar,
vocabulary, and syntax, and this led to a large number of „mute‟ and „deaf‟ English
language learners with high performance in linguistics but low pragmatic awareness
(Cindy: 16 March, 2011; Ann: 22 March, 2011). However, with the publication and
implementation of curriculum requirements such as the third version of College
English Curriculum Requirements in 2007, developing students‟ ability to use
English effectively has become the objective of College English learning and
teaching.
This orientation was reflected by the data that suggested that College English
learners understand the need to develop communication competency in English. For
example, Chinese university students were aware of the English language needs of
society and the new requirements of College English, as well as the importance of
pragmatics in achieving English language competence. As indicated in Table 5.3 (p.
121), more than 75% of the students in the questionnaire showed their admiration of
people who could communicate in English in a fluent and accurate way. Kevin
174
claimed in the interview that “enhancing pragmatic competence helps students get
more opportunities and create better developing space for their future study and
careers” (22 March, 2011).
Influenced by society and learning environments, students had strong desires to learn
to be pragmatically competent English language users through their English studies.
These data reflected the findings of previous studies (Bardovi-Harlig & Dörnyei,
1998; Niezgoda & Röver, 2001), which found that the learning environment impacts
language learners‟ pragmatic awareness in that the learning environment could assist
students to get information about pragmatic features of the language and improve
their pragmatic competence. The findings for the current research must be considered
against the model proposed by Bachman (1990) that it is essential for language
learners to have both organizational competence and pragmatic competence to
achieve language competence (see 3.2.4.2). Pragmatic competence is an
indispensable component of global language proficiency.
Nevertheless, the findings of the study indicated that College English students, who
were grammatically advanced language learners, were not always able to properly
use English in appropriate situations. Data from the DCTs revealed that students
often misunderstood what appropriate responses were needed in a variety of
everyday situations. Despite the low level of pragmatic knowledge revealed through
these data, the students also indicated that they understood that in order to be
competent in English they needed to have both knowledge of how to use English as
well as linguistic knowledge of English. This finding resonated with the findings of
past studies which suggested that it was essential to keep a balance between
pragmatic competence and linguistic competence (Bardovi-Harlig & Dörnyei, 1998;
Nikula, 2008; Ruan, 2007; Wang, 2004; Xu, 2003; Xu, Case & Wang, 2009). More
research in this area is warranted.
As one of the components of language knowledge, pragmatic knowledge plays a key

role for language learners in achieving pragmatic competence. As proposed by Apte
(1974) “language competence should go hand in hand with cultural competence”
(p.67). Learning a language involves learning its pragmatics and culture as well as its
form (Wong, 2010). Such arguments are consistent with the findings of previous
175
studies that culture and social factors play an important part in language learners‟
development of pragmatic competence have also been revealed in this study (Du,
2004; Félix-Brasderfer, 2006; Nureddeen, 2008; Wang, 2005; Zheng & Huang,
2010).
As indicated in Figure 5.1 (p.120), College English students‟ preference of language

knowledge included knowledge on how to use English appropriately, cultural
knowledge, and linguistic knowledge. The majority of participants indicated that
only maintaining grammar or linguistic forms of a language was not sufficient to
learn to use a language. Also, as noted in Figure 5.2 (p.120), more than 66% of the
students claimed that they would like to gain the ability to communicate with people
while learning English. The data suggested that students were aware of the
importance of pragmatic knowledge, which included cultural knowledge, in
developing their pragmatic competence.
Respondents in the study indicated their understanding and agreement with the
viewpoint that language was an expression of the culture in which it was used
because a natural language was much more than form (Wong, 2010). For example,
Tom indicated in the interview: “Practicing English with people coming from
different cultural backgrounds can help us learn different cultures, which can help
English language learners achieve pragmatic competence in communication” (22
March, 2011).
Culture and language are closely related to each other because a new culture might
be created through social interactions (Gudykunst, 1983) (see 3.3.1), and
misunderstandings can be avoided by people with better knowledge and
understanding of other people‟s perceptions of the world, their beliefs and values of
other cultures (Samovar & Porter, 1997) (see 3.3.3). Effective cultural interactions
among people, who have different cultures, are the aim of intercultural/cross-cultural
pragmatic competence (see 3.2.2). In social interactions, cultural and social values,
and social actions are key components to achieve sociopragmatic competence (see
3.2.3), for language is regarded as a product of social action, not a tool to be used
(Pennycook, 2010). Language learners with a high level of intercultural competence
can effectively communicate with people from multiple cultures (see 3.3.4).
176
Only one student in the study identified having an overseas experience where such
intercultural competence for communication could be developed. This is concerning
as China‟s rapidly growing population of English language learners may not have
sufficient opportunities to engage in intercultural experiences to develop key
competencies. However, China‟s population is now among the most frequently
travelled so this might indicate a new trend in gaining intercultural experiences and
more research in this area would help teachers in China to better understand how to
adapt teaching strategies to meet the needs of younger, more mobile English
language students.
Though College English students indicated a realization of the importance of

pragmatics in their College English learning, lexical and grammatical knowledge
learning still occupied most of their learning time. This over-focus on lexical and
grammatical knowledge has posed the danger of ignoring the importance of
pragmatics in College English learning. Data from the study indicated that students
needed opportunities to include pragmatics in their English language acquisition
process.
6.1.3 Students’ perceptions of learning and teaching pragmatics
Both classroom teaching and learning and after class study play important roles for
language learners in successfully acquiring knowledge of the appropriate use of
English language (Lightbown & Spada, 1999). In the Chinese context, classroom
teaching and learning is important for English language learners to obtain language
knowledge, especially pragmatic knowledge (Wang, 2010). Students habitually
follow the teacher‟s instructions in selecting language learning methods and
strategies, as well as learning materials. The traditional teacher-centered classroom
teaching and learning model has a long history in China; however, this approach is
now being challenged (Zhang, 2007) as the College English Curriculum
Requirements (2007) advocates student-centered and computer-based teaching and
learning models to inspire students‟ individualized and independent learning. The
data results from the study indicated that students‟ perceptions of College English
learning and teaching, particular in learning pragmatics, had changed and that
177
students wanted a different approach to teaching and learning than that offered
traditionally.
As noted in Table 5.4 (p.123), more than 81% of the students wanted to be taught
how to communicate with people and how to use English in an appropriate way.
They believed that communicative activities were necessary teaching and learning
practice in the classroom. It appears that College English students had strong desires
to acquire pragmatic knowledge both in class and after class to become
communicative competent language users. These findings were in accordance with
those of Savignon and Wang‟s (2003) study which suggested that there were
differences between the needs and preferences of English language learners and their
perceptions of instructional practice.
In the 1980s, students learned English with a focus on vocabulary, sentence

structures, and grammar. As a result of this approach to teaching and learning,
students could not competently communicate in English even after learning English
for about ten years. From the late 1990s, with the further implementation of the
reform and opening policies in China, students and teachers have gradually realized
the importance of the use of English, particularly in communication (Zhao, 2009). As
indicated in Table 5.4 (p.123), around 70% of the students in this study wanted their
English language teachers to concentrate on CLT and practice, with grammar
explained only when needed. Students indicated that CLT and learning, which aimed
at helping language learners effectively use the target language (Hiep, 2007),
facilitated to enhance students‟ communicative competence. High level
communicatively competent language users could well recognize and choose the
type of language applied in appropriate occasions (Taguchi, 2009).
In the language teaching and learning classroom, tasks play an essential part in
helping develop students‟ communicative abilities. Students involved in interactions
to complete tasks have more opportunities to develop competency in language skills
(Bygate, Tonkyn & Williams, 1994). Accordingly, task-based teaching and learning
has the potential to facilitate language learners in becoming more native-like in their
performance in either an L2 or a foreign language (Salmani-Nodoushan, 2007) (see
3.5.2).
178
As tasks have enabled the language acquisition process to operate, the data from the
study indicated students‟ preference to engage with different tasks involved in
classroom teaching and learning, for example, through watching English videos and
films, reading authentic English materials, group discussions, debates, pair work,
learning to sing English songs, role play, and presentations. More specifically,
students indicated that they would like their English language teachers to organize
pragmatically oriented tasks such as debates, role play, group discussions and pair
work in the classroom teaching and learning to enhance their pragmatic competence,
which was in accordance with the findings of previous studies (Alcón-Soler, 2005;
Takimoto, 2009).
It is nearly 30 years since College English started to be taught in China. Both

Chinese students and teachers are familiar with the traditional grammar-translation
teaching and learning model (Zhang, 2007) where questions and answers are the only
common tasks used in class. College English textbooks were the only teaching
materials applied in classroom teaching and learning (Zhao, 2005). However, as
stated above, students these days are expecting changes in College English teaching
and learning that can facilitate them in developing their pragmatic competence
(Wang, 2010).
The data indicated that students would like to be exposed to authentic learning
materials, such as original English movies, songs, newspapers and magazines as they
believed that they could “learn authentic English from these authentic learning
materials.” (Martin: 16 March, 2011). They would like to imitate “singers‟
pronunciation and intonation” (Edgar: 22 March, 2011), and “learn to use the
colloquial English language from the movies” (Martin: 16 March, 2011).
Compared with the traditional learning tasks, film watching and newspaper or
magazine reading are more authentic strategies for students to obtain both linguistic
and pragmatic knowledge. With the help of visual images and music, “students can
better understand the target language used in certain contexts” (Victor: 16 March,
2011). Students indicated that “students might have more interest to learn a language
due to the influence of singers” (Edgar: 22 March, 2011). Newspapers and
magazines were also cited as providing all-round information in every aspect of life,
179
and “…students cannot only learn English but also keep the interest of reading and
not get bored of English learning. English magazines can provide us with updated
language” (Martin: 22 March, 2011).
The data also indicated that due to a lack of confidence in using a foreign language,
College English students preferred to conduct tasks in groups. They could ask others
for help when they had difficulties, and they suggested that they might feel more safe
and confident in group work. “Students do not need to worry about losing face when
they make language mistakes in communication” (Jesse: 22 March, 2011).
Accordingly, in classroom teaching and learning, pragmatically oriented tasks such
as debates, role play, group discussions and pair work are more welcome than
individual presentations in learning English.
It was found from the data that much time has been spent in explaining the usage of
the vocabulary and analyzing texts in College English classes. Participants described
that “it is really difficult for us to apply the bookish knowledge to practice. The
language we have learned in class is the formal language that is different from the
colloquial language, particularly in College English learning” (Flora: 22 March,
2011). Even if students can apply some English knowledge to real situations, they are
“not sure whether it is appropriate or not due to different contexts” (Harlow: 22
March, 2011). On the other hand, some students indicated that a small group of
teachers were prepared to provide a limited amount of time to conduct pragmatically
oriented tasks as “group discussion, role play, and presentation” (Wilson: 22 March,
2011) in class in order to enhance “students‟ pragmatic competence” (Tom: 22
March, 2011). Yet, some students stated that the design of tasks was not interesting
at all, and teachers did not give “pragmatic explanation about the tasks and the
context” (Kevin: 22 March, 2011).
These data highlighted that teachers might not be sufficiently trained on how to
implement authentic tasks to increase students‟ pragmatic competence and if this is
so, then more work in this area is needed to better understand how this situation can
be improved. Students might feel puzzled at how to apply the knowledge they have
learned to practical situations as metapragmatic instructions that can help improve
language learners‟ pragmatic competence (Bardovi-Harlig & Griffin, 2005;
180
Martínez-Flor & Alcón-Soler, 2007; Rose & Kwai-fun, 2001). Without properly
trained teachers in this area, students are not able to develop appropriate strategies
for language learning.
College English teaching and learning was examination-oriented in the 1980s and
1990s. To pass College English Test (Band Four) was a priority because it was a
compulsory requirement for university students to get their bachelor degrees. There
was no oral examination to test students‟ speaking ability in the College English Test
until 2000. Students who passed the College English Test (writing) were allowed to
sit the College English Test (Spoken English Test). Although it is no longer a
compulsory requirement for university students to pass the College English Test
(Band Four), forms of written tests are still the major testing methods to examine
students‟ language competence.
From the present research there is no doubt that students were dissatisfied with the
present College English classroom teaching and learning process. They indicated that
current College English classroom teaching and learning did little to help the
development of their pragmatic competence. Edgar stated in the interview:
I think that the current College English classroom teaching and learning is not
well designed by teachers due to different kinds of reasons, such as large
classes, limited teaching hours, curriculum requirements, and so on. The
relationship between the teaching and the learning is very loose. There is no
effective integration between the teaching and the learning. Teachers cannot
effectively organize pragmatically communicative activities in the classroom
teaching and learning. Students are not well guided in learning the appropriate
use of English. (22 March, 2011)
College English students indicated the importance of developing pragmatic

competence in the English language acquisition process, and they had strong desires
to achieve pragmatic competence within their study time in the university. They had
high expectations of their teachers and they hoped that teachers could cover
everything they need to support their language learning in classroom teaching and
learning. Students expressed a desire that they could obtain the ability of successfully
181
communicating with others in English after completing their university study. Ann
indicated:
All university students want to find decent jobs after graduation. Effectively
communicating with people in English can help find a good job in China.
Meanwhile, some students plan to go abroad for further study after they
graduate from the university. (22 March, 2011)
While students indicated that they understood the importance of successful

communication skills, they also neglected language practice in the English language
learning process. When they were asked to do some pragmatically oriented tasks or
communicative tasks or activities in class, not many of them expressed enthusiasm in
participating in the tasks or activities. Some of them even indicated that “some
students are unwilling to speak aloud in front of others” (Wilson: 22 March, 2011),
not to mention speaking in public.
It was observed from the data that different attitudes and motivations towards
practicing pragmatics led to an imbalance in pragmatic competence among different
individual students. These findings confirmed the findings of previous studies that
individual differences impacted language learners‟ development of pragmatic
competence (Bataineh & Bataineh, 2006; Chen & Yang, 2010; Keshavarz, Eslami &
Ghahraman, 2006; Nureddeen, 2008; Savignon & Wang, 2003; Schauer, 2006; Tang
& Zhang, 2009).
As shown in Figure 5.12 (p.138), less than 40% of the students practiced their
English with their classmates after class, and only around 5% of them had any
chance to communicate with native English speakers. Language practice plays an
indispensable role for language learners in improving their pragmatic competence
(Pennycook, 2010). Although some Chinese students practice English with their
classmates, it is hard for them to detect the mistakes in their communication as they
are not highly proficient language users and they share the same culture and a very
similar education background. Often they mix Chinese with English in
communication so as to make themselves understood. Practicing English with native
English speakers could help Chinese students make faster progress in using English.
However, students may also develop ELF that cannot be understood “outside the
182
realm of practice” (Canagarajah, 2007, p.94) so needs to be understood in each
specific context of communication (Canagarajah, 2007; Pennycook, 2010).
Related to the need to develop pragmatic competence in the English language

teaching and learning process is the role of teaching and learning materials. The
following section discusses the findings in relation to College English students‟
perceptions of pragmatics included in College English textbooks.
6.1.4 Students’ perceptions of pragmatics in College English textbooks
Textbooks play an important role in English language teaching and learning,

particularly in the EFL classroom where they provide the main form of linguistic
input (Kim & Hall, 2002; Vellenga, 2004). The textbook is considered to be the most
important tool used in the classroom (Altbach, 1991) and College English textbooks
are one of the major resources for students to gain their pragmatic knowledge in
classroom teaching and learning (Ji, 2008).
It is only in the past decade that Chinese English language learners have been able to
access a large number of various English language learning materials due to the
further implementation of the reform and opening policy in China and the
widespread use of the Internet. Students are exposed to large quantities of original
English learning materials, such as English newspapers, magazines and movies.
They can easily access the materials they are interested in with the help of the
Internet. However, only a small number of students in this study indicated that they
spent time learning English using these extra-curriculum materials after class. Most
of the university students stated that they learned English through their learning with
College English textbooks and their learning was focused on learning to pass their
exams. Wilson indicated in the interview:
We still use College English textbooks as the main sources for learning English.
College English course examinations are based on College English textbooks.
In addition, we have many courses to study, and we have limited time to look
for extra-curriculum materials after class. (22 March, 2011)
The data from the textbook tasks analysis highlighted that textbook linguistic tasks,
such as vocabulary tasks, structure tasks, translation tasks, writing tasks, and text
183
comprehensive tasks, occupied more than 80% of all language tasks provided by the
textbooks. Conversely, pragmatic tasks such as metalanguage tasks, cultural
information tasks and pragmatically oriented tasks comprised less than 20% of all
tasks (see 5.4). This information highlighted why students then had this focus for
learning (see above) and why pragmatics was not a higher priority for teaching and
learning. Students‟ attention concentrates on the meaning of words rather than the
use of the language itself as is needed for their exams. As noted in Table 5.16
(p.168), tasks of pair work, group work and group discussion were the most common
pragmatically oriented tasks provided by the textbooks and the data from the study
indicated that these tasks were frequently used in English classrooms in China.
However, in response to Question 10 (College English textbooks provide much

information on culture, conversation rules, usage, and on how to use English
correctly) of the questionnaire, more than 60% of the students believed that the
current College English textbooks were not able to provide them with adequate
pragmatic knowledge as well as cultural knowledge. Students indicated in the
interviews that most language learning tasks provided by the textbooks were
linguistics-focused or “examination-oriented” (Kevin: 22 March, 2011), which did
“little help to the development of students‟ pragmatic competence” (Cindy: 16
March, 2011).
Typically, textbooks contain little information about pragmatic language use (Boxer
& Pickering, 1995; Vellenga, 2004). Students confirmed that the current College
English textbooks “focused on the development of students‟ linguistic competence”
(Norman: 16 March, 2011) and provided “little help to developing students‟
pragmatic competence” (Norman: 16 March, 2011). They commented that selected
texts in the textbooks were “very boring and out of style” (Oliver: 22 March, 2011)
and that “little cultural knowledge” (Kevin: 22 March, 2011) was included in texts.
Meanwhile, “easy texts and difficult ones are mixed together, which makes it hard
for students to develop linguistic competence or pragmatic competence step by step”
(Kevin: 22 March, 2011).
Researchers have noted that “it is important to recognize, that, in general, textbooks
cannot be counted on as a reliable source of pragmatic input for classroom language
184
learners” (Bardovi-Harlig, 2001, p.25). However, Chinese College English students
almost totally rely on textbooks to acquire pragmatic knowledge and practice
pragmatic competence in the Chinese learning context. This practice is contrary to
that found in previous research where findings revealed the importance of instruction
of pragmatic routines, metapragmatic information and pragmatically oriented tasks to
facilitate improvement in language learners‟ pragmatic competence (Alcón-Soler,
2005; Bardovi-Harlig & Griffin, 2005; Takahashi, 2001; Takimoto, 2009; Tateyama,
2001). It appears that the indispensible role that College English textbooks play in
Chinese students‟ English language learning process cannot be neglected and further
research in this area is needed.
While the findings of this study highlighted that College English textbooks failed to
adequately portray communicative practices or ideological constructs in the target
language appropriately, students stated that they were not given tools in the
textbooks to recognize and analyze language in a variety of contexts, which, to a
great degree, prevented students from becoming proficient language users in the
target language (Ji, 2008).
Influenced by social needs and curriculum requirements, College English students‟

perceptions of pragmatics in English language learning have changed. They desire to
acquire pragmatic knowledge in the learning process and be taught how to correctly
use English in appropriate contexts (Ji, 2008). In the next section, College English
students‟ levels of pragmatic competence will be analyzed and discussed to address
the second research question of this study.
6.2 RQ2: To what extent do College English students focus on their pragmatic
knowledge in their English learning? What are their levels of pragmatic
competence?
As pragmatic knowledge is necessary for students to develop their pragmatic

competence, it is important to obtain an understanding of students‟ perceptions of
pragmatic knowledge. It is also important to understand students‟ levels of pragmatic
competence in relation to designing an effective pragmatics learning model. The
second research question of this study investigated the extent to which students
concentrated on pragmatic knowledge in their College English learning and their
185
levels of pragmatic competence. The following sections describe the analysis and
discussion of the findings to the second research question.
6.2.1 Students’ focus of pragmatic knowledge in English language learning
According to Bachman‟s (1990) model of language competence, pragmatic

knowledge is classified into general pragmatic information, metalanguage
information, metapragmatic information, speech acts, cultural knowledge,
pragmatically oriented tasks, and knowledge on how to learn pragmatics (Ji, 2008).
This pragmatic knowledge is teachable (Alcón-Soler, 2005; Takahashi, 2001;
Tateyama, 2001), and pragmatically oriented tasks can help improve language
learners‟ pragmatic competence (Alcón-Soler, 2005; Ji, 2008; Riddiford & Joe,
2010). To be more precise, pragmatic knowledge contains the knowledge of
communicative actions and how to carry it out, while pragmatic competence includes
the ability to properly use the language in accordance with the context (Ji, 2008).
The College English Curriculum Requirements (2007) proposes that “the objective
of College English is to develop students‟ ability to use English in a well-rounded
way, especially in listening and speaking” (Chinese College English Education and
Supervisory Committee, 2007, p.25). Developing students‟ pragmatic competence in
communication has become the major task in the current College English learning
and teaching in China.
College English students have indicated a realization that pragmatic knowledge is as

important as linguistic knowledge and they are required to pay more attention to
acquire pragmatic knowledge in College English learning so as to become pragmatic
competent. As indicated in Figure 5.1 (p.120), they preferred to learn communicative
skills, knowledge on how to use English and cultural knowledge in their English
language learning process.
The interview data and the researcher‟s classroom practice indicated that there was
not a balance in conveying linguistic knowledge and pragmatic knowledge in current
College English learning and teaching. The main task for students and teachers was
still to acquire linguistic knowledge to pass examinations. It is hard for both students
and teachers to strictly distinguish pragmatic knowledge from linguistic knowledge
186
as students indicated that “linguistic knowledge is the basis of pragmatic knowledge”
(Sunny: 16 March, 2011). In order to achieve language competence, language
learners need to effectively integrate linguistic knowledge with pragmatic
knowledge. The current research found that as foreign language learners who have
learned English for more than six years, College English students did not have
sufficient linguistic knowledge they could employ to accurately express themselves.
A lack of adequate pragmatic knowledge results in failures in communication.
Nevertheless, the interview data indicated that students had a keen desire to obtain
pragmatic knowledge because they believed having sufficient pragmatic knowledge
could help them become pragmatically competent in social interactions. Chinese
College English students understood the importance of acquiring pragmatic
knowledge that could assist them in becoming communicatively competent language
users. They would like to imitate native English speakers‟ pronunciation and
intonation, and learn cultural knowledge from original English movies, newspapers
and magazines. In the process of trying to use native-like English, there is a danger
that the influence of the Chinese language and the Chinese culture may be neglected,
which is impractical for bilingual language learners learning to use a foreign
language. More research needs to occur to understand how English can be taught
within the Chinese context without losing that element of the learning.
The current study reaffirms the importance of pragmatic knowledge in acquiring an

L2 or foreign language. Pragmatic knowledge plays a significant role in becoming
pragmatically competent (Bachman, 1990). Appropriately acknowledging different
kinds of pragmatic knowledge can help language learners obtain required knowledge
about the use of the language better, which is essential for learners in becoming
pragmatically competent. Language learners need to consider the influence of their
L1 and first culture as well as ELF in communication and how this affects their
learning of pragmatic knowledge as well as their levels of pragmatic competence.
The next section discusses College English students‟ levels of pragmatic
competence.
187
6.2.2 College English students’ levels of pragmatic competence
In current College English learning and teaching in China, becoming linguistically

competent language learners has only begun to attract attention (Wang, 2010; Zhao,
2005). However, both students and teachers have now begun to pay more attention to
developing students‟ pragmatic competence (Wang, 2010), which is an essential
component of the language proficiency construct (Bachman, 1990; Canale & Swain,
1980; Garcia, 2004).
Recent empirical research has begun to pay more attention to its role in interlanguage
development, particularly in the aspect of comprehension (Bardovi-Harlig, 1999;
Kasper & Rose, 1999). Knowing students‟ levels of pragmatic competence can
provide convincing evidence for language education experts to prepare effective
curriculum and teaching materials. In addition, language teachers can be kept
informed of students‟ needs in learning the target language so that they can better
design the classroom teaching and learning to facilitate students to achieve optimal
learning outcomes.
Analyzing the use of language in communicative situations is regarded as the core

business in pragmatics (Haugh, 2009). This study employed a questionnaire and
DCTs to examine Chinese College English students‟ levels of pragmatic competence.
There were five multiple choice questions in the questionnaire to examine students‟
understanding of various communicative situations and their pragmatic competence
in using English. In the DCTs, 20 situations related to three different selected speech
acts – declining an offer, giving a compliment response, and making an apology –
were used to investigate College English students‟ pragmatic competence. The
discussion and analysis of the findings are presented below.
6.2.2.1 Questionnaire data
Five situations presented in the questionnaire aimed at examining College English

students‟ understandings or misunderstandings of pragmatics and their pragmatic
competence in communication. Understanding contains a construction of a mental
representation of the text (the text-base) and a representation of the situation (the
situation model) (van Dijk & Kintsch, 1983). Two modes of understanding proposed
188
by Dascal and Berenstein (1987) are comprehending and grasping. Comprehending
suggests being able to understand the pragmatic level (deciding the sentence
meaning, the utterance meaning and the speaker‟s meaning), while grasping implies
being able to perceive what can and what cannot be said in a given situation (Dascal
& Berenstein, 1987; Verdonik, 2010).
Misunderstanding has created an increasing interest in research on pragmatics and

language learning (Bazzanella & Damiano, 1999; Bosco, Monica & Bara, 2006;
Dascal & Berenstein, 1987; Schegloff, 1987; Thomas, 1983; Weigand, 1999;
Weizman & Blum-Kulka, 1992; Verdonik, 2010; Zaefferer, 1977).
Misunderstandings can be interpreted as misperceptions or misinterpretations that
could impact the phonological, syntactic, semantic or situational level of
interpretation, and they could also impact the illocutionary force, the propositional
content, or both (Zaefferer, 1977).
The first two situations in the questionnaire were intended to examine College
English students‟ (mis)understandings in using English. Language users, context,
meaning and social interactions are the key features of pragmatics. Language users
play a key role in communicative situations (Armour, 2004), and context is a
dynamic situation in which communication is allowed to be processed (Mey, 2001).
Meaning is claimed to be the central concern of pragmatics (Levinson, 1983) as it is
defined as “arising from speakers expressing intentions through what they say, and
recipients recognizing or attributing those intentions to speakers” (Haugh, 2009,
p.92), while social interaction carries speaker‟s specific meanings in communication
(Wierzbicka, 2010) (see 2.1.3).
The first situation focused on students‟ understanding of an inquiry. While buying an

entry ticket to a theme park in an English speaking country, a non-native English
speaker asked for a map of the theme park. As the theme park provided maps in
different languages, the ticket seller, a native English speaker, needed to make sure
what language the customer used by asking: “What‟s your post code?” The data
indicated that more than 60% of the students understood the literal meaning of the
words “post code”. The other students appeared to try to respond to an implied
189
meaning. However, less than 20% of the students actually understood the ticket
seller‟s inquiry.
As the data indicated that only a small number of the students understood the implied
meaning of the inquiry, it would appear that the majority did not have adequate
pragmatic knowledge or a high enough level of pragmatic competence to facilitate
their understanding of the situation. Even though some students made the right
choice in their response to the question, they did not really understand the implied
meaning of the words from the interlocutor. Indeed, students indicated in the
interviews that “we tried to guess the implied meaning of the words from the
interlocutors” (Martin: 16 March, 2011; Kevin: 22 March, 2011). Guessing at the
answer gave students only a low percentage of chance to respond to the question
correctly and so one can surmise that the actual percentage of correct responses may
well be lower than that indicated from the questionnaire data.
The second situation that was adapted from a movie aimed at examining students‟
understanding of the discourse in the related context. Jack, a villain, met an
acquaintance, Richard, in the corridor in a hospital. Having been told that Jack was
going to get a new heart, Richard replied contemptuously, “It is about time.” There
can be two levels in understanding the Richard‟s reply. At the literal level, under
such a circumstance, Jack has a serious heart disease and is going to have a heart
operation. At the metaphorical level, Jack, a villain, needs to realize his evil ways
and totally change his behavior. However, according to the context of the movie,
Richard did not express the literal meaning; he stated his implication.
The data indicated that more than 36% of the students selected the literal meaning of
Richard‟s words, and less than 30% of them were able to provide a correct
understanding of the words in the related context. Students highlighted that they were
not sure about the implied meaning of Richard‟s words. “We tried to compare the
four choices and use the problem-solving skills to make the final decision” (Gilbert:
16 March, 2011; Oliver, 22 March, 2011). This finding may relate back to students‟
conditioning in completing formal exams over their schooling lives where they
picked the answer most likely not to be eliminated from the mix, or it may be as with
190
the situation above, they simply guessed at an answer. Data from both situations
indicated that students did not use high pragmatic competence in their responses.
Indeed, the findings suggested that College English students had a low level of
pragmatic competence in using English. Their understanding of discourses in the
corresponding context was limited to the literal level although many of them
appeared to have realized this and began to focus their attention on working out the
potential implied meaning of the discourses. Not being familiar with the cultural
knowledge and appropriate contexts, language users might fail to accurately get the
interlocutor‟s implied meaning and communicative intention that leads to pragmatic
failures in communication.
The next three situations, which were adapted from past studies, were to explore
College English students‟ levels of pragmatic competence. The first and second
situations examined students‟ pragmatic competence in giving apologies. In the first
situation, Mary needed to apologize to a passenger as the heavy bag she had put on
the bus shelf fell on a passenger when the bus suddenly stopped. Mary gave the
apology as: “It is my bag. It‟s all right.” In this situation, the apology is not
appropriate at all. Mary claimed that the bag was hers and seemed to suggest that it
was fine that her bag was not secured and had fallen on the other passenger. Yet,
there were around 28% of the students who thought that Mary had given an
appropriate apology. While this situation could be described as universal, in that it
could happen anywhere in the world, Mary‟s response in English was not
pragmatically correct.
In the second situation, a university student had to apologize to his teacher as he had
forgotten to bring back a book the teacher had lent him. The student gave his apology
as: “Sorry, I forgot. Don‟t worry. I will bring it tomorrow”. In this situation, the
student was aware of his mistake and apologized to the teacher, but his apology did
not seem to be appropriate in regard to the relationship between a student and a
teacher. In both Western countries and Eastern countries, students are expected to
maintain a deferential relationship with teachers to a greater or lesser degree. In
China, teachers usually have an unchallengeable authority. However, around 21% of
the students believed that the student had given an appropriate apology to the teacher
191
when in fact the response would be considered as too friendly and familiar in
Chinese interactions between students and teachers.
There were two possible explanations for these findings. The first indicated that
College English students were not proficient language practitioners in employing the
correct speech act of giving an apology. Although they were grammatically advanced
English language learners, they were not able to detect obvious pragmatic mistakes
in the communication situation. Few were able to correctly apply suitable language
functions to the above situations in accordance with the specific context. Language
learners‟ low level of pragmatic competence resulted in pragmatic failures in
communication (Hou, 2007). The other possible explanation for the 21% of students
who believed that an appropriate apology had been given might relate to the
changing social ideas young Chinese students had in their desire to learn English as a
native speaker. Perhaps they believed that a native speaker might respond in such a
way. More research in this area is needed.
The third situation on the questionnaire was to explore College English students‟
pragmatic competence in declining an offer. Mary declined the offer of an after
dinner dessert twice by saying “Thanks. I am full” and “No more, thanks.” This
situation seemed to be hard for students to decide on whether Mary‟s response was
appropriate or not. Considering the Chinese traditional culture, it is impolite for
Chinese language users to decline an offer due to the influence of the concept of
„face‟ (Bargiela-Chiappini, 2003). However, more than 60% of the students indicated
that the replies given by Mary were suitable in this situation which was contrary to
Chinese tradition, although there were more than 37% of the students who thought
that Mary had not provided appropriate replies to decline the offer of dessert.
The above findings highlighted different cultural conflicts in learning a foreign

language that could have an influence on language learners‟ pragmatic competence
in communication within different contexts, and indicated that language learners‟
cultural differences could lead to their pragmatic failures (Zheng & Huang, 2010).
Culture is closely related to language, and cultural knowledge is essential to L2 or
foreign language learning (Lamber, 1999). Obtaining cultural knowledge could help
language learners become pragmatically competent in the target language in
192
communication. In order to further examine College English students‟ levels of
pragmatic competence, the following section discusses the data collected from DCTs
in relation to students‟ levels of using EFL.
6.2.2.2 Discourse Completion Tasks data
Pragmatic competence is the ability to use language forms in a wide range of

environments, and affects the relationship between the language users and the social
and cultural context of the situation (Gass & Selinker, 2001; Lightbown & Spada,
1999). Grammatically advanced language learners, who may be considered to be
good L2 learners or good foreign language learners regarding their mastery of
vocabulary and grammar of the target language, might still be unable to produce
socially and culturally appropriate language (Xu, 2009).
Language users employ a variety of speech acts to achieve their communication

aims. Speech act theory explains how speakers use the language to achieve intended
actions and how hearers deduce intended meaning from the words. Speech acts are
claimed to operate by pragmatic principles (Austin, 1962; Brown & Levinson, 1978;
Searle, 1969, 1975), and they play a key role in the field of pragmatics that
concentrates on the language users‟ appropriate use of the language in different
contexts (Bravo & Briz, 2004; Félix-Brasdefer, 2006; Watts, 2003). Three specific
speech acts – declining an offer, giving a compliment response, and making an
apology – were applied in DCTs to explore College English students‟ levels of
pragmatic competence and the practice of language learning strategies in learning
EFL. Students‟ responses in DCTs were evaluated in terms of appropriateness and
grammar or structure.
Refusals/Declining an offer
The refusal or declining an offer is a frequent performance in people‟s daily life. The
refusal speech act, which is a face-threatening act to the listener, requestor, and
inviter (Brown & Levinson, 1987), happens when a speaker directly or indirectly
says no to a request or invitation. Refusal speech acts differ in directness with
situation and culture (Li, 2007). As a refusal speech act contradicts the speaker‟s
193
expectations and is often realized through indirect strategies, it requires language
learners to obtain a high level of pragmatic competence (Chen, 1996).
Speech acts of refusal try to abide by the Politeness Principle, as politeness plays a
core role in interpersonal communications in the traditional Chinese culture, which
impacts Chinese language learners‟ learning a target language. Chen (1996) indicated
that in the case of a refusal, one may properly produce three separate speech acts as:
(1) an expression of regret, “I‟m sorry,” followed by (2) a direct refusal, “I cannot
come to your birthday party,” followed by (3) an excuse, “I will be on business in the
US”. Similarly, Tanck (2004) stated the three components are: (1) an expression of
regret; (2) an excuse; (3) an offer of alternative (in invitation situations). Currently
there are not many studies on acts of refusals in the literature. This study investigated
College English students‟ application of speech acts of refusal in the Chinese
learning context.
In DCTs, there were seven situations designed to examine students‟ speech acts of
refusal (see Table 6.1).
Table 6.1 List of seven refusal situations
Situation
Refusal 1 Refuse a party invitation
Refusal 2 Refuse an overtime work request
Refusal 3 Refuse a coffee offer
Refusal 4 Refuse a teaching method changing request
Refusal 5 Refuse a borrowing request
Refusal 6 Refuse a salary-raising request
Refusal 7 Refuse a dinner offer
Guided by the data analysis method used by other researchers (Bardovi-Harlig &
Hartford, 1991; Beebe, Takahashi & Uliss-Weltz, 1990), the collected data were
analyzed using semantic formulas as units of analysis. A semantic formula refers to
“a word, phrase, or sentence that meets a particular semantic criterion or strategy;
any one or more of these can be used to perform the act in question” (Cohen, 1996,
p.265). After the completion of the coding, the data were analyzed regarding the
194
frequency of the semantic formulas, and all the frequencies were converted into
percentages. The collected data were also analyzed in terms of response length,
content, and suitability to certain contexts.
As indicated in Table 5.9 (p.142), the first six places of frequency of lexical items
and basic formulaic sequences used by the students to give refusals were listed as:
“Sorry”, “I‟m sorry”, “I‟d like to, but…”, “Thanks/Thank you”, “No”, and “No,
thanks/thank you”. Judging from the formulaic sequences used by the students, it
could be concluded that a certain number of College English students were able to
apply the functional expressions of refusal to corresponding situations although some
responses, such as “No” and “No way”, appeared to be impolite in declining offers in
Chinese contexts.
Combining Chen‟s (1996) ideas with Tanck‟s (2004) on producing speech acts of
refusals, this study analyzed the situations according to the three different
components described above.
The first refusal prompt required the speaker to decline an invitation to a party to be
held at a friend‟s house. The frequency of the individual components of the speech
act set for this prompt can be found in the following table.
Table 6.2 Refusal 1 – made to a friend’s invitation
Components Frequency of Use

Expression of regret 57%
Excuse 89%
Offering alternative 12%
The findings showed that most subjects avoided refusing directly by employing a
direct refusal (“no”). More than 50% of the students expressed their regret of not
being able to accept the invitation, and most of them provided excuses or reasons as
a way to convey their inability or unwillingness. However, there were a small
number of students who tried to offer an alternative for their absence at the party.
195
It was found that College English students had realized that they needed to show
politeness in social interactions. It is impolite in Chinese society to give a direct
refusal “no” to decline one‟s invitation. Even when a small group of students used
the direct refusal “no”, they provided additional excuses to explain their absence.
Due to the influence of politeness in Chinese culture in relation to their English
pragmatic knowledge, many of the students expressed regret (“I‟m sorry”), and most
subjects presented excuses or reasons for their inability to attend (“I will have three
exams next Monday”). These findings confirmed those found in an earlier study that
non-native speakers produced few offers of alternative excuses (Tanck, 2004) but did
not neglect the social interaction of politeness.
Cultural elements impact on the application of refusal speech acts. Non-native

speakers may feel that it is less necessary for them to offer alternatives due to the
familiarity or social distance found in the situation, while native speakers may
believe that these components are culturally and socially important in
communication (Tanck, 2004). One the one hand, students‟ responses in this research
were acceptable in the Chinese context. On the other hand, their responses might not
be accepted by native English speakers. In order to achieve intercultural pragmatics
in communication, there is a need for language learners to understand cross-cultural
similarities and differences in learning a language (Oxford, 1996) (see 3.2.2).
In the second refusal prompt, the speaker declined a request to work overtime for his
boss. The frequency of use of the components of the speech act for this prompt can
be found in Table 6.3.
Table 6.3 Refusal 2 – made to the boss’ request

Direct refusal 16%
Excuse 96%
Participants in the research tended to respond to this prompt using a polite refusal,
perhaps considering the relationship between an employee and a boss. Most of the
subjects applied the expressions “sorry” and “I‟m sorry” to suggest their inability or
196
unwillingness to issue direct refusals. At the same time, however, almost every
student provided excuses for their not being able to work overtime.
The data indicated that students responded appropriately for the relationship in this
prompt, and tried to indicate the correct kind of politeness in the interaction. These
data complied with the notion of sociopragmatics, in that language learners needed to
obtain proper knowledge of relevant social and cultural values that could help them
vary their speech strategies in communication (Harlow, 1990; Kasper, 1997). Yet,
there were a few students who provided a direct refusal “no” with no excuse or
alternative offered, which indicated that quite a small number of students had a very
low level of pragmatic competence for this particular situation (particularly if they
wanted to keep their job). Not understanding cultural and social elements and lacking
social strategies in using English may lead to pragmatic failures in social
interactions.
The third refusal prompt required the speaker to decline a friend‟s invitation to have
a cup of coffee. The frequency of use of the individual components of the speech act
for this prompt can be found in Table 6.4.
Table 6.4 Refusal 3 – made to a friend’s invitation

Excuse 33%
The data indicated that more than 60% of the respondents refused the friend‟s
invitation by providing brief replies of “sorry” or “no”. More than 30% of the
subjects gave excuses for not accepting the invitation (“…I have an upset stomach”),
and few students offered alternatives to the speaker (“How about next time?”).
Students understood that they had to be polite in expressing their refusals in this
situation. “Thanks” and “thank you” were applied by students to show that they were
familiar with the Politeness Principle, and subjects tried to minimize the threat to
face because turning down an invitation threatened face (Turnbull & Saxton, 1997).
197
The use of speech acts is greatly impacted by learners‟ L1 and their first culture. The
direct refusal “no” is generally not considered to be an impolite word in Chinese if it
is spoken in a mild tone. Giving a direct refusal “no” to reject an invitation might not
be considered rude in the Chinese context. The directness level of the refusal,
however, can be interpreted differently between native speakers and EFL speakers
(Keshavarz, Eslami & Ghahraman, 2006) and cause misunderstandings.
Nevertheless, as indicated by Kuo (2006), native speakers do not own English

because English has become the language for international communication and is
used by more non-native speakers than native speakers. Local interpretations of
Englishes, which are influenced by non-native speakers‟ L1 and first culture, are
acceptable if they can help complete communication successfully (see 3.4.3). It is
necessary for native English speakers to be aware of this language phenomenon
influenced by the Chinese and the Chinese culture so as to keep communication
moving smoothly.
In the fourth situation in the DTCs, the speaker declined a request from a student to
make some changes to the teaching method. The frequency of use of the components
of the speech act can be found in the following table.
Table 6.5 Refusal 4 – made to a student’s request

Direct refusal 13%
Excuse 94%
This was a different situation to the previous three situations, as participants in the
research, acting as university teachers, were required to refuse a request from a
student. According to traditional Chinese ideas, teachers and students always have a
“top-down” relationship, with teachers taking it for granted that they have
unchallengeable authority. It has only been in recent years that students are
encouraged to speak up about their opinions about teaching, but only few students
would be inclined to propose suggestions regarding teaching to teachers.
198
The students indicated in the interviews that “…we had to think about the
relationship between teachers and students…Teachers are well-educated
professionals, and their words must appear to be polite in communication” (Edgar:
22 March, 2011; Norman: 16 March, 2011). In order to appear to be cultured, the
participants applied polite expressions such as “thank you” and “thanks”. Participants
also tried to avoid giving direct refusals and tried to use possible excuses to turn
down the request from the student (“…but all of you have to attend the exam”).
The data demonstrated that almost all the refusal excuses revealed the teacher‟s
authority. It was observed that College English students had transferred their Chinese
culture to the use of EFL and that culture had greatly influenced the development of
language learners‟ pragmatic competence (Wang, 2005; Zheng & Huang, 2010). In
order to achieve intercultural competence, it is essential for people coming from
different cultures to understand the culture of the target language as well as their own
and how the two can be used together.
The fifth refusal prompt required the speaker to decline a request to lend lecture
notes to one of his/her classmates. The frequency of use of the components of the
speech act for this prompt can be found in Table 6.6.
Table 6.6 Refusal 5 – made to a classmate’s request

Direct refusal 21%
Excuse 94%
Classmates keep an equal and close relationship with each other. They often treat one
another as friends in the Chinese context. The data indicated that almost all the
subjects expressed their regrets and gave excuses in making refusals. Most of them
avoided using direct refusals to reject the demand. The refusal made to a classmate‟s
request of borrowing lecture notes might make the requester face a dilemma. Any
extreme responses might break down the close relationship. Thus, speakers need to
consider face-saving strategies to protect the requester‟s face when refusing the
request.
199
A few respondents did not consider the face-saving strategies when they gave their
responses. The face-threatening responses “no way”, “you must pay for your action”,
and “don‟t miss the class next time”, seemed to be blame words generally given by
supervisors rather than classmates. The requester would feel awkward in such a
dilemma, and the conversation might not continue.
These findings, contrary to those using face-saving responses suggested that some of
the College English students had a low level of sociolinguistic competence that
resulted in the failure of pragmatic competence; their responses indicated that they
did not have the pragmatic understanding or ability to repair the communicative
failure. These students did not use either compensation strategies or social strategies
when they used EFL. Applying appropriate speech acts in corresponding social
interactions ensures the smooth process of communication. Being aware of the
specific social situations and the appropriate speech acts for each situation could help
language users become communicatively competent in intercultural communication
(Zhao & Throssell, 2011).
The sixth refusal prompt required the speaker to decline an employee‟s request to
raise the employee‟s salary. The frequency of use of the components of the speech
act for this prompt can be found in the following table.
Table 6.7 Refusal 6 – made to an employee’s request

Direct refusal 42%
Excuse 87%
Similar to the fourth refusal prompt, the boss and the worker kept a “top-down”
relationship. Compared with the results of the fourth prompt, more participants chose
to directly refuse the request in this particular situation. Students indicated in the
interviews that “the owner of the restaurant boss has the unique power to decide
whether to raise the salary or not, to some extent, he does not need to consider the
face-threatening principle when he refuses employees‟ requests” (Edgar: 22 March,
2011; Norman: 16 March, 2010).
200
Impacted by traditional Chinese culture, the participants indicated that the boss
seemed to have „sovereign‟ power. Few people would like to argue with their boss. It
is only in recent years, that people in China have started to argue or negotiate with
their boss regarding issues such as salary, working conditions or welfare. However,
bosses still believe that they have the unchallengeable power, and they would not
like to make concessions to employees‟ requests in most cases.
Although many students expressed their regrets when they rejected the request, some
responses they provided did not make excuses to refuse the request, for example, “I
have paid the right money for you” and “as you know, the restaurant has a detailed
principle about the increase of pay, but you do not match it”. These findings
highlighted that Chinese culture had played an important role in developing Chinese
English language learners‟ pragmatic knowledge as well as their pragmatic
competence. Language users would like to apply both Chinese language rules and
Polite Principles that are often used in similar Chinese contexts to express
themselves in English. In order to become pragmatically competent language users in
intercultural communication, people are required to be familiar with such principles
in other cultures that can help avoid misunderstandings in communication.
In the last refusal prompt, the speaker was required to decline a salesman‟s invitation
to have dinner. The frequency of use of the individual components of the speech act
for this prompt can be found in Table 6.8.
Table 6.8 Refusal 7 – made to a salesman’s invitation

Excuse 78%
The situation indicated the business relationship between a salesman and his
important customer. As the president of a large research center, he had the power to
decide whether to buy computers from a computer company or not. It was not hard to
understand that the salesman from the computer company invited him to have dinner
in an expensive restaurant so as to flatter him.
201
The data demonstrated that most of the subjects expressed their regrets and excuses
when rejecting the invitation, and only a few of them offered alternatives to the
requester. Students were aware that “people had to be polite in making refusals to
salesman‟s invitation. If they did not take care of it, it would bring troubles to their
work” (Jesse & Norman: 16 March, 2011; Wilson: 22 March, 2011).
Most of the students seemed to be familiar with such happenings in their daily life,
which indicated that they had experienced certain social strategies in dealing with
similar matters. However, several students gave direct refusals to the requester such
as “no”, “I can‟t”, and “no way”, which indicated impoliteness and non-professional
behavior of a senior person. At the same time, responses such as “I have not time
now” and “how about another time” implied that some students did not know how to
respond appropriately in the situation. They had a low level of linguistic competence
and some even made linguistic mistakes in their responses. Not being able to
recognize the correct relationship between two speakers in the Chinese context or not
obtaining adequate linguistic knowledge about giving refusals leads to pragmatic
failures in communication.
The findings in relation to giving refusals highlighted that Chinese College English
students had learned what speech acts of refusals were, but not all of the participants
understood how to correctly apply them appropriately to all situations. The improper
use of refusal speech acts led to pragmatic failures in communication.
These findings also indicated that a certain number of College English students had a
low level of linguistic competence. These students were not able to properly
understand word descriptions of the situations and had some problems in organizing
correct linguistic knowledge that prevented them from achieving pragmatic
competence. In other words, they were not efficient language practitioners in using
English, and misunderstandings might arise due to their incorrect use of English.
These ineffective language strategies may be due to the fact that many of these
students did not have sufficient social strategies in dealing with corresponding
situations because they had limited access to communicating with native English
202
language speakers. These participants also appeared to not have enough
compensation strategies to repair pragmatic failures in communication.
The following section discusses the findings of the second speech act used in this
study – compliment responses.
Compliment responses
There are two main reasons for selecting the speech act of compliment responses to
include in this research. First, a number of studies have been conducted on the
speech act of compliment responses in different varieties of English and other
languages, which provides a basis for comparative analysis. Second, compliment
responses provide an invaluable and under-utilized insight into speakers‟ responses
to praises of their personal and social identities (Lorenzo-Dus, 2001).
Compliments are easily heard in people‟s daily conversations. Responding to

compliments is a usual feature of discoursal activities. Speakers do not have time to
plan the utterance in advance, and they are forced to react promptly to the action or
utterance (Schaucer & Adolphs, 2006). They may feel uneasy, defensive, or even
cynical regarding the compliments they receive as compliments could be threatening
to the addressee‟s face, and accordingly it may be hard for them to appropriately
respond to such compliments (Knapp, Hopper & Bell, 1984). Thus, compliment
responses are worthy of studying (Yu, 2003).
There are seven situations designed to examine how students give responses to
compliments in DCTs (see Table 6.9).
203
Table 6.9 List of seven compliment response situations
Situation
Compliment response 1 Respond to a compliment on a new hairstyle
Compliment response 2 Respond to a compliment on a new watch
Compliment response 3 Respond to a compliment on a presentation
Compliment response 4 Respond to a compliment on a new sweater
Compliment response 5 Respond to a compliment on delicious food
Respond to a compliment on intelligence in learning
Compliment response 6
computers
Compliment response 7 Respond to a compliment on beautiful eyes
Holmes (1988, 1995) established her taxonomy of compliment responses, which

includes the following items:
(a) Accept: Appreciation/agreement token, agreeing utterance, downgrading/
qualifying utterance, return compliment;
(b) Reject: Disagreeing utterance, question accuracy, challenge sincerity; and
(c) Deflect/evade: Shift credit, informative comment, ignore, legitimate evasion,
context needed to illustrate, request reassurance/repetition (Holmes, 1988,
p.460; 1995, p.141).
These categories help identify the DCTs data and provide effective parameters in
researching related speech acts for the current study.
As noted in Table 5.10 (p.146), the first four most frequent lexical items and basic
formulaic sequences used by the students to give compliment responses were listed
as: “Thank you”, “Thanks”, “Thank you very much”, and “I am glad to hear that”.
From the formulaic sequences used by the students, it was found that most College
English students had a realization of the importance of showing politeness when
giving compliment responses, and they could apply the expressions of replying to
compliments in the corresponding situations.
In the eighth situation, the speaker was required to respond to the compliment on a
new hairstyle. The frequency of sequence categories used to make responses to the
compliment can be found in the following table.
204
Table 6.10 Compliment response 1 – made to a friend’s compliment
Category type Frequency of Use

Accept 89%
Reject 8%
Deflect/evade 3%
The data indicated that most students accepted the compliment and showed their
acceptance of the compliment by saying “Thank you”, “Thanks”, and “Thank you
very much”. Students applied an appreciation token (“Thank you”, “Thanks”, and
“Thank you very much”), agreeing utterance (“It‟s cool, isn‟t it?”), and return
compliment (“I believe that you will look more beautiful if you have the same style”)
to show their politeness and pleasure to accept the compliment.
There were a few students who rejected the compliment by employing a disagreeing
utterance (“I don‟t like it very much”). Cindy indicated in the interview that “I did
not intend to reject the compliment when giving my compliment responses. I just
followed the wording of the Chinese language by using „No‟ in offering compliment
responses. In addition, I considered the Chinese traditional „face-saving‟ theory to
show the politeness when giving compliment responses” (16 March, 2011). Students
employed phrases and norms that were often used in Chinese to achieve the same
purpose in applying the target language (Schauer, 2009).
A few students gave deflective responses by providing the informative comment (“I
had my hair done in the university barber‟s”). Such responses are acceptable in the
Chinese context as it is a common way for Chinese people to respond to
compliments in their mother tongue. People try to show their modesty when offering
compliment responses. It is considered as one of the core values of Chinese culture
that guides Chinese communication behavior (Wu, 2011) which is a further
indication that language learners‟ first culture affects the use of their target language
(Liaw, 2006). The data also indicated that most students used acceptance strategies
and combined strategies when responding to compliments, which implied that they
had become skilful language practitioners in applying these strategies in offering
compliment responses.
205
In the ninth situation, the speaker was required to make a response to the compliment
on a new watch. The frequency of sequence categories of compliment responses is
listed in the following table.

Accept 91%
Reject 9%
Deflect/evade 29%
Almost every student provided the appreciation token first (“Thank you”, “Thanks”)
when responding to the compliment before stating explanations to the interlocutor.
Most of them applied combined strategies in giving compliment responses in this
situation.
More students gave deflective responses by providing a shift credit (“It‟s a birthday
present from my mother”), and informative comments (“It‟s inexpensive and I bought
it on discount”), which was different to the first compliment response situation. At
the same time, in order to show politeness and avoid showing off, more students
chose to use downgrading in their utterances (“It‟s not too bad, is it?”), and used
return compliments (“You will also look nice when you wear it”). Some students
gave responses (“Your dream will come true one day”) to comfort the interlocutor as
well. Only a few students rejected the compliment by providing a response such as “I
do not want to have another same watch”. This small group of students did not really
intend to reject the compliment from the interlocutor. They just wanted to show their
politeness to save the interlocutor‟s face.
Influenced by the L1 and the first culture, it is not hard to see from the compliment
responses provided by the students that they would like to follow the principles of
giving compliment responses in Chinese. They often employed their language
preferences and strategies in Chinese to give compliment responses in English to
achieve the same purpose (Shauer, 2009). Students also have considered the face-
saving theory when giving responses because face plays an important role in social
communication in China, and it is impolite to threaten a person‟s face in
206
communication. Yet, there were a few students who gave „rough‟ responses that
threatened the face of the interlocutor, indicating that these students may have had a
lower level of pragmatic competence for this situation.
In situation 10, the speaker was requested to respond to a compliment on the

presentation he had given in an English class. The frequency of sequence categories
used to make responses to compliments can be found in the following table.
Table 6.12 Compliment response 3 – made to a classmate’s compliment

Accept 72%
Reject 21%
Deflect/evade 7%
The data indicated that 72% of the students were glad to accept the compliment from
their classmate by providing the appreciation token (“Thank you”, “Thanks”, “I am
glad to hear that”). Some of them provided downgrading utterances such as (“It is
my luck”) to show their modesty. The reject response (“No”) was followed by the
return compliment “You can do better than me” to show modesty and politeness as
modesty plays a central role in interpersonal relationships in Chinese societies (Wu,
2011). Few students, who gave deflective responses, provided informative comments
such as (“It took me a whole week to make preparations for it”) to show their
modesty.
Students tried to appear humble and used excuses to downgrade their efforts in order
to show their modesty. Chinese people are taught to keep a “low tone” when they
receive compliments or praises. This does not mean that the Chinese do not think
positively of themselves but the norm of Chinese society is to be modest (Chen,
1993). It appears that there is a strong link between the language and the culture, and
effective cross-cultural communication needs better cultural understanding (Shaul &
Furbee, 1998).
Due to different perceptions of the world, communication practices and behaviors of

people with different cultures are inevitably different (Samovar & Porter, 1997).
207
Understanding people‟s perceptions of the world, as well as their beliefs and values,
can effectively facilitate language learners to gain insights into the culture of the
target language, which promotes language learners‟ pragmatic competence (Liaw,
2006) (see 3.3.3). Understanding their own cultural norms and how these affect
language learning could also assist students in developing pragmatic competence.
In the eleventh situation, the speaker was required to respond to the compliment on
the new sweater he was wearing. The frequency of sequence categories of
compliment responses is listed in the following table.

Accept 98%
Reject 0%
Deflect/evade 12%
In this situation, no students gave a negative response to reject the compliment from
the friend. Almost all of them gave the short appreciation tokens such as “Thanks”,
“Thank you” and “Thanks a lot” to accept the compliment first, and some extended
explanations were added after the short responses. Agreeing utterance (“I like it,
too”), downgrading utterance (“I wanted to get rid of it several weeks ago”), and
return compliment (“You are dressing beautifully today, too”) were used by the
students to accept the compliment. Students applied informative comment (“It‟s a
gift from my mother”) to give deflective responses.
The data indicated that students seemed to be familiar with such a situation as they
might have experienced it in their daily life, and they appeared to be skilful in
dealing with the situation. The responses from students covered all four dimensions
in accepting compliments recommended by Holmes (1988; 1995), and combined
strategies were frequently used to provide responses. Many of the students used some
downgrading utterances as would be normal in Chinese society to please the
interlocutor. However, one response “I wanted to get rid of it several weeks ago”,
appeared to go to the extreme and conveyed a danger in that it might raise
embarrassment to the interlocutor. Most students were aware of showing their
208
politeness in communication, but for a few their low level of pragmatic competence
restricted their correct application of appropriate linguistic knowledge in the
situation.
At the same time, many students only gave appreciation tokens to the interlocutor
without any extended explanations. Generally, Chinese people are used to providing
enlightenments to their short compliment responses. Students in the present research
were not able to provide extended explanations in English to expand on their simple
responses, possibly because they were not proficient language users and could not
convey in English what they knew in Chinese.
In situation 12, as a teacher, the speaker was requested to respond to a student‟s

compliment on the food he prepared. The frequency of sequence categories used to
make responses to compliments can be found in the following table.
Table 6.14 Compliment response 5 – made to a student’ compliment

Accept 93%
Reject 7%
Deflect/evade 0%
The speakers involved in the current situation kept a “top-down” relationship in that
they took on the role of the teacher rather than a student, which was different to the
previous four situations. It was expected that this changed identity would affect the
use of the language because language and identity had a mutually constitutive effect
(Butler, 2005; Gu, 2010; Pavlenko, 2001). Weedon (1997) indicated that “language
is the place where actual and possible forms of social organization and their likely
social and political consequences are defined and contested. Yet it is also the place
where our sense of ourselves, our subjectivity, is constructed” (p.21).
In this situation, as a language teacher, the speaker needed to give a compliment

response to his student. Most students appeared to be aware of the situation and their
identity within it when giving their responses. They applied acceptance strategies in
accepting the compliment by first using an appreciation token such as “Thank you”,
209
and “I am happy that you like the food”. After the appreciation token, they tried to
show their politeness by offering more food (“Would you like to have any more?”),
or giving wishes (“Enjoy yourself just as at your home” and “Wish you have a good
taste”).
The data indicated that students applied the rules of their L1 in giving compliment
responses in the target language. When they expressed themselves, they tried to
translate their L1, particularly at the syntactic and lexical levels, into the target
language, such as “Wish you have a good taste”. Such responses could be understood
if the listener had knowledge of the Chinese language and the Chinese culture. Yet, it
was hard for those coming from different cultural backgrounds and having no related
knowledge of Chinese language and culture to understand the responses.
The responses from the respondents were appropriate within the Chinese context.
Different syntax and lexis might lead to linguistic misunderstanding and cause
pragmatic failures in communication, which highlights the importance of the role of
ELF in international communication. English language users are encouraged to use
their local variety of English in communicative contexts (Jenkins, 2006), and both
English native speakers and non-native speakers would benefit by being familiar
with lingua franca English used intranationally and internationally (Canagarajah,
2006a, 2006b).
The data also demonstrated that students had the realization that they needed to give
the response as an educated professional. They tried to be polite and paid great
attention to the wording of their responses. A few students gave a reject response
(“No”) to the interlocutor, followed by the downgrading utterance (“I am a new hand
in cooking”).
These few students had intended to accept the compliment, but they followed the
choice of word preference in giving compliment responses in Chinese that might
cause misunderstandings and pragmatic failures in communication. It shows that in
Chinese society people with a higher social position would like to show the
maximum of modesty when they respond to a compliment (Liu, 2010). The findings
210
reaffirmed that language learners‟ L1 and first culture have played an important role
in their responses (Ellis, 1985; Liaw, 2006).
In the thirteenth situation, the speaker was required to respond to the computer
teacher‟s praise on his intelligence and talent in learning computer. The frequency of
sequence categories of compliment responses is listed in the following table.
Table 6.15 Compliment response 6 – made to a teacher’s compliment

Accept 95%
Reject 5%
Deflect/evade 0%
In this situation the speaker and the interlocutor had a “bottom-up” relationship
which, contrary to the fifth compliment response situation, the student responded to a
compliment by the teacher. As one student indicated in the interview, “We have
recognized that the student and the teacher keep a „bottom-up‟ relationship. We have
to consider the relationship when we have conversations with the teacher. We have
to provide polite and modest replies to the teacher” (Yin: 16 March, 2011).
Influenced by traditional Chinese culture, teachers have an unchallengeable
authority. Students habitually show great respect to their teachers and follow the
teachers‟ words in their performance.
The data indicated that most students accepted the teacher‟s compliment by
providing appreciation tokens (“Thanks” and “Thank you”). A number of students
gave a return compliment to the teacher (“I enjoy your class very much, too”, “It‟s
totally because of your good teaching”, and “I have really learned a lot from what
you taught in class”). The students also provided additional information to show their
determination to work hard (“I will work harder”, and “I will spare no effort to do
better”). Acceptance strategies were applied by the students when offering
compliment responses.
Impacted by the Chinese language and Chinese culture, students delivered their
responses in typical Chinese language patterns, and showed great respect and
211
politeness to their teachers in their responses. Students transferred their L1 patterns
and first culture to the use of the target language. There is an indivisible relationship
between the culture and the language learning (Ahearn, 2001; Crozet & Liddicoat,
1999; Liddicoat, Papademetre, Scarino & Kohler, 2003).
The transference of the language patterns might cause misunderstanding to the

listener. A few students borrowed the Chinese response (“No”) to show their
politeness in accepting the compliment. It is a reject reply in English.
Misunderstanding is inevitable unless the listener is aware of the Chinese culture and
the Chinese language in accepting a compliment. An awareness of the target culture
is essential in achieving intercultural competence in successful intercultural
communication (Xiao & Petraki, 2007).
In situation 14, the speaker was requested to respond to the compliment on his/her
eyes given by an employee. The frequency of sequence categories used to give
compliment responses can be found in the following table.
Table 6.16 Compliment response 7 – made to an employee’s compliment

Accept 62%
Reject 25%
Deflect/evade 13%
As with the fifth compliment response situation, the speaker has a “top-down”
relationship with the interlocutor in this situation. As a new sales manager of a large
department store, it was usual that he/she would receive all kinds of compliments
from his/her employees due to the senior position he/she kept. Hence, this identity
has to be considered in giving the appropriate response when responding to
compliments.
The data indicated that most of the students used appropriate acceptance strategies,
amendment strategies and combined strategies in providing compliment responses.
Many of them provided brief appreciation tokens (“Thanks”, “Thanks a lot”, and
“I‟m glad to hear that”). Return compliments (“Your eyes are beautiful, too”) were
212
used as extended responses by a small group of students to accept the compliment.
Students also used disagreeing utterances (“But I think that my hair is more
beautiful”, and “But I more like blue eyes”) to reject the compliment, and one student
used an ignoring reply (“And is there anything else you want to say?”) to give a
deflective response.
It was observed that students were aware of the relationship that the manager kept
with the employee, and they tried to use strategies to give polite responses to the
employee that would not threaten the face of the employee (Kasper, 1997; Thomas,
1983). Nevertheless, some rejecting responses and deflective responses given by the
students were sure to threaten the interlocutor‟s face (even if unintended), which
indicated that they were not skilful English language users. They might understand
the concept of the proper use of the language, but they were not able to apply
appropriate responses when using the target language in this communication.
The findings highlighted that College English students were familiar with situations
of giving compliment responses. They could provide the basic appreciation tokens to
accept compliments, and they were able to consider the speaker‟s identity and the
relationship between the speaker and the hearer when giving responses. A number of
students were capable of providing extended explanations to brief acceptance tokens.
Some of them were able to consider face-saving theory when they gave their
responses. Some were also able to select appropriate strategies to give compliment
responses (Yu, 2003).
However, some College English students were not proficient English language users
either in linguistic competence or in pragmatic competence. A number of students
used the translation approach to directly translate their responses from Chinese to
English without considering the context and the appropriateness of their responses.
And some of them only transferred the word preference and the rule of giving
compliment responses in Chinese to the use of English, which could cause
misunderstandings in communication. Meanwhile, some students were not able to
recognize errors and repair pragmatic failures that may cause the breakdown of
communication.
213
The following section discusses the findings of the third and final speech act used in
this research – apology, which is aimed at further examining College English
students‟ levels of pragmatic competence.
Apologies
An apology is a remedial action, which is used to re-establish social harmony after a

real or virtual offense and can be found and is common in all societies (Goffman,
1971). Apologies fall under expressive speech acts in which the speaker intends to
indicate his state or attitude (Cohen, 1996), and they are face-threatening acts
(Brown & Levinson, 1987). The speaker needs to admit having done wrong when
performing an apology, which undermines the speaker‟s face. On the other hand, if
the speaker fails to apologize, it will threaten the recipient‟s „face‟ (Wouk, 2006).
Thus, when one offers an apology, one shows willingness to humiliate oneself, which
makes an apology a face-saving act for the hearer but a face-threatening act for the
speaker (Bataineh & Bataineh, 2006).
Gooder and Jacobs (2000) pointed out that “the features of the proper apology are the
admission of trespass, the implied acknowledgement of responsibility, an expression
of regret, and a promise of a future in which injury will not recur” (p.241). A
successful apology can lead to significantly less aggression toward the offender.
Brown and Attardo (2000) propose five components of an apology:
(a) an expression of apology, in which the wrongdoer repeats the feelings of
regret;
(b) an explanation of the situation, whereby the wrongdoer tries to reconstruct the
incident to see that he/she deserves forgiveness;
(c) an acknowledgment of responsibility, in which the wrongdoer states his/her
responsibility for what has happened as a part of the apology;
(d) an offer of repair, whereby the wrongdoer tries to offer a way to compensate
for the harm; and
(e) a promise of non-recurrence, in which the wrongdoer promises not to repeat
the offense.
214
In DCTs, there were six situations designed to examine how students make apologies
(see Table 6.17).
Table 6.17 List of six apology situations
Situation
Apology 1 Apologize for ripping a magazine cover
Apology 2 Apologize for mistaking a student‟s exam paper
Apology 3 Apologize for being late for a group trip
Apology 4 Apologize for accidently interrupting a strange teacher‟s writing
Apology 5 Apologize for forgetting to pass on a private message
Apology 6 Apologize for a bad memory and rudeness
The data indicated that the five most frequent lexical items and basic formulaic
sequences used by the students to offer apologies are: “I‟m sorry”, “Sorry”, “I‟m
very/so sorry”, “Yes”, and “It‟s my fault/mistake” (see Table 5.11, p.150). The results
highlighted that most College English students were able to offer appropriate
expressions to show their regret in the corresponding situations. They tried to show
politeness and considered face-saving theory when giving apologies. Yet, there were
still a small group of students, who expressed low levels of linguistic competence in
that they could not use proper expressions to give a satisfactory apology.
Based on Brown and Attardo‟s (2000) five components of an apology, the present
study applied three R‟s: regret, responsibility, and remedy (Bataineh & Bataineh,
2006) to analyze the apologies provided by the College English students in DCTs.
The first apology prompt required the speaker to apologize to his best friend for
accidently ripping a magazine‟s cover page. The frequency of use of the components
of the speech act for this prompt can be found in Table 6.18.
Table 6.18 Apology 1 – made to a friend

Regret 91%
Responsibility 52%
Remedy 36%
215
The data indicated that most apologies offered by the students contained an apology
and regret for the offense (“I‟m sorry”, “Sorry”, and “I‟m very/so sorry”). More than
50% the apologies stated the speaker‟s responsibility for the offense (“I damaged the
cover page of the book because of my carelessness”, and “My carelessness leads to
it”), and more than 30% of the apologies provided a remedy and promise for
committing the offense (“I will buy a new one for you”, and “I won‟t make the same
mistake again”).
The findings demonstrated that many College English students were able to
recognize the apology situation and apply proper expressions of apology. Many
provided an apology together with an indication of taking responsibility as well a
promise to rectify the situation in order to win forgiveness from the recipient.
Students used the apology strategies of offering an apology, explaining the situation,
acknowledging the responsibility, promising forbearance, and offering a remedy in
their apologies (Brown & Attardo, 2000). Influenced by the concept of „face‟
(Bargiela-Chiappini, 2003), their polite apologies were to save the recipient‟s face,
which reaffirmed that culture affected language learners in learning a target language
(Ahearn, 2001) (see 3.3.1).
Nearly 50% of the students offered an apology without any extended explanation or
information. A few apologies offered by the students were not polite enough to be
accepted by the recipient. The apology such as “It‟s my fault. Can you forget it?”
appeared to forcefully request the recipient to accept it. Even if this conversation
occurred between two good friends, such an apology would be hard to accept in the
Chinese culture.
Although students were able to recognize the situation they were involved in, only a
small group of them had good perceptions of the speech act of apology, and could
skillfully manage the situation in English. Many of them only offered short apologies
without providing any extended information. A few apologies offered by the students
even threatened the recipient‟s face. The findings indicated that not all the College
English students were proficient language practitioners. A small group of students
not only had low levels in organizational competence, but also lacked appropriate
pragmatic knowledge in applying their linguistic knowledge in practice, which
216
prevented them from achieving language competence (Bachman, 1990) in this
particular situation.
In the second apology prompt, the speaker is an English teacher, who had mistaken
one student‟s exam paper for another, and needed to apologize to the student. The
frequency of use of the individual components of the speech act for the prompt can
be found in Table 6.19.
Table 6.19 Apology 2 – made to a student

Regret 94%
Responsibility 67%
Remedy 78%
The speaker kept a “top-down” relationship with the recipient in this situation. As
discussed above, speakers‟ different identities influence the choice of discourses. The
data highlighted that 94% of the students made apologies and showed their regret to
the recipient (“Sorry”, “I‟m sorry”, and “I‟m so sorry”). More than 65% of the
students accepted further responsibility for the offense in their apologies (“I made a
mistake that I mistook your name for another similar name”, and “I mistook your
examination paper and your mark”). More than 75% of the apologies included a
remedy for the offense (“I have corrected it”, and “I will resolve it as soon as
possible”).
As a well-educated professional, it was necessary for the English language teacher to

show politeness when giving an apology in Chinese culture. The students in this
study seemed to be aware of the identity the speaker kept in this social situation, and
they showed their politeness in their responses to save the recipient‟s face when they
apologized. They employed appropriate words and speech acts to express their regret
for the incident. Remedies provided by the students showed their willingness to make
up for the mistake. This kind of appropriate social behavior in such a social
interaction helps to avoid pragmatic failures in communication (Rose & Kasper,
2001).
217
However, there was still a group of students, who expressed low proficiency in
pragmatic competence, and were unable to provide additional information for their
apologies. One student indicated in the interview:
Although we have realized the identity of the speaker and the “top-down”
relationship between the teacher and the student, it is still hard for us to well
convey our ideas as we have limited English language knowledge either in
linguistics or in pragmatics..., we borrowed Chinese phrases and norm to
provide apologies in English. However, we were not sure whether such
apologies could be accepted or not. (Victor: 16 March, 2011)
These findings highlighted that the students were able to identify the “top-down”
relationship between different speakers, and they kept the face theory in mind when
they apologized. However, not every student had a high enough level in English
language competence to appropriately apologize. Even when students recognized
apology situations, they could only provide simple apologies, and they were not
confident in the correct usage of English in this “top-down” situation. By transferring
the L1 knowledge and thinking skills to the use of a target language (Kasper, 1992,
1998), students tried to deliver their apologies to effectively complete social
interactions, but were not always successful.
The third apology prompt required the speaker to apologize to all other classmates
for being late for a group trip. The frequency of use of the components of the speech
act can be found in the following table.
Table 6.20 Apology 3 – made to classmates

Regret 97%
Responsibility 71%
Remedy 29%
The data indicated that almost every student apologized for the lateness for the group
trip (“Sorry”, “I‟m very sorry”, and “I‟m so sorry”). Responsibilities for their
lateness were explained, such as “I got up late this morning”, “I set a wrong alarm
clock”, “I was too tired last night so I got up late this morning”, and “I came here
218
late because of the traffic jam”. However, less than 30% of the respondents
expressed their willingness to make up for the offense (“I promise that it will not
happen again”, and “I won‟t do next time”).
In this situation, the speaker held an equal relationship with the recipients, and they
were well-known to each other. It was found that the students did not consider the
face theory when apologized, similar to its application in other situations for the
research. They provided similar reasons that might be often used as excuses for
lateness in the Chinese context. A few students even tried to avoid admitting
responsibility for their lateness by saying “It is god who plays jokes on me”.
Meanwhile, some apologies that had grammatical mistakes could not convey the
speakers‟ intentions effectively and this lack of proper use of English resulted in the
breakdown of communication in that their apology made no sense in English.
The findings highlighted that College English students have unbalanced levels of
English language linguistic competence and in pragmatic competence. Even while
they are grammatically advanced language learners, the students in this research
were not skillful English language practitioners, that is, they could not properly use
English in appropriate contexts as was needed to be considered pragmatically
competent language users (Bardovi-Harlig & Dörnyer, 1998; Nikula, 2008; Rose,
2009). Students‟ L1 and its pragmatic norms, together with their first culture,
impacted the usage of the target language, and these factors have to be considered in
intercultural communication (Boxer, 2002; Ellis, 1985; Lustig & Koesters, 2003;
Samovar, Porter & McDaniel, 2009; Schauer, 2009).
In the fourth apology prompt, the speaker went into the wrong office and interrupted
a teacher who was unknown to him/her. The speaker had to apologize to the teacher
for his/her carelessness. The frequency of use of the individual components of the
speech act for the prompt can be found in Table 6.21.
219
Table 6.21 Apology 4 – made to a strange teacher

Regret 93%
Responsibility 47%
Remedy 7%
In this apology situation, the speaker and the recipient kept a “bottom-up”
relationship, which implied the importance of the Politeness Principle where the
teacher was in the more powerful position when the speaker offered an apology to
the teacher. The speaker was required to apologize as politely as possible because of
the relationship kept with the teacher. The data indicated that 93% of the apologies
from the respondents contained regret from the speaker (“Sorry”, and “I‟m sorry”).
Less than 50% of the students offered to take responsibility for the offense (“I went
into a wrong office”, and “I got the wrong room”), and only 7% of the apologies
included information of a remedy for the offense (“Sorry to interrupt you”). On the
other hand, the students employed words to provide explanations to the offense (“I
want to see my English teacher”), or requested the correct information from the
recipient (“I want to know which office is my English teacher‟s room”, and “Can you
tell me Mr. Smith‟s office?”).
Flora indicated:
It was an embarrassing situation when a student accidently went into a strange

teacher‟s office and interrupted the teacher‟s writing. Although the student
knew that he had to be polite in that situation, he must have felt awkward or
even overwhelmed and did not know how to appropriately express himself at
that moment because of the “bottom-up” relationship he kept with the teacher.
(22 March, 2011)
As grammatically advanced language learners, College English students must have

been aware of the importance of being polite to save the recipient‟s face. However,
they were not able to effectively apply their linguistic knowledge to this situation.
The students only provided simple regrets, and less than 50% of them accepted
responsibility for the offense. Some words employed by the students were not
accurate enough to convey their apology. It can be concluded that students were not
220
proficient language practitioners either in linguistic competence or in pragmatic
competence in this particular situation. Moreover, some of the students requested that
the teacher should provide them with the correct information. Influenced by the
„face‟ theory, such impolite requests might result in pragmatic failures in
communication.
The findings affirmed that pragmatic competence is an essential component in

achieving communicative competence in L2 or foreign language proficiency
(Bachman, 1990; Canale & Swain, 1980) (see 3.2.4), and cultural factors have to be
considered as they affect language users‟ application of the speech act of apology
(Nureddeen, 2008; Zheng & Huang, 2010).
The fifth apology prompt required the speaker to apologize to his colleague as the
speaker forgot to pass on a private message. The frequency of use of the individual
components of the speech act for the prompt can be found in the following table.
Table 6.22 Apology 5 – made to a colleague

Regret 78%
Responsibility 43%
Remedy 56%
The data indicated 78% of the responses were apologies for the offense (“Sorry”, and
“I‟m so sorry”). Less than 50% of the responses included taking responsibility for the
offense (“I forgot”, “I am in a bad memory”, and “I did not have time to pass it to
you these days”), although more than 50% of the replies included a remedy for the
offense (“I will tell you about it”, and “I will send it to you as soon as possible”).
Promises such as “I won‟t make mistakes for a third time”, and “This is the last time”
were used to comfort the recipient.
Instead of offering regrets to the recipient, students chose to provide positive answers
(“Yes, I got it”) that are commonly used to confirm one‟s suspicion. Positive
responses of “Yes” in the Chinese language and context are acceptable because
confirmation from the speaker is expected by the recipient and offered by the speaker
221
if the same situation had been repeated. As students in this study came from a
Chinese cultural background and Chinese was their L1, there was no doubt both the
Chinese language and the Chinese culture affected their application of English in this
social interaction.
The findings highlighted that students borrowed the Chinese way of apology to the
way one apologizes in English. This transference of cultural norms to English can be
hard for native English speakers or other English language users coming from
different cultures to understand such pragmatic usages in the Chinese context. Being
aware of the different usages of the same language in different cultures or contexts
can help to avoid pragmatic failures in intercultural communication (Gudykunst &
Mody, 2002; Liaw, 2006).
In the last apology prompt, the speaker insisted his classmate, Mary, had borrowed
his money and had not given it back. However, another classmate claimed that it was
he who had borrowed money from the speaker. The speaker had to apologize to
Mary for his bad memory and rudeness. The frequency of use of the components of
the speech act for the prompt can be found in Table 6.23.
Table 6.23 Apology 6 – made to a classmate

Regret 92%
Responsibility 48%
Remedy 23%
Almost every student gave their apologies for the offense (“Sorry”, and “I‟m so/very
sorry”). Less than 50% of the responses included their responsibility for the offense
(“What a bad memory I have”, “I blamed you unfairly”, “It‟s my fault”, and “I make
an apology for my misunderstanding”). Less than 25% of the responses had a remedy
for the offense (“I wish it would not hurt you”, and “I did not mean to hurt you”).
And some students employed words to ask for forgiveness (“Forgive me”).
In the Chinese context, money borrowing is a sensitive issue for people to discuss.
Generally, Chinese people are unwilling to discuss such an issue with others face to
face. Tom indicated in the interview:
222
The money issue is not a subject that Chinese people would like to discuss,
particularly the money borrowing issue. Either the debtor or the borrower might
feel embarrassed when discussing the related money matters. Generally,
Chinese people try to avoid talking about such concerns, or people might use
words as economically as possible if they have to. People, as debtors, consider
saving faces of borrowers when they mention the money matters because the
relationships the debtor and the borrower keep are often friends, classmates,
relatives, etc. If people cannot effectively deal with such issues, it will definitely
influence the relationship they keep. (22 March, 2011)
Face theory appeared to play an important role when students provided their
responses in this situation. Influenced by Chinese culture, people naturally tried to
consider using face-saving strategies in order not to threaten the face of the recipient.
Language learners‟ first culture is an important component that affects the
development of an L2 or foreign language (Crozet & Liddicoat, 1999). There is a
necessity for language learners to understand different cultures to facilitate
communication among language users of diverse cultures (Kramsch, 2005) (see
3.3.2).
Responses, such as “It‟s a little thing for our friendship”, indicated that students were
not proficient language practitioners as this would be an inappropriate response. At
the linguistic level, students were not able to use the linguistic knowledge to express
themselves clearly. At the pragmatic level, they were not able to effectively apply
language functions to successfully complete these social interactions. It was found
that these students had a low level of proficiency in either linguistic competence or
pragmatic competence or both when applying the speech act of apology in this
situation.
The above findings highlighted that the Chinese College English students were able
to recognize apology situations and provide simple apologies for an offense and to
distinguish speakers‟ different identities and the relationship between the speaker and
the recipient when offering apologies. Some of the students had the ability to apply
face-saving strategies when offering apologies. Responsibility or remedy for the
offense was provided by a small group of students. By not maintaining high levels of
linguistic competence or pragmatic competence, some students were not able to
223
express themselves clearly and complete social interactions in an ideal way. The
transference of the L1 knowledge and thinking skills, as well as the first culture, to
the use of EFL resulted in misunderstandings in communication situations in some
instances.
The findings from both the questionnaire and the DCTs indicated that on the whole
Chinese College English students were not high level language practitioners either in
linguistic competence or in pragmatic competence. It is necessary for them to keep a
balance between linguistic competence and pragmatic competence so as to properly
use the target language of English appropriately (Bardovi-Harlig & Dörnyer, 1998;
Nikula, 2008; Rose, 2009). As pragmatic knowledge and pragmatic strategies are
teachable (Afghari, 2007; Alcón-Soler, 2005; Rose & Kwai-fun, 2001; Takahashi,
2001; Tateyama, 2001), College English students need more practice in speech acts,
strategies in using speech acts, pragmatic routines and metapragmatic information in
their language learning process to further develop their pragmatic competence.
It was observed that students were able to recognize different situations (refusals,
compliment responses and apologies), but they could not apply their learned
knowledge to the related situations effectively. Most of the students could only
provide simple responses without extended well-organized information, which might
become a block in their ability to engage in communication with others. Even if they
gave extended information, many of them were not able to convey the real intention
of the speaker efficiently, which was likely to cause misunderstandings with the
recipient. Their low levels of linguistic competence and pragmatic competence has
led to pragmatic failures in the social interactions presented in DCTs.
In the process of acquiring an L2 or foreign language, language learning strategies

facilitate language learners to achieve learning aims in an efficient way (Oxford,
1996). As the important role of language learning strategies in the language learning
process, College English students‟ application of language learning strategies in
learning English and pragmatics is discussed in the following section.
224
6.3 RQ3: How do College English students apply their language learning
strategies in the learning of English and pragmatics?
Students‟ language learning strategies are another important research aspect in this
study. Language learning strategies are crucial for language learners to develop their
communicative ability in the target language (O‟Malley & Chamot, 1990) as they
facilitate language learners in obtaining, storing, retrieving, and using information
(Wenden & Rubin, 1987). Applying language learning strategies effectively in the
learning process can help language learners achieve optimal learning outcomes
efficiently (Gu & Johnson, 1996). The third research question concentrates on
students‟ perceptions and practice of language learning strategies in learning College
English, particularly in learning pragmatics. The discussions of the findings are
presented in the following sections.
6.3.1 Students’ perceptions of language learning strategies
It was assumed by the researcher that College English students were not familiar
with the term “language learning strategies” as they would not have received
professional trainings in linguistics. To illustrate this point, when responding to the
questions about language learning strategies in the questionnaire and interviews,
students listed different learning methods they applied in learning English, but they
were not able to clearly classify these methods into corresponding language learning
strategies. College English for Chinese students is not a course specifically in
linguistics and so it was not expected that the students in the study would respond to
the language of linguistics. Instead more general terms in relation to language
learning strategies were used.
As noted in Figure 5.10 (p.136), nearly 30% of the students preferred to imitate
language models and apply these models in new contexts, which was a cognitive
strategy. Students also identified other memory, cognitive and metacognitive
strategies they used such as memorizing vocabularies and reciting texts, doing
sentence drills and translation exercises, as well as self-studying and self-evaluation.
Influenced by society and classroom teaching and learning, using language learning
strategies such as imitating native English speakers‟ pronunciation and intonation
and the ways they use the English language affect College English students‟
225
motivation and provide further possible options of language learning strategies in
learning English for these students.
Grammatically advanced language learners as they were, College English students

were not skilful language learners in choosing and using appropriate language
learning strategies. With their schooling background in China it is probable that the
students‟ limited knowledge of language learning strategies has come from the
conventional teacher-dominated classroom teaching (Wang, 2002). As passive
language learners, students almost totally rely on teachers‟ language knowledge and
personal viewpoints to learn about the English language (Liu, 2010). Accordingly, it
was apparent that, on the whole, College English students had limited knowledge of
language learning strategies.
As indicated in Table 5.1 (p.118), nearly 90% of the participants in the study were
males, and more than 50% of them majored in science and engineering. In the
Chinese context, it is generally accepted that female students are better language
learners and language practitioners than male students (Liu, 2010). This may account
for the differences between males and females in applying language learning
strategies in the current study. If male students were not as proficient language
learners as female students they might experience more difficulty in recognizing and
using a variety of language learning strategies to acquire language knowledge. This
was an interesting result and is an area of research that needs to be explored further
in research.
However, as noted in Figure 5.14 (p.140), more than 60% of the students indicated
that they liked to use cognitive strategies to resolve difficulties in English language
learning. For example, they tried to solve problems by looking up words in a
dictionary or trying to find answers on the Internet. So, while the students in the
research were mostly males, they did show initiative in using some strategies to
improve their English. Social strategies of discussing and working with classmates,
or asking English language teachers or native English speakers, were not the favored
methods for most of the students to solve learning problems. More research needs to
be done to see if this is a general trend for male students or for Chinese students
generally.
226
It is generally recognized that male students are more independent in solving
problems than female students in the Chinese context (Liu, 2010). They prefer to find
effective ways to solve problems by themselves rather than to ask people for help.
On the other hand, female students do not like struggling to find solutions for
learning by themselves (Liu, 2010). They prefer to ask for help or seek suggestions
from other people. As most of the participants in this study were male students, the
results strongly suggested that there continued to be a gender imbalance in
employing different language learning strategies in the Chinese language learning
context (Ersözlü, 2010; Sheorey, 1999; Yan, Chye, Lin & Ying, 2010).
Language learning strategies are regarded as an indispensable part in the learning

process (Oxford, 1996), which act as tools for active and self-directed participation
that is crucial for developing communicative competence (O‟Malley & Chamot,
1990). Applying learning strategies in the language learning process can effectively
facilitate language learners in achieving their optimal learning outcomes (Gu &
Johnson, 1996). Thus, it is essential for language learners to be familiar with certain
language learning strategies that they could apply in their language learning process.
While the College English students were not aware of the exact professional terms
used to categorize language learning strategies, they were able to list the methods
that they believed to be necessary for them to improve their pragmatic competence in
learning College English.
The data indicated that College English students preferred to employ direct strategies
rather than indirect strategies to improve their pragmatic competence. As outlined in
Table 5.7 (p.134), memory strategies such as memorizing English words, expressions
and texts, and imitating native speakers‟ pronunciation and intonation ranked highest
as desired strategies used by the students. One of the students in the study, Oliver,
also indicated that:
recitation and imitation are very important for students to improve students‟
pragmatic competence...Remembering new words and reciting texts are helpful
to low proficient English learners, which can assist in accumulating their
vocabulary and cultivating the feel of the language…imitate the native
speakers‟ pronunciation and the way they express themselves is the most
efficient way of learning English. (22 March, 2011)
227
Students are required to memorize English words and expressions, and recite texts
when they begin to learn English in primary schools in China. In addition, students
are required to imitate native English speakers‟ pronunciation and intonation as they
are informed by English language teachers that imitation is the most effective way to
achieve communicative competence. Many Chinese popular magazines, such as
Crazy English, encourage English language learners to imitate native English
speakers‟ pronunciation and intonation, as well as the way they use language to
express themselves.
It was found from the data that another memory strategy that students would like to
use to improve their pragmatic competence was through the use of images and
videos. With the development of sophisticated technologies, it has become more
convenient for language learners to access visual language learning materials, such
as videos and images. In comparison to traditional language learning textbooks,
images and videos are able to provide more lively and authentic materials as well as
current language use. Students in the study indicated that “watching original English
movies” (Benson: 16 March, 2011), and “listening to English broadcast and reading
English newspapers” (Lindy: 16 March, 2011) could help them better acquire
pragmatic knowledge and improve their English language proficiency.
As noted in Table 5.7 (p.134), the cognitive strategy of note-taking was listed fourth
among the students‟ preferred cognitive strategy for learning. Note-taking is one of
the strategies that Chinese English language teachers expect students to master in
learning English. It requires students to write down key words or concepts in
abbreviated verbal, graphic, or numerical form when listening and reading (O‟Malley
& Chamot, 1990). Understanding what they are writing plays a key role in the whole
process. Students need to understand different Englishes and cultures, and different
thinking skills of various cultural backgrounds because speakers have diverse
education backgrounds and experiences.
Chinese students have a habit of taking notes in class as they are requested to do so
by teachers when they start their study in primary schools. Students in the study
stated that notes could remind them of the important information in classroom
teaching and learning. As one student indicated, “note-taking does great help to
228
improve our English language proficiency. Only when students make out the
speaker‟s pronunciation and intonation, and completely understood the delivering
idea and logical relations, can they write down their needed information” (16 March,
2011).
It was observed from the data that translation was another kind of cognitive strategy
that College English students suggested was essential to improve their pragmatic
competence. Translation requires language users to skillfully and accurately produce
meaning between the L1 and an L2 or a foreign language. Grammar-translation
teaching and learning has a long history in China (Littlewood, 2007). Both students
and teachers are familiar with the method and believe that the practice of translation
can indeed improve their English level because only when students are fully aware of
the target culture and appropriately apply their linguistic knowledge of the target
language, are they able to successfully make the translation between their mother
tongue and the target language. Students in this study indicated that translation was
an indispensable strategy for them to improve their language competence.
In the meantime, translation tasks have been a crucial component of College English
textbooks ever since their first version in China. Although there are various versions
of College English textbooks published by different presses nowadays, translation
tasks are always included. As outlined in Table 5.13 (p.166), translation tasks were
contained in the New College English Integrated Course textbooks and they occupied
around 7% of all linguistic tasks (see Table 5.15, p.167).
Yet, both the classroom translation practice and the design of translation tasks in
New College English textbooks focused on the practice of linguistic knowledge and
achieving linguistic learning aims; there was little attention focused on the
development of language learners‟ pragmatic competence or appropriate applications
of translation strategies in social interactions that might enable language learners to
become communicatively competent. This is an area for English language teachers to
consider when deciding on appropriate resources to use in classroom teaching and
learning.
229
As indicated in Table 5.7 (p.134), transferring the knowledge and thinking skills of
Chinese to English and contextualization were another two cognitive strategies listed
by a small group of students. As College English students were not highly proficient
language learners, it might well be hard for them to transfer the knowledge and
thinking skills of their L1 to learning a foreign language competently, or apply their
linguistic knowledge to suitable contexts properly and effectively even though
contextualization assisted comprehension or recall by placing a word or phrase in a
meaningful language sequence or situational context (Oxford, 1990). These two
strategies could help students practice their linguistic knowledge and become
pragmatically competent in an efficient way but there was no strong evidence found
in the current research to suggest that students were proficient in these areas.
The data indicated that the only compensation strategy students used to improve their
pragmatic competence was to guess the meaning of words and sentences. In actual
language teaching and learning processes, students are encouraged by their teachers
to guess the meaning of some words and sentences from contexts while reading and
listening and discouraged from consulting a dictionary whenever they meet new
words. Guessing the meaning of words and sentences can help students improve their
comprehension abilities and the ability of absorbing new knowledge, which are sure
to be helpful in social interactions (Yuan, 2006).
The data from this study revealed that social strategies and metacognitive strategies
were listed by the students as important factors as they described that these indirect
strategies could help them improve their pragmatic competence. As outlined in Table
5.7 (p.134), the only social strategy that College English students used in class was to
cooperate with others, which ranked third in preference on the list. Working together
with peers to perform language activities and solve language problems allows
students to feel confident and helps to enhance learning outcomes (Fushino, 2010;
Jacobs, Power & Loh, 2002). Students demonstrated that “group work can bring
confidence to every participant” (Flora: 22 March, 2011), and “students do not need
to worry about losing faces when they make language mistakes in communication”
(Jesse: 22 March, 2011).
230
It was found that metacognitive strategies that students liked to use were advance
preparation, self-management or self-monitoring, self-evaluation and selective
attention. Students indicated that they were familiar with the strategy of advance
preparation because they were frequently required to do it by teachers. They were
often requested to go through the learning texts to acquire main ideas or concepts
before class. Students suggested that they could understand the learning material and
master the knowledge in a faster way by using these strategies in the language
learning process.
As indicated in Table 5.7 (p.134), around 14% of the students liked to use a self-
monitoring strategy and around 11% of the students preferred to apply a self-
evaluation strategy to improve their pragmatic competence. These two strategies
could lead language learners to become independent learners, which has been
proposed by the College English Curriculum Requirements (2007). By applying
these strategies in their language learning process, language learners are able to do
critical reflection, and make decisions independently. They can adjust their learning
content and rhythm, and method of their learning that may result in better progress
and learning outcomes.
It could also be found from Table 5.7 (p.134) that only around 7% of the students
thought selective attention strategy could help them develop their pragmatic
competence. This strategy is used for specific purposes and might not be easy for
students to use at all times in the learning process. Students need to focus on specific
items while reading or listening, and they need to be trained to be high proficient
language learners who are able to make correct decisions. Otherwise, unskillfully
using strategies might become an obstacle to the development of language learners‟
language competence.
There was no data that indicated that students in the study preferred to use affective
strategies. As suggested by Stern (1992), good language learners employ distinct
affective strategies, but these strategies are rarely used by general language learners
(Chen, 2009; Hong-Nam & Leavell, 2006; Yılmaz, 2010). Language learners can
feel frustrated in some cases, particular in L2 or foreign language learning and may
have negative feelings about the language learning. Good language learners have the
231
ability to realize these emotional problems, and are able to create associations of
positive effects towards them. Affective strategies can help language learners face up
to the emotional difficulties and overcome them by drawing attention to the potential
frustrations or pointing them out as they arise (Stern, 1992).
The findings of this study highlighted that College English students had an
understanding that language learning strategies could facilitate them to become
competent language users, particular in becoming pragmatically competent language
practitioners. Data demonstrated that students focused more on using direct strategies
than indirect strategies. They had various perceptions of employing different
strategies to improve their English language learning in general, and pragmatics in
particular. As College English students were not highly proficient language learners,
they were not likely to employ affective strategies in learning English as a foreign
language. The following section discusses College English students‟ practice of their
language learning strategies in their English language acquisition process,
particularly in learning pragmatics.
6.3.2 Students’ practice of language learning strategies
According to the College English Curriculum Requirements (2007), knowledge and

practical skills of English language, language learning strategies and intercultural
communication are the main components of College English teaching and learning.
College English students indicated that they understood that language learning
strategies could assist them to achieve their learning outcomes efficiently. By
applying language learning strategies in the learning process, language learners can
make their learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more effective, more self-directed,
and more transferable to new situations (Oxford, 1990). Applying language learning
strategies in practice was of importance to the language learners in this study.
A variety of language learning strategies were applied by College English students in

the classroom teaching and learning process. As outlined in Figure 5.11 (p.137),
cognitive strategies in the form of presentations and note-taking ranked first and
third, respectively. The social strategy of group-discussion was ranked second. The
metacognitive strategy of listening to the teacher only when necessary also ranked
the third place. The memory strategy of listening to the teacher all the time ranked
232
last, although this might be inferred as somewhat indicative of students around the
world and not confined solely to English language classes in China.
It could be observed from the data that College English students knew how to
enhance their cognitive strategies rather than simply using memory strategies as well
as being involved in the social network to practice the target language. Compared to
cognitive strategies, social strategies and metacognitive strategies, students appeared
to be more familiar with using memory strategies as they had been required to use
these ever since they had begun their English language learning in primary school.
The data from this research indicated that students were required to complete the
tasks of presentations, debates, role-plays, group-discussions, and pair-work, and
these strategies had proven helpful in developing their pragmatic competence in
communication. Traditional classroom teaching and learning could help students
accumulate adequate linguistic knowledge to be used in real-world situations;
however, practice related to communicative activities in the classroom can enhance
students‟ pragmatic competence (Peng, 2002). Language learning strategies can
facilitate the development of their English language learning after class and in their
life-long learning (Li, 2002).
It was found from the data that memory strategies was the first option of language
learning strategies that College English students applied to acquire English language
knowledge after class. As noted in Figure 5.12 (p.138), students liked to read English
newspapers and magazines, memorize English words and recite texts, watch English
movies and listen to English broadcasts in their spare time. Students indicated that
they followed their English language teachers‟ recommendations to apply language
learning strategies of engaging in these activities to improve their English
proficiency (Benson & Lindy: 16 March, 2011). In addition, “listening to English
songs” (Victor: 16 March, 2011) was another kind of memory strategy that helped
language learners to improve their pragmatic competence.
Students preferred to apply memory strategies to learn English and pragmatics

perhaps because these were mechanical language learning strategies that did not need
complicated understanding processes. They could manage their language learning by
233
employing memory strategies without guidance from their teachers. English
newspapers and magazines, and English broadcasts offer students updated and
authentic information about what is going on in the world. Visual materials such as
original English-speaking movies and auditory materials such as English songs keep
students interested in the English learning process.
Authentic audio-visual materials offer a much richer source of input for language
learners and have the potential to be utilized in a variety of ways and on different
levels to enhance learners‟ communicative competence (Gilmore, 2007). Moreover,
as one student in the study suggested, students might be influenced by movies stars
or popular singers and “transfer their interests from stars to their English language
learning” (Victor: 16 March, 2011).
The data indicated that students frequently did their review work after class so that
they could consolidate what they had learned in class. Many of them had the habit of
previewing new lessons and going over lessons after class because they had been
requested to do so by teachers since primary school. Learning English after class is a
self-study and self-exploration process. Students need to work independently to
achieve their learning goals and only consult others for help occasionally (Xu, Peng
& Wu, 2004). Students have to arrange and plan the learning by themselves, and
monitor and evaluate their own learning by employing metacognitive strategies (Hu
& Zhang, 2006).
However, as noted in Figure 5.12 (p.138), the metacognitive strategy of self-

evaluation was only applied by a small group of students to learn English by
themselves although the College English Curriculum Requirements (2007) has
highlighted the importance of self-evaluation in students‟ independent learning.
Students‟ reluctance to self-evaluate might have been impacted by the traditional
teacher-dominated model and the language assessment systems in China.
College English students are used to the assessment systems employed in English
language teaching and learning in China. These systems are controlled by teachers
and provide information for teachers that help them improve their English language
teaching (Niu, 2001). It might not be easy for students to acquire the related
234
information on their own without a teachers‟ help to facilitate their English language
learning. As the College English students are guided by teachers in learning English,
they might have no idea of how to effectively evaluate their own language learning
even when the College English Curriculum Requirements (2007) provides self-
assessment forms for their English language competence. Students might not be able
to draw their own conclusions about their learning from the self-assessment and so
do not develop effective methods to progress their English language learning by
themselves.
The data indicated that students preferred to practice English with their classmates
rather than with English native speakers in the self-study process. Practicing English
with others, particularly with native English speakers, could help to improve English
language learners pragmatic competence and achieve language competence. In self-
evaluating English language learning, communicating with people is a social strategy
that can help language learners develop communicative abilities to be
communicatively competent. Students may ask others for help when they meet
difficulties in their language learning, or may take on opportunities to practice the
target language with other people.
College English students indicated that they would “try to find opportunities to
communicate with native English speakers to improve English proficiency” (Benson:
16 March, 2011) but this did not appear to be a common practice. Practicing English
with native speakers could assist College English students to acquire the target
cultural knowledge and pragmatic knowledge in social interactions, which can
facilitate the progress of their English proficiency efficiently in intercultural
communication. However, as one student noted, they had “no chance to be involved
in communicate with native English speakers in the real context” (Ann: 22 March,
2011).
College English students expressed another factor worthy of consideration, which

was the need to save face when communicating with people in English. They may
become uneasy and nervous when they communicate with native English speakers,
which might hinder the effective usage of the target language and lead to pragmatic
failures in intercultural communication. As one student explained, “Many students
235
are reluctant to communicate with native English speakers even if they are given the
chance” (Tom: 22 March, 2011). Accordingly, students seem to be reluctant in
looking for opportunities to practice English with native English speakers, though
they recognized the importance of doing so.
It was found that less than 20% of the students would use the cognitive strategy of
doing language structure exercises to acquire English language knowledge by
themselves. Students seemed to be bored with translation and sentence drills that
might have made them lose interest in English language learning. These exercises are
usually applied by English language teachers in classroom teaching and learning, and
students were not likely to repeat the same exercises to practice English after class.
The data also indicated that there were individual differences among College English
students when they chose to use language learning strategies in learning EFL.
Students demonstrated that having been taught by the traditional methods, they relied
too much on teachers‟ instructions, which might have resulted in the loss of the
ability for independent learning. “Everyone needs to make their own choice in using
language learning strategies due to their individual different learning situations”
(Harlow: 22 March, 2011).
The findings of this study has highlighted that College English students were not
good language practitioners in applying language learning strategies to learn English
and pragmatics. Informed and impacted by English language teachers, students did
not develop balanced language learning strategies for effective learning. Memory
strategies, social strategies, metacognitive strategies, and cognitive strategies were
employed by students in their College English learning (Li, 2002). Compensation
strategies and affective strategies, which are helpful in lowering students‟ anxiety in
language learning and in achieving pragmatic competence, were frequently neglected
by students (Li, 2002).
Through detailed discussion of the collected data and combining the theories applied
in this study as well as the research from previous studies, the major findings of the
study are summarized as follows:
236
(a) Pragmatic knowledge is as important as linguistic knowledge in developing
Chinese College English students‟ pragmatic competence in their English
language learning process. Pragmatic competence can facilitate them in
achieving communicative competence in intercultural communication.
(b) It is suggested in the data that College English students are not highly
proficient language users though they are grammatically advanced language
learners, and thus there is an imbalance between the skills. It is necessary for
them to keep a balance between linguistic competence and pragmatic
competence.
(c) College English students‟ L1 (Chinese) and their first culture influence the
development of their English language; they want to transfer L1 knowledge
and thinking skills as well as their first cultural knowledge to the use of
English.
(d) Influenced by society and English language teaching and learning in China,
College English students tend to learn American English or British English
rather than other Englishes in their language learning process.
(e) The current College English classroom teaching and learning methods do little
to help the development of students‟ pragmatic competence, which leaves
current teaching and learning processes unable to meet students‟ needs.
(f) The data suggest that tasks, especially pragmatically oriented tasks, involved in
the English language teaching and learning process are believed to assist
College English students to develop their pragmatic competence effectively.
(g) It is suggested in the data that the currently used College English textbooks do
little to help the development of students‟ pragmatic competence because they
do not provide adequate pragmatic knowledge or pragmatic tasks. Students
want to be exposed to authentic English language learning materials as they
believe they can acquire sufficient pragmatic knowledge/information from
these materials that facilitates in developing their pragmatic competence in
communication.
(h) College English students are not capable language practitioners in applying
language learning strategies in the English language acquisition process as only
limited language learning strategies are used in their learning process.
Moreover, students are significantly influenced by their English language
teachers on the application of language learning strategies.
237
6.4 Summary
This chapter has addressed the three research questions of this study. By analyzing
and discussing the collected data, it is argued that Chinese College English students
are not highly proficient language users although they are grammatically advanced
language learners. They are not good language practitioners and are unable to
effectively employ language knowledge, particular pragmatic knowledge in social
interactions, which has resulted in pragmatic failures in communication situations.
As the traditional grammar-translation method still holds the major position in the
current Chinese College English classroom teaching and learning process, it is hard
for College English students to develop their pragmatic competence effectively and
become communicatively competent, let alone language competent. Additionally,
College English textbooks cannot provide adequate pragmatic tasks for students to
practice their pragmatic competence. Furthermore, they are not able to skillfully
apply language learning strategies to acquire language knowledge in English. In the
following chapter, a tentative model for learning pragmatics for College English
students is proposed by drawing conclusions and suggesting implications of this
study.
238
CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSION
The three key research questions in this research focused on exploring College
English students‟ perceptions and practice of pragmatics, and the application of
language learning strategies in learning English and pragmatics. These three
questions were analyzed with reference to research and theories of pragmatics,
intercultural communication, and ELF. This was the first systematic study that
effectively utilized three different theories: pragmatics, intercultural communication,
and ELF informed by SLA theory and research, to understand the role of pragmatic
knowledge and knowledge of language learning strategies for Chinese College
English students.
In this chapter, conclusions drawn from the study are presented. A tentative model of
learning pragmatics in College English teaching and learning processes is proposed
that offers a new perspective for English language educators, policy makers,
curriculum writers, English language teachers and practitioners in the area of
learning pragmatics. Such a feature has been neglected in the past and in the current
College English learning and teaching in China and this suggests a new direction is
necessary for future teaching and learning in foreign language acquisition practice.
The implications for learning and teaching pragmatics in the College English
learning and teaching processes, College English course designs and material
development are also presented. Suggestions for further research, as well as the
limitations of the study, are taken into consideration.
7.1 Current Chinese College English learning and teaching
Since the early 1980s, College English, a required basic course for undergraduate
students, has developed into a systematic and independent subject, which is an
integral part of higher education in China (Ruan & Jacob, 2009). The instruction and
practice of College English teaching and learning at university level are guided by
the College English Curriculum Requirements (1985, 1999, 2007), which have been
approved by the Ministry of Education of China. Informed by the College English
Curriculum Requirements, the practice of College English has progressed greatly
over the last decade (Cai, 2005, 2010).
239
With continuous education innovation and the fast development of society in China,
College English learners are facing unprecedented challenges. They are required to
master pragmatic and sociolinguistic knowledge as well as linguistic knowledge in
their language learning process in order to become communicative competent
language users in intercultural communication. Keeping up with all the changes
challenges not only students but all who are involved in education.
College English students are required to develop their ability to use English
effectively, especially to develop greater competence in using English for
intercultural communication. According to the College English Curriculum
Requirements (2007), the focus of College English has shifted from reading to
listening and speaking, and special attention is given to independent learning by
means of advanced information technologies. This movement suggests a shift from
the long established grammar-translation and teacher-centered language practices
towards learning for communication and communicative competence (Lamie, 2001).
Chomsky (1965) and Hymes (1972) argued that communicative competence

involved much more than knowledge of language structures. It involves
contextualized communication to take precedence over form, which includes
speakers‟ knowing whether something is appropriate in relation to the context
(Larsen-Freeman & Freeman, 2008). Researchers have come to an agreement that
communicative competence is regarded as the measure of global language
proficiency of a language learner, particularly in an L2 or foreign language
instruction, and pragmatic competence is a vital component of proficiency
(Bachman, 1990; Bachman & Palmer, 1996, 2010). According to Bachman (1990), it
is impractical for a language learner to achieve language competence without
pragmatic competence. Therefore, the acquisition of pragmatics in an L2 or foreign
language has received a great deal of attention recently, and enhancing language
learners‟ pragmatic competence has become one of the indispensable parts in L2 or
foreign language instruction (Ji, 2008).
In contrast to this global trend, the current College English teaching and learning
process in China overemphasizes the development of linguistic competence and
neglects the enhancement of students‟ pragmatic competence, which might lead to
240
pragmatic failures in communication (Cai, 2005; Wang, 2005; Zhao, 2009). Though
English has been taught and learned as a foreign language in China for a long period
of time, little attention has been given to the study of pragmatics in EFL contexts
(Wang, 2010; Zhao, 2009). College English Curriculum Requirements (2007) has
proposed the necessity of the development of College English students‟ pragmatic
competence, especially in intercultural communication. In the meantime, China has
been experiencing explosive progress in commerce, technology, and cultural
exchanges with Western countries, which has raised demand for a large number of
competent English users in a wide range of professions and businesses. In order to
meet the needs of Curriculum Requirements and China‟s social development and
international exchanges, large numbers of English language competent users, who
are engaged in intercultural communication, are needed. Therefore, it is necessary to
strengthen the importance of pragmatics in College English learning and teaching
processes. It is against this backdrop of a changing China that the conclusions from
this research are presented.
7.2 Conclusions of the study
The conclusions of this study have been drawn from the collected data and related
findings described in previous chapters. They are discussed and highlighted from
four different perspectives: language competence, language and culture, language
learning and teaching, and language learning tasks, and are presented as follows.
7.2.1 Language competence
In referring to Bachman‟s (1990) model, language competence consists of

organizational competence and pragmatic competence that specifies the importance
of pragmatic competence in enhancing language learners‟ communicative
competence. As part of sociolinguistic competence (Koike, 1989), pragmatic
competence includes knowledge about social distance, social status between
speakers, cultural knowledge, such as politeness, and linguistic knowledge both
explicit and implicit, which can help language learners comprehend and produce a
communicative act (Kasper, 1997).
241
The findings of the study indicated that current Chinese College English learning and
teaching still concentrated on the development of language learners‟ linguistic
competence (organizational competence) although the College English Curriculum
Requirements (2007) clearly proposed the requirement of achieving communicative
competence in intercultural communication. College English students are unable to
obtain adequate pragmatic knowledge used in communication because neither
classroom teaching nor the textbooks provide sufficient pragmatic knowledge for
them.
As a result of this limited range in teaching English with few opportunities to

practice English in authentic ways, College English students are not becoming
skillful language practitioners and they have developed limited perceptions of
pragmatic knowledge. Though they have recognized the importance of developing
their pragmatic competence, they are left to their own devices in acquiring pragmatic
knowledge to improve pragmatic competence in communication. Without structured
facilitation of their learning, students return to older paradigms where the focus is
solely on passing examinations. As indicated in this research, the focus on
examinations limits the scope for students to develop pragmatic competence.
7.2.2 Language and culture
Language and culture have an interactive and reciprocal relationship (Kiet, 2011) as
culture is inserted into language as an intangible, all-pervasive and highly variable
force (Crozet & Liddicoat, 1999). The terms „languaculture‟ (Risager, 2005) or
„culturelanguage‟ (Papademetre & Scarino, 2006) reveals this relationship.
Language, as well as culture, is a dynamic system (Larsen-Freeman & Freeman,
2008). Language is the major means by which people perform their social lives, and
when language is used in contexts of communication, it is concerned with culture in
complicated ways. Language expresses cultural reality, embodies cultural reality, and
symbolizes cultural reality (Kramsch, 1998). Knowledge about the world, such as
people‟s ideas, facts, beliefs, or events, can become communicable through language.
As language itself has cultural value, culture plays an important role when using a
language. Speakers coming from different cultural backgrounds identify themselves
and others through their use of language. That is to say, people regard their language
242
as a symbol of their social identity (Karmsch, 1998). As culture is regarded as
instrumental in shaping speakers‟ communicative competence (Berns, 1990), not
being able to correctly use the language to communicate might cause speakers to
reject a social group and its culture. Consequently, language learning should be seen
as languaging (a way of being) and intercultural being (living and acting in a
patchwork of disordered cultures) (Phipps & Gonzalez, 2004).
With regard to College English teaching and learning in China, this research found
that both students and teachers focused on the language itself rather than the
pragmatics of language. They frequently paid great attention to language structure
and vocabulary instruction in the teaching and learning processes. Cultural
knowledge introduction was limited to “broad culture”, such as festivals
(Thanksgiving, Halloween or Christmas) which were not closely relevant to the
Chinese context. Little attention was given to the relationship between language and
culture as it is taught in China. In addition, it was hard for College English students
to access cultural information in their learning process that related specifically to
them because neither College English textbooks nor classroom teaching could
provide sufficient knowledge about various cultures, let alone the knowledge of
appropriate language use in different contexts.
Understanding different cultures can help language learners achieve communicative

competence in intercultural communication. Students in the study indicated that they
liked to access other cultures though media such as movies and newspapers. These
avenues provide them with current language practices which allow for the
development of pragmatic competence. The researcher would suggest that as a result
of these findings, teachers need to access opportunities to provide such materials to
students as a supplement to their textbooks. The inability to acquire adequate cultural
knowledge might lead to pragmatic failures in intercultural communication.
7.2.3 Language learning and teaching
Foreign language teaching and learning has a long history in China, which started
with a focus on grammatical systems that were learned and taught through many
different strategies such as translation (Kelly, 1969; Titone, 1968). “Grammar-
translation” has been widely used in foreign language teaching and learning and
243
widely criticized on the grounds that it does not develop learners‟ communication
skills for years (Jin & Cortazzi, 2011). The proposal of communicative competence
(Hymes, 1972), has helped reshape thinking about the nature of language itself.
A language, as a tool or instrument, is used in particular settings (Larsen-Freeman &

Freeman, 2008). Using it appropriately is at the heart of having pragmatic
competence. Since the 1980s, communicative competence has become firmly
established as a foundational concept in language teaching and learning (Canale &
Swain, 1980). It concentrates on oral and transactional use of language in a variety of
contexts that assists language learners to understand the appropriateness or
acceptability of language use in exact settings. The researcher is not advocating that
traditional teaching and learning should be abandoned, but rather there needs to be
more offered students to address the need to develop communicative competence.
The rise of task-based learning and teaching, and CLT put the focus of learning on
the language learners. This process of language teaching and learning reduces the
time on the mere mastery of grammar and vocabulary, and assists language learners
in developing greater competence in the use of English for communication (Liao,
2004). Tasks used in language learning can be viewed as a vehicle for integrating
theory and practice (Halloran, 2001). It has shifted from the traditional teacher-
centered language teaching and learning model to the student-centered model.
Language learners who are scaffolded to acquire language knowledge independently
also learn how to effectively apply language learning strategies in their learning
process.
It was found that College English teaching and learning still focused on the
development of students‟ linguistic competence, such as grammar and vocabulary,
even though the College English Curriculum Requirements (2007) recommended
developing learners‟ communicative competence and independent language learning
abilities. As with “grammar-translation” teaching and learning in large classes, the
teacher-centered mode was largely applied, which suggested that instead of
acquisition and learning, it still focused on teaching and the teacher. Students rarely
had opportunities to be engaged in language learning and experience the process of
244
learning, and their individual differences and requirements in learning English were
often neglected.
Students in this study expressed some frustration with this process and indicated that
while they were ready to take on the responsibilities that came with change they were
mindful that change was not happening quickly enough for them to abandon their
traditional mode of learning that focused on preparing for examinations. The time
contributed to the practice of English either in the classroom or outside the classroom
was found to be very limited. Only a small number of pragmatics and language
learning strategies instructions were contained in the teaching and learning processes,
which indicated that the students‟ inadequate preparation of pragmatic knowledge as
well as their low independent learning abilities created the danger of them having
low proficiency as language learners in intercultural communication.
7.2.4 Language learning tasks
The language learning task is defined as “any activity that learners engage in to
further the process of learning a language” (Williams & Burden, 1997, p.168), and it
is one of three main factors that impact on the production of learning outcomes
(Murphy, 2003). Estaire and Zanon (1994) distinguished the two main categories of
tasks as communication tasks, in which “the learner‟s attention is focused on
meaning rather than form”, and enabling tasks, in which “the main focus is on
linguistic aspects (grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, functions, and discourse)”
(Estaire & Zanon, 1994, pp.13-20). Well designed and organized language teaching
and learning tasks could effectively provide a link between inside-classroom
pedagogy and outside-classroom reality, which reflect students‟ needs, interests, and
experiences, enhance automaticity in language learning (Ridder, Vangehuchten &
Gómez, 2007), and facilitate students become communicatively competent
(Littlewood, 2004).
The findings of the study indicated that most tasks provided by College English
textbooks were linguistic tasks, focusing on vocabulary, structure, grammar, and
discourse. Only a small number of tasks in the textbooks were pragmatic tasks,
which aimed at developing students‟ pragmatic competence. In addition, the forms of
245
the pragmatic tasks were monotonous and might easily result in learners losing
interest in practicing English.
It was also observed that tasks, especially pragmatic tasks, conducted in the College
English teaching and learning classroom were limited. These classroom tasks were
chiefly designed to practice and develop students‟ linguistic competence, such as
sentence drills, vocabulary practice, and translation. Pragmatic tasks, such as group
discussions, role play, and debating, were seldom applied in classroom practice. As a
result of the linguistic focus on classroom learning tasks, students‟ preferences and
understanding towards various pragmatic tasks might become obstacles in
developing their pragmatic competence.
The findings of the study revealed that College English students were not competent
language practitioners. They were not exposed to enough qualified instructions on
pragmatics to develop pragmatic competence and they were not exposed to
appropriate and adequate pragmatic input (Ji, 2008). The present College English
teaching and learning processes provide limited opportunities for students to practice
communication in the classroom setting, let alone practice of spontaneous
communication in real contexts outside the classroom.
As College English students are not able to obtain adequate pragmatic materials and
practice opportunities, there is no wonder that they are kept at a low level of
pragmatic competence even though they are advanced grammatical language
learners. On the other hand, it is necessary for College English students to have the
ability to acquire pragmatic knowledge independently and cultivate chances to
practice communication by applying various language learning strategies in the EFL
context.
Findings from this research demonstrated that College English students were not
independent language learners with advanced grammatical skills. They needed more
scaffolding instruction on how to become independent and how to access language
beyond the classroom. Therefore, more engaging research focusing on learning
pragmatics independently needs to be conducted.
246
Informed by SLA theory and research, the present empirical study has provided
significant enlightenments to College English learners and teachers, English
language researchers, curriculum designers, and textbook writers. The data
highlighted the importance of learning pragmatics and the application of language
learning strategies in developing language competence in China and similar
educational contexts.
The findings have indicated that teachers and teaching materials need to play a
bigger role in facilitating students to better use language learning strategies to
acquire pragmatic knowledge and practice communication in the EFL context in
order to achieve optimal learning outcomes. The study also suggests that teachers
need to recognize the deficiencies in the present teaching and learning process; they
need to make a conscious effort to learn what their students‟ needs are in relation to
developing communicative competence, and they need to conduct English language
teaching more effectively to meet the needs proposed by the College English
Curriculum Requirements (2007). In addition, the study provides suggestions to
textbook writers that they need to involve more pragmatic principles and tasks in the
teaching and learning materials.
7.3 Model of learning pragmatics
By incorporating a range of different theories (e.g., SLA, pragmatics, intercultural

communication, and ELF), frameworks suggested by previous studies (Bachman,
1989, 1990; Bachman & Palmer, 2010; Byram, 1997; Liddicoat, Papademetre,
Scarino & Kohler, 2003; Hall, 1976; Ji, 2008; Oxford, 1990, 1996; Skehan, 2003),
and the findings of this study, a tentative model of learning pragmatics in the Chinese
context is proposed (see Figure 7.1).
247
- Pragmatic knowledge
- Knowledge of intercultural
communication
Learning content - Knowledge of English as a lingua
franca
- Knowledge of language learning
Learning strategies
pragmatics
- Task-based approach
- Intercultural communicative
Learning process approach
- Language learning strategies
approach
Figure 7.1 Tentative model of learning pragmatics
The above tentative model identifies what this research has found missing in
supporting students in developing communicative competence. The model identifies
that learning pragmatics is a key in this process with two suggested components of
study.
The first component is the learning content which includes developing pragmatic
knowledge, knowledge of intercultural communication, knowledge of ELF and
knowledge of language learning strategies. As can be seen already, this model has
moved away from the traditional process of language learning. In the model there is
more accountability from both teachers and students and more opportunities for the
two to work together. For example, gaining knowledge of language learning
strategies involves teachers first knowing what these strategies are and then applying
them in the class so that students can develop this knowledge. In this way, teachers
play a vital role in helping students learn skills about how to become independent
learners.
The second component of the model is the learning process, which includes new
approaches to learning pragmatics such as task-based learning, intercultural
communicative learning and developing language learning strategies. Below is a
further description of the various elements of the model.
248
7.3.1 Learning content
7.3.1.1 Pragmatic knowledge
The findings of the study highlighted that it was hard for College English students to
acquire adequate pragmatic knowledge either from their classroom teaching and
learning or from College English textbooks. Also, students did not have sufficient
knowledge on how to acquire pragmatic knowledge by themselves. This lack of
pragmatic knowledge is sure to result in pragmatic failures in communication.
Including more pragmatic knowledge in the College English teaching and learning
processes as well as in College English textbooks could develop students‟ pragmatic
competence, which can help them become communicatively competent language
users.
7.3.1.2 Knowledge of intercultural communication
Informed by the College English Curriculum Requirements (2007), intercultural

communication is one of the main components of College English. It is necessary for
language learners to acquire cultural knowledge while learning the language as
culture is integrated at all levels of language (Crozet & Liddicoat, 2000). Languages
are carriers of culture, and all foreign language learning is intercultural (Edmondson
& House, 1998). As foreign language learners, it is essential for Chinese College
English students to obtain knowledge of the target culture in their language learning
process so as to raise their global cultural consciousness (Kumaravadivelu, 2008)
that can help improve their intercultural competence in intercultural communication.
7.3.1.3 Knowledge of English as a lingua franca
It was found from this study that Chinese College English students did appreciate the
notion of learning ELF, through which they could express their own values and
identities (Gilmore, 2007). Nowadays, non-native English speakers outnumber native
English speakers by 4:1 (House, 2010). In a large number of interactions in the
absence of native speakers, English is used as an L2 or a foreign language; thus,
English is no longer “owned” by its native speakers (House, 2003, 2010). As English
is used transnationally, it is crucial for non-native English speakers to obtain the
249
knowledge of ELF that serves as a means of communication for speakers of different
L1s.
7.3.1.4 Knowledge of language learning strategies
As language learning strategies are helpful to language learners in developing their

language proficiency and improving their intercultural communication (Bonney,
Cortina, Smith-Darden & Fiori, 2008; Griffiths, 2003), effectively applying language
learning strategies in learning and using a language could assist language learners to
achieve communicative competence. It was observed that College English students
had limited knowledge of language learning strategies: a fact that might limit them in
fully developing their learning potential. Involving knowledge of language learning
strategies in College English teaching and learning could help students obtain
knowledge on language learning strategies so that they could apply these strategies in
their learning to efficiently assist them to achieve their learning aims.
Figure 7.2 outlines the learning content of pragmatics in College English learning in
detail, including pragmatic knowledge, knowledge of intercultural communication,
knowledge of ELF, and knowledge of language learning strategies.
250
-Metalanguage information
-Metapragmatic information
Pragmatic knowledge -Speech acts
-Knowledge on how to learn
pragmatics (Ji, 2008)
- Cultural knowledge (high
culture, popular culture, and deep
Knowledge of culture) (Hall, 1976)
intercultural
- Knowledge on interculturality
communication
- Knowledge on intercultural
Learning competence
content
- World Englishes
Knowledge of English
as a lingua franca - The pragmatics of English as a
lingua franca (House, 2010)
- Cognitive strategies
- Compensation strategies
Knowledge of language - Metacognitive strategies
learning strategies - Social strategies
- Affective strategies (Oxford,
1990)
Figure 7.2 Learning content
7.3.2 Learning process
7.3.2.1 Task-based approach
The task-based approach requires language learners to engage in classroom

interactions in order to complete a task, where there is an eventual concentration on
communication, purpose, and meaning (Brown, 2001). Language learners play a
central role in task-based learning through their exposure to plenty of opportunities
to be involved in activities. The task-based approach has gained greater importance
in the past several decades (İlin, İnözü & Yumru, 2007), especially in helping
language learners develop communicative competence. It is “a development within
the communicative approach” (Littlewood, 2004, p.324) as communicative tasks
serve not only as primary components of methodology but as units of how a course
251
may be organized (Littlewood, 2007). In the present model, a task-based approach
could facilitate College English students to develop their pragmatic competence.
7.3.2.2 Intercultural communicative approach
Communicative language teaching and learning has a long history and aims at
assisting language learners to use language efficiently in actual communication
(Brumfit & Johnson, 1979; Hiep, 2007; Richard, 2005; Skehan, 2003). It is regarded
as “a broad, philosophical approach to the language curriculum” (Nunan, 2004,
p.10). By including an introduction to various cultures, particularly the target culture,
in CLT and learning can help language learners achieve communicative competence
in intercultural communication. As language and culture are closely interrelated (see
Figure 3.3, p.80), the target culture plays an indispensable role in the development of
a target language. The language learners‟ own culture is sure to influence their
understanding of the target culture, which, in turn, impacts the development of the
target language, particularly in intercultural communication. The proposed model
suggests involving a culture introduction in CLT and learning in order to help
College English students become competent language practitioners in intercultural
communication.
7.3.2.3 Language learning strategies approach
Language learning strategies can assist language learners to learn a language more
efficiently (Kaplan, 2002). Various language learning strategies offer different
options for learners. As bilingual advanced grammatical language learners, language
learning strategies can more effectively help Chinese College English students
acquire language knowledge and put their knowledge into practice, especially in
learning and practicing pragmatics. In addition, language learning strategies can
promote independent language learning and allow College English students a greater
opportunity to become independent language learners to meet the goal proposed by
the College English Curriculum Requirements (2007).
Figure 7.3 illustrates the detail of the pragmatic learning process by combining the
task-based approach, the intercultural communicative approach, and the language
252
learning strategies approach. This process merges the traditional approach to
language teaching with the newly proposed approach from this research.
- Meaning-centered (Rigg, 1991)

Task-based approach - Student-centered
- Social interactions
- Learning cultures
- Comparing one's own culture
with the target culture
Learning Intercultural
communicative approach - Exploring interculturality
process
- ELF as a globalizing
communicative practice
(Jenkins, Cogo & Dewey, 2011)
- Learning the application of

various strategies
Language learning - Focusing on practicing
strategies approach cognitive, compensation,
metacognitive, social and
affective strategies
Figure 7.3 Learning process
Figure 7.4 gives a summary of a series of points of learning pragmatics proposed by

the study. The tentative model has signified that there is a necessity to include
pragmatics in ESL and EFL learning, especially in the Chinese EFL context and
other similar contexts. In addition, English language teaching instruction and
learning materials need to focus on language learners and facilitate the appropriate
use of English for learners.
253
- Metalanguage
information
-Metapragmatic
Pragmatic information
knowledge -Speech acts
-Knowledge on how to
learn pragmatics (Ji, 2008)
- Cultural knowledge (high

culture, popular culture
and deep culture) (Hall,
Knowledge of 1976)
intercultural - Knowledge on
communication interculturality
Learning - Knowledge on
content intercultural competence
- World Englishes
Knowledge of
English as a - The pragmatics of English
as a lingua franca (House,
lingua franca 2010)
- Cognitive strategies
Knowledge of - Compensation strategies
language - Metacognitive strategies
learning - Social strategies
Learning strategies - Affective strategies
pragmatics (Oxford, 1990)
- Meaning-centered (Rigg,
Task-based 1991)
approach - Student-centered
- Social interactions
-Learning cultures
- Comparing one's own
culture with the target
Intercultural culture
Learning communicative - Exploring interculturality
process approach - ELF as a globalizing
communicative practice
(Jenkins, Cogo, & Dewey,
2011)
- Learning the application

Language of various strategies
learning - Focusing on practising
strategies cognitive, compensation,
approach metacognitive, social and
affective strategies
Figure 7.4 Model of learning pragmatics
254
There might be other aspects that affect the application of the tentative model in the
present Chinese EFL context, such as students‟ individual differences, large
classroom sizes, grammar-based examinations, and so on. However, these issues are
beyond the scope of the current study as they focus more on teaching pragmatics.
7.4 Implications of the study
7.4.1 Implications for College English learning
As suggested by the College English Curriculum Requirements (2007), College

English students are required to obtain the ability of learning English independently
in EFL contexts. They need to enhance their ability of using English effectively in
social interactions. Language learning strategies need to be skillfully used in the
language knowledge acquisition process, social interactions and intercultural
communication. Students are requested to do self-assessment and peer-assessment in
the learning process so that they can better achieve their learning goals.
Consequently, College English students need to experience change in their present

perceptions of language learning and the present learning methods in acquiring
language knowledge. Educators are the ones who must provide the stage for such
change to occur. Linguistic language learning and pragmatic learning are
indispensable parts of ESL and EFL learning. Regardless of learners‟ language
proficiency, pragmatic competence and linguistic competence can progress side by
side (Ji, 2008).
Informed by the needs of society, students have recognized the importance of the use
of English in social interactions and intercultural communication. It was observed
that College English students understood the significance of developing their
pragmatic competence in their English language learning process and they were
aware that the lack of the pragmatic input and practice in the present English
language learning process led to failures in communication.
Students need to recognize that they play a core role in the language learning
process. They need to consider their learning goals as well as the needs of society,
and make adjustments to their present study situation wherever possible. Students
255
need to keep in mind that they are required to cultivate the ability to use the L2 in
actual contexts and the ability to learn language independently, which may assist
their development of lifelong learning.
In addition to knowledge instruction from language teachers, students need to apply

language learning strategies in their language learning process efficiently to obtain
their required knowledge, especially pragmatic knowledge used in intercultural
communication. Students need to be able to develop a series of effective learning
methods that are suitable to their individual learning preferences that could help them
develop their full learning potential. Students would benefit in their learning if they
could overcome the influence of „face‟ theory and try to find opportunities to be
actively involved in communication with native speakers that could be helpful to the
development of their pragmatic competence in communication.
7.4.2 Implications for College English teaching
Teaching is an indispensible part of students‟ knowledge acquisition process.

Impacted by traditional methods, the teacher-dominated and grammar-translation
(Littlewood, 2007; Watkins, 2005) teaching pattern still takes hold of the main
stream in current College English classroom teaching in China. There are few
chances for students to attain pragmatic knowledge and practice the use of English in
class under this old regime of teaching and learning, and few students dare to
challenge the authority of the teacher. To a great extent, the current teaching model
hinders the development of students‟ pragmatic competence that produces many
„deaf‟ and „mute‟ language learners because they have limited knowledge of
pragmatics and are unable to apply the little knowledge they do have in real social
interactions.
It has been widely acknowledged that teaching pragmatics must be included in the
ELF context. The findings have indicated that College English students have
inadequate pragmatic knowledge instruction and inadequate pragmatically-oriented
tasks in teaching, which has resulted in students‟ pragmatic failures in general
communication, and in intercultural communication.
256
As teaching pragmatics is an essential part of College English classroom teaching,
College English teachers need to provide more pragmatic knowledge and design
more pragmatically oriented tasks for students in their classroom teaching to help
students become pragmatically competent. At the same time, language teachers
should not neglect the development of students‟ linguistic competence and
examination skills in their teaching process.
College English teachers need to shift from a teacher-centered to a student-centered

method (Chow & Mok-Cheung, 2004) by combining the strengths of the traditional
teaching model with the new one. Teachers need to combine the principles of
practicality and knowledge, and facilitate students‟ active participation. By applying
a task-based approach and intercultural communicative language approach, language
teachers can give students opportunities in class to practice language (Ho, 2004) and
thus achieve student-centered classrooms.
A variety of communicative language tasks can effectively assist language learners to

develop their communicative competence. In addition to language knowledge,
teachers are required to convey knowledge of language learning strategies and skills
that can help students become more efficient in their language learning. Language
teachers need to pay attention to students‟ individual differences and help them
develop their individualized learning model according to their different language
proficiencies. In order to adapt to the continuous development of society and the
requirements of the new curriculum, College English teachers have to be involved in
the process of continuing professional self-development (Hedge, 2000) that is helpful
to both students and themselves.
7.4.3 Implications for College English course design
The design of College English course systems needs to follow the guidelines of the
Curriculum Requirements and goals of College English learning and teaching.
Informed by the College English Curriculum Requirements (2007), the College
English course system should be a combination of required and elective courses in
comprehensive English, language skills, English for practical uses, language and
culture, and English for specific purposes that can ensure that students at different
257
language levels have sufficient training and make progress in their abilities to use
English.
It was noted that although the present College English course was regarded as an
integrated course aimed at developing students‟ ability to use English effectively in
social interactions, it still focused on linguistic knowledge and neglected the
development of students‟ pragmatic competence as well as communicative
competence. Students‟ individual differences and requirements were seldom taken
into account. It is crucial to realize that the College English course is not only a
language course offering basic linguistic knowledge as well as pragmatic knowledge,
but also a capacity enhancement course assisting students to broaden their horizons
and learn about different cultures from all over the world.
A well-designed College English course can efficiently guarantee steady progress in

English proficiency throughout students‟ learning processes. When designing
College English courses, it is essential to consider the development of students‟
linguistic and pragmatic capacity as well as their cultural capacity, which can help
students achieve a solid foundation in the English language while enhancing their
ability to use English appropriately and proficiently. Students‟ individual language
proficiencies, study backgrounds and regional differences, as well as students‟ needs
and social requirements, must be taken into account in designing the course.
7.4.4 Implications for the development of College English learning and teaching
materials
Learning and teaching materials are another important aspect that needs to be
considered in learning a language, especially in ESL and EFL contexts. College
English textbooks play a key role in the language learning and teaching process
because both College English students and teachers rely on the textbooks to acquire
and teach English language knowledge. Well-designed, written textbooks can more
effectively facilitate language learners to obtain the language knowledge, and assist
language teachers to conduct more efficiently the language teaching.
The findings of this study demonstrated that College English textbooks used in the
present learning and teaching focused on the development of language learners‟
258
linguistic knowledge, and did not contain adequate pragmatic knowledge or
pragmatically oriented tasks to develop language learners‟ pragmatic competence. As
the content and quality of textbooks could determine the extent of students‟
enhancement of their language proficiency (Hedge, 2000), it is necessary for
textbook writers to develop appropriate instructional materials involving instructions
on pragmatics in EFL contexts.
Informed by the College English Curriculum Requirements (2007), College English

textbooks need to include more instructions on pragmatics as well as pragmatically
oriented tasks to help language learners develop their pragmatic competence so as to
achieve communicative competence in intercultural communication. In order to
achieve the aim proposed by the curriculum requirement documents, sufficient
qualified pragmatic input and pragmatically oriented tasks have to be included in the
textbooks. Although it is not practical to cover the full range of pragmatic input
suggested by the tentative model in every unit, textbook writers need to have
sensitivity in pavilioning pragmatic information as one of the key elements in
designing textbooks (Ji, 2008).
In addition, as learners‟ goal is to be able to operate independently in L2 or foreign

language outside the classroom, it is essential for them to be exposed to authentic
learning materials to acquire pragmatic information (Gilmore, 2004). Authentic input
allows language learners to concentrate on a wider range of features than is normally
possible, which has a beneficial influence on enhancing learners‟ communicative
competence (Gilmore, 2007). Authentic language learning materials and tasks are
needed to be included in textbooks so that students could become familiar with the
true nature of different settings and obtain the ability to practically use the language.
This empirical study has provided a tentative model for Chinese College English
learners to learn pragmatics in their language acquisition process. It could facilitate
College English students to become pragmatically competent, assist teachers to
change their teaching pedagogies and course designs effectively, and inform material
writers to update textbooks. However, any study has its limitations. In the following
few paragraphs, limitations of the current study and recommendations for further
research are presented.
259
7.5 Limitations of the study and recommendations for further research
7.5.1 Limitations of the study
Informed by SLA theory and research, this study combined three strands of theories
of pragmatics, intercultural communication, and ELF, which contributed to the body
of literature in learning pragmatics in the Chinese EFL context. The study was
carried out in one university in Shanghai, involving 237 College English students in
the questionnaire, 55 students in DCTs, and 18 students in interviews. Compared
with 10 million College English students in over 2,000 universities in China, the
sample may be regarded proportionally as small. Although the university, where the
research was conducted, may be representative of second-tier universities in China as
80% of the universities in China are of second-tier universities, it could not signify a
small group of first-tier universities and third-tier universities, especially in the West
of China.
7.5.2 Recommendations for further research
This study has proposed a tentative model for learning pragmatics by applying
language learning strategies in the College English learning and teaching process. It
effectively combines three strands of theories of pragmatics, intercultural
communication, and ELF that are informed by SLA theory and research to well
explain the present College English learning situations and arrive at a model of
learning pragmatics for Chinese College English students. However, there are still
some questions that require study in future research.
First, language learners‟ motivation in learning a language has not been explained in
depth in the current study. It is believed to have a close relationship with the
achievement of learners‟ learning outcome (Lightbown & Spada, 1999). While
motivation is beyond the scope of the current study, its influence should be addressed
in further research.
Second, with the development of information and communications technologies

(ICTs), more advanced information technology has been applied in language learning
and teaching. The computer-aided learning approach that can help language learners
260
more easily acquire authentic materials and conduct self-study has been suggested by
College English Curriculum Requirements (2007), and the influence of this is
beyond the scope of this study. This approach to teaching and learning is gaining
momentum in language learning around the world and more research about how it
may affect Chinese language learners is needed.
Third, the study has proposed a tentative model for College English students to
develop their pragmatic competence. It is also necessary to set up an efficient
evaluation system that can help both language learners and language teachers assess
the learning outcomes of pragmatics. While language evaluation is beyond the scope
of this study, it is an important area that should not be neglected in meeting the
College English Curriculum Requirements (2007).
In conclusion, this study has shown that pragmatics and language learning strategies
in College English have become an indispensable part of College English learning in
China. The globalization of English highlights the fact that English is both a lingua
franca and an international language transnationally, used in all aspects of
intercultural communication. Findings from the research have provided insights into
how Chinese College English students have perceived pragmatics in the EFL
curriculum, the processes of learning as well as strategies they have utilized in
developing linguistic and pragmatic knowledge and competence. As the first
systematic study investigating College English students‟ learning of pragmatics in
the Chinese context, the research has provided a solid empirical base for developing
a tentative model for the learning of pragmatics. Being the first model of learning
pragmatics, though yet to be tested, it could well be employed to inform the learning
of English and pragmatics in the Chinese, and in other similar contexts of Confucian
heritage cultures. The proposed empirical model in learning pragmatics could better
assist learners in their classroom language learning, the use of the target language for
effective communication, as well as assist EFL practitioners in China to adopt a
principled approach to curriculum design and classroom instruction.
261
262
REFERENCES
Afghari, A. (2007). A sociopragmatic study of apology speech act realization patterns in
Persian. Speech Communication, 49(3), 177-185.
Ahearn, L. M. (2001). Language and agency. Annual Review of Anthropology, 30, 109-137.
Alcón-Soler, E. (2005). Does instruction work for learning pragmatics in the EFL context?
System, 33(3), 417-435.
Allami, H., & Naeimi, A. (2011). A cross-linguistic study of refusals: An analysis of
pragmatic competence development in Iranian EFL learners. Journal of Pragmatics,
43(1), 385-406.
Allwood, J. (1985). Intercultural communication. In J. Allwood (Ed.), Tvärkulturell
kommunikation, Papers in Anthropological Linguistics 12. University of Göteborg.
English translation by Jens Allwood.
Altbach, P. G. (1991). The unchanging variable: Textbooks in comparative perspective. In P.
G. Altbach, G. P. Kelly, H. G. Petrie & L. Weis (Eds.), Textbooks in American
Society: Politics, Policy and Pedagogy (pp.237-254). Albany, NY: State University of
New York Press.
Apte, M.L. (1974). “Thank you” and South Asian languages: A comparative sociolinguistic
study. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 3, 67-89.
Arksey, H., & Knight, P. (1999). Interviewing for social scientists. London: Sage
Publications.
Armour, W. S. (2004). Becoming a Japanese language learner, user, and teacher: Revelations
from life history research. Journal of Language, Identity, and Education, 3(2), 101-
125.
Austin, J. L. (1962). How to do things with words. New York: Oxford University Press.
Austin, J. L. (1975). How to do things with words. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press.
Bach, K. (2004). Pragmatics and the philosophy of language. In L. Horn & G. Ward (Eds.),
The Handbook of Pragmatics (pp.463-487). Oxford: Blackwell.
Bachman, L. (1989). The development and use of criterion – referenced tests of language
program evaluation. In R. K. Johnson (Ed.), The Second Language Curriculum
(pp.242-258). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Bachman, L. (1990). Fundamental consideration in language testing. New York: Oxford
University Press.
Bachman, L. (2004). Statistical analyses for language assessment. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Bachman, L., & Palmer, A. (1996). Language testing in practice: Designing and developing
useful language tests. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Bachman, L., & Palmer, A. (2010). Language assessment in practice. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Baker, W. (2009). The cultures of English as a lingua franca. TESOL Quarterly, 43(4), 567-
592.
Bamgbose, A. (2001). World Englishes and globalization. World Englishes, 20(3), 357-363.
Bardovi-Harlig, K. (1992). Pragmatics as a part of teacher education. TESOL Journal, 1(3),
28-32.
263
Bardovi-Harlig, K. (1996). Pragmatics and language teaching: Bringing pragmatics and
pedagogy together. In L. Bouton (Ed.), Pragmatics and Language Learning (Vol. 7,
pp.21-39). Urbana-Champaign: University of Illinois, Division of English as an
International Language.
Bardovi-Harlig, K. (1999). Exploring the interlanguage of interlanguage pragmatics: A
research agenda for acquisitional pragmatics. Language Learning, 49(4), 677-713.
Bardovi-Harlig, K. (2001). Empirical evidence of the need for instruction in pragmatics. In
K. R. Rose & G. Kasper (Eds.), Pragmatics in Language Teaching (pp.13-32). New
York: Cambridge University Press.
Bardovi-Harlig, K. (2005). Contextualizing interlanguage pragmatics. In A. E. Tyler, M.
Takada, Y. Kim & D. Marinova (Eds.), Language in Use. Cognitive and Discourse
Perspectives on Language and Language Learning (pp.65-84). Washington:
Georgetown University Press.
Bardovi-Harlig, K. (2010). Exploring the pragmatics of interlanguage pragmatics: Definition
by design. In A. Trosborg (Ed.), Pragmatics across Languages and Cultures (pp.219-
259). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Bardovi-Harlig, K., & Dörnyei, Z. (1997). Pragmatic awareness and instructed L2 learning:
An empirical investigation. Paper presented at the AAAL 1997 Conference, Orlando.
Bardovi-Harlig, K., & Dörnyei, Z. (1998). Do language learners recognize pragmatic
violations? Pragmatic versus grammatical awareness in instructed L2 learning. TESOL
Quarterly, 32(2), 233-262.
Bardovi-Harlig, K., & Griffin, R. (2005). L2 pragmatic awareness: Evidence from the ESL
classroom. System, 33(3), 401-415.
Bardovi-Harlig, K., & Hartford, B. (1991). Saying “no” in English: Native and nonnative
rejections. In L. F. Bouton & Y. Kachru (Eds.), Pragmatics and Language Learning
(monograph series vol. 2, pp.41-57). Urbana-Champaign: Division of English as an
international language, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.
Bardovi-Harlig, K., & Hartford, B. (Eds.). (1997). Beyond methods: Components of second
language teacher education. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Bardovi-Harlig, K., & Mahan-Taylor, R. (2003). Introduction to teaching pragmatics.
English Teaching Forum, 7, 37-39.
Bargiela-Chiappini, F. (2003). Face and politeness: New (insights) for old (concepts).
Journal of Pragmatics, 35(10-11), 1453-1469.
Barron, A. (2003). Acquisition in interlanguage pragmatics: Learning how to do things with
words in a study abroad context. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Bataineh, R. F., & Bataineh, R. F. (2006). Apology strategies of Jordanian EFL university
students. Journal of Pragmatics, 38(11), 1901-1927.
Bazeley, P. (2003). Computerized data analysis for mixed methods research. In A.
Tashakkori & C. Teddue (Eds.), Handbook of Mixed Methods in Social and
Behavioral Research (pp.385-422). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
Bazzanella, C., & Dominano, R. (1999). The interactional handling of misunderstanding in
everyday conversations. Journal of Pragmatics, 31(6), 817-836.
Beebe, L., Takahashi, T., & Uliss-Weltz, R. (1990). Pragmatic transfer in ESL refusals. In R.
Scacella, E. Anderson, & S. Krachen (Eds.), Developing Communication Competence
in a Second Language (pp.55-73). New York: Newbury House.
Belz, J. (2002). The myth of the deficient communicator. Language Teaching Research,
6(1), 59-82.
264
Bialystock, E. (1978). A theoretical model of second language learning. Language Learning,
28, 69-83.
Bialystok, E. (1993). Symbolic representation and attentional control in pragmatic
competence. In G. Kasper & S. Blum-Kulka (Eds.), Interlanguage Pragmatics (pp.43-
57). New York: Oxford University Press.
Bilmes, J. (1986). Discourse and behavior. New York, London: Plenum.
Black, M. (1947). Limitations of a behaviouristic semiotic. Philosophical Review, 56, 258-
272.
Blum-Kulka, S. (1982). Learning how to say what you mean in a second language: A study
of Hebrew as a second language. Applied Linguistics, 3, 29-59.
Blum-Kulka, S., House, J., & Kasper, G. (Eds.). (1989). Cross-cultural pragmatics:
Requests and apologies. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Bolton, K. (2003). Chinese Englishes: A sociolinguistic history. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Bolton, K. (2004). World Englishes. In A. Davies & C. Elder (Eds.), The Handbook of
Applied Linguistics (pp.367-396). Oxford: Blackwell.
Bonney, C. R., Cortina, K. S., Smith-Darden, J. P., & Fiori, K. L. (2008). Understanding
strategies in foreign language learning: Are integrative and intrinsic motives distinct
predictors? Learning and Individual Differences, 18(1), 1-10.
Bosco, F. M., Bucciarelli, M., & Bara, B. G. (2006). Recognition and repair of
communicative failures: A developmental perspective. Journal of Pragmatics, 38(9),
1398-1429.
Boxer, D. (2002). Discourse issues in cross cultural pragmatics. Annual Review of Applied
Linguistics, 22, 150-167.
Boxer, D., & Pickering, L. (1995). Problems in the presentation of speech acts in ELT
materials: The case of complaints. ELT Journal, 49(1), 44-58.
Bravo, D., & Briz, A. (Eds.) (2004). Sociocultural pragmatics: Studies on politeness
discourse in Spanish. Barcelona: Ariel Lingüística.
Breen, M., & Candlin, C. (1980). The essentials of a communicative curriculum in language
teaching. Applied Linguistics, 1(2), 89-112.
Bremner, S. (1998). Language learning strategies and language proficiency: Investigating the
relationship in Hong Kong. Asian Pacific Journal of Language in Education, 1(2),
490-514.
British Council (2011). Learning English. Retrieved July 11, 2011 from
http://www.britishcouncil.org/ps-learning-resources-knowledge-and-learning-learn-
english.htm.
Brown, H. D. (1994). Principles of language learning and teaching. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice Hall Regents.
Brown, H. D. (2001). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language
pedagogy (2nd ed.). New York: Longman.
Brown, J. D. (2001a). Using surveys in language programs. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Brown, J. D. (2001b). Pragmatic Tests: Different purposes, different tests. In K. R. Rose &
G. Kasper (Eds.), Pragmatics in Language Teaching (pp.310-327). Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
265
Brown, P., & Levinson, S. (1978). Universal in language usage: Politeness phenomena. In E.
N. Goody (Ed.), Questions and Politeness: Strategies in Social Interactions (pp.56-
289). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Brown, P., & Levinson, S. (1987). Politeness: Some universals in language use. Cambridge:
Brown, S., & Attardo, S. (2000). Understanding language structure, interaction and
variation: An introduction to applied linguistics and sociolinguistics for
nonspecialists. Michigan: Michigan University Press.
Brumfit, C., & Johnson, K. (1979). The communicative approach to language teaching.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Bryman, A. (2001). Social research methods. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Butler, J. (2005). Giving an account of oneself (1st ed.). New York: Fordham University
Press.
Bygate, M., Tonkyn, A., & Williams, E. (Eds.). (1994). Grammar and the language teacher.
New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Byram, M. (1997). Teaching and assessing intercultural communicative competence.
Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Byram, M. (Ed.). (2000). Routledge encyclopedia of language teaching and learning.
London and New York: Routledge.
Byram, M., Gribkova, B., & Starkey, H. (2002). Developing the intercultural perspective.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Byram, M., Nichols, A., & Stevens, D. (Eds.) (2001). Developing intercultural competence
in practice. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Byrne, R. W., Barnard, P. J., Davidson, I., Janik, V. M., McGrew, W. C., Miklósi, Á., &
Wiessner, P. (2004). Understanding culture across species. TRENDS in Cognitive
Science, 8(8), 341-346.
Cai, J. (2005). Some thoughts on College English teaching. Foreign Language Teaching and
Research, 37(2), 83-91.
Cai, J. (2007). On principles of College English textbook writing. In D. Qiu, & J. Cai (Eds.),
The Exploration and Prospective of College English Textbook (pp.148-174).
Shanghai: Fudan University Press.
Cai, J. (2010). Factor analysis on the developing Chinese College English teaching. Foreign
Languages Research, 2, 40-45.
Canagarajah, A. S. (2006a). TESOL at Forty: What are the issues? TESOL Quarterly, 40(1),
9-34.
Canagarajah, A. S. (2006b). Negotiating the local in English as a lingua franca. Annual
Review of Applied Linguistics, 26, 197-218.
Canagarajah, A. S. (2007). The ecology of global English. International Multilingual
Research Journal, 1(2), 89-100.
Canale, M. (1983). From communicative competence to language pedagogy. In J. Richards
& R. Schmidt (Eds.), Language and Communication (pp. 2-27). London: Longman.
Canale, M., & Swain, M. (1980). Theoretical aspects of communicative approaches to
second language teaching and testing. Applied Linguistics, 1, 1-47.
Candlin, C. N. (Ed.). (2002). Research and practice in professional discourse. Hong Kong:
City University of Hong Kong.
266
Candlin, C. N., & Murphy, D. (Eds.) (1987). Language learning tasks. Englewood Cliffs,
NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Carless, D. (2007). The suitability of task-based approaches for secondary schools:
Perspectives from Hong Kong. System, 35(4), 595-608.
Čeh, Ž. (2008). English as a lingua franca. Academica Turistica I, 3-4, 62-65.
Chalhoub-Deville, M. (2006). Drawing the line: The generalizability and limitations of
research in applied linguistics. In M. Chalhoub-Deville, C. A. Chapelle, & P. Duff
(Eds.), Inference and Generalizability in Applied Linguistics: Multiple Perspectives
(pp.1-8). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Chang, J. Y. (2006). Globalization and English in Chinese higher education. World
Englishes, 25(3-4), 513-525.
Chang, S. F. (1991). A study of language learning behaviors of Chinese students at the
University of Georgia and the relation of those behaviors to oral proficiency and
other factors. Athens: University of Georgia.
Chavarría, M. I., & Bonany, E. B. (2006). Raising awareness of pragmatics in the EFL
classroom: A proposal. Culture, Language and Representation, 3, 133-144.
Chen, H. J. (1996). Cross-cultural comparison of English and Chinese metapragmatics in
refusal. Indiana University. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 408 860).
Chen, M. L. (2009). Influence of grade level on perceptual learning style preferences and
language learning strategies of Taiwanese English as a foreign language learners.
Learning and Individual Differences, 19(2), 304-308.
Chen, R. (1993). Responding to compliments: A contrastive study of politeness strategies
between American English and Chinese speakers. Journal of Pragmatics, 20(1), 49-
75.
Chen, R., & Yang, D. (2010). Responding to compliments in Chinese: Has it changed?
Journal of Pragmatics, 42(7), 1951-1963.
Cheng, D. (2011). New insights on compliment responses: A comparison between native
English speakers and Chinese L2 speakers. Journal of Pragmatics, 43(8), 2204-2214.
Chinese College English Education and Supervisory Committee. (1985). College English
Curriculum Requirements. Beijing: Higher Education Press.
Curriculum Requirements. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.
Curriculum Requirements. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
Chomsky, N. (1969). Acquisition of syntax in children from 5 to 10. Cambridge, Mass.: The
MIT Press.
Chow, A., & Mok-Cheung, A. (2004). English language teaching in Hong Kong SAR:
Tradition, transition and transformation. In W. K. Ho & R. Wong (Eds.). English
Language Teaching in East Asia Today: Changing Policies and Practices (pp.150-
177). Singapore: Eastern Universities Press.
Clyne, M. (1994). Intercultural communication at work: Cultural values in discourse.
Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Cohen, A. D. (1996). Developing the ability to perform speech acts. Studies in Second
Language Acquisition, 18, 253-267.
267
Cohen, A. D. (1997). Developing pragmatic ability: Insights from the accelerated study of
Japanese. In H. M. Cook, K. Hijirida, & M. Tahara (Eds.), New Trends and Issues in
Teaching Japanese Language and Culture (Technical Report No. 15, pp.133-159).
Honolulu: University of Hawai‟i, Second Language Teaching and Curriculum Center.
Cohen, A. D. (1998). Strategies in learning and using a second language. London:
Longman.
Cohen, A. D., & Olshtain, E. (1994). Researching the production of speech act. In E. Tarone,
S. M. Gass, & A. D. Cohen (Eds.), Research Methodology in Second Language
Acquisition (pp.143-156). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Cook, G. (2000). Language play, language learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Corbett, J. (2003). An intercultural approach to English language teaching. Clevedon, UK:
Multilingual Matters.
Coulmas, F. (1981). Poison to your soul: Thanks and apologies contrastively viewed. In F.
Coulmas (Ed.), Conversational Routine (pp. 69-91). The Hague: Mouton.
Creswell, J.W. (2005). Education research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating
quantitative and qualitative research (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey:
Pearson Education, Inc.
Crotty, M. (1998). The foundations of social research: Meaning and perspective in the
research process. Crows Nest: Allen & Unwin.
Crozet, C., & Liddicoat, A. J. (1999). The challenge of intercultural language teaching:
Engaging with culture in the classroom. In J. L. Bianco, A. J. Liddicoat, & C. Crozet
(Eds.), Striving for the Third Place: Intercultural Competence through Language
Education (pp.113-125). Melbourne: Language Australia.
Crozet, C., & Liddicoat, A. J. (2000). Teaching culture as an integrated part of language:
Implications for the aims, approaches and pedagogies of language teaching. In A. J.
Liddicoat & C. Crozet (Eds.), Teaching Languages, Teaching Cultures (pp.1-18).
Melbourne: Language Australia.
Crystal, D. (1985). A dictionary of linguistics and phonetics (2nd ed.). Oxford: Blackwell.
Crystal, D. (Ed.). (1997a). The Cambridge encyclopedia of language (2nd ed.). New York:
Crystal, D. (1997b). English as a global language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Crystal, D. (2003). English as a global language (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Crystal, D. (2010). What is standard English. Retrieved March 19, 2010 from
http://www.davidcrystal.com/DC_articles/English52.pdf.
Culpeper, J. (Ed.). (2011). Historical sociopragmatics. Amsterdam: John Benjamins
Publishing Co.
Cummings, L. (2005). Pragmatics: A multidisciplinary perspective. Edinburgh: Edinburgh
University Press.
Damen, L. (1987). Culture learning: The fifth dimension in the language classroom.
Reading: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.
Dascal, M., & Berenstein, I. (1987). Two modes of understanding: Comprehending and
grasping. Language and Communication, 7(2), 139-151.
Deardorff, D. K. (2006). Assessing intercultural competence in study abroad students. In M.
Byram & A. Feng (Eds.), Living and Studying Abroad: Research and Practice
(pp.232-256). Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
268
Delamillieure, P., Doucet, G., Mazoyer, B., Turbelin, M., Delcroix, N., Mellet, E., Zago, L.,
Crivello, F., Petit, L., Tzourio-Mazoyer N., & Joliot, M. (2010). The resting state
questionnaire: An introspective questionnaire for evaluation of inner experience
during the conscious resting state. Brain Research Bulletin, 81(6), 565-573.
Denscombe, M. (1983). Interviews, accounts and ethnographic research on teachers. In M.
Hammersley (ed.), The Ethnography of Schooling: Methodological Issues (pp.105-
128). Driffield: Nafferton Books.
Denscombe, M. (2007). The good research guide (3rd ed.). Berkshire: Open University
Press.
Denzin, N. K. (1997). Triangulation in educational research. In J. P. Keeves (Ed.),
Educational Research, Methodology and Measurement: An International Handbook
(2nd ed., pp.318-323). Oxford, England: Pergamon.
Dewey, M. (2007). English as a lingua franca and globalization: An interconnected
perspective. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 17(3), 332-354.
Doohan, E. M., & Manusov, V. (2004). The communication of compliments in romantic
relationships: An investigation of relational satisfaction and sex differences and
similarities in compliment behavior. Western Journal of Communication, 68(2), 170-
194.
Dörnyei, Z. (2003). Questionnaires in second language research: Construction,
administration, and processing. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,
Publishers.
Dörnyei, Z. (2007). Research methods in applied linguistics: Quantitative, qualitative, and
mixed methodologies. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Doughty, C. (2003). Instructed SLA: Constraints, compensation, and enhancement. In M. H.
Doughty & M. H. Long (Eds.), The Handbook of Second Language Acquisition
(pp.256-310). Oxford: Blackwell.
Du, M. (2004). An investigation of pragmatic competence and motivation in English
learning for non-English major graduates. Unpublished M.A. thesis. Shandong:
Shandong Normal University.
Edmondson, W., & House, J. (1998). Interkulturelles Lernen: Ein überflüssiger Begriff.
Zeitschrift für Fremdesprachenforschung, 9(2), 161-188.
Eelen, G. (2001). A critique of politeness theories. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.
Ehrman, M., & Oxford, R. L. (1995). Cognition plus: Correlates of adult language
proficiency. The Modern Language Journal, 79, 67-89.
Ellis, G., & Sinclair, B. (1989). Learning to learn English: A course in learner training.
Ellis, R. (1985). Understanding second language acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Ellis, R. (1994). The study of second language acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Erickson, E. (1991). Advantages and disadvantages of qualitative research design on foreign
language research. In B.F. & Freed (Eds.), Foreign Language Acquisition Research
and the Classroom (pp.338-353). Lexington, MA: DC Heath.
Ersözlü, Z. N. (2010). Determining of the student teachers‟ learning and studying strategies.
Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2(2), 5147-5151.
Eslami-Rasekh, Z. (2005). Raising the pragmatic awareness of language learners. ELT
Journal, 59(3), 199-208.
269
Farghal, M., & Al-Khatib, M. A. (2001). Jordanian college students‟ responses to
compliments: A pilot study. Journal of Pragmatics, 33(9), 1485-1502.
Félix-Brasderfer, J. C. (2006). Linguistic politeness in Mexico: Refusal strategies among
male speakers of Mexican Spanish. Journal of Pragmatics, 38(12), 2158-2187.
Feryok, A. (2008). An American English language teacher‟s practical theory of
communicative language teaching. System, 36(2), 227-240.
Flanagan, J. R., & Lederman, S. J. (2001). Neurobiology: Feeling bumps and holes. Nature,
412 (6845), 389-391.
Firth, A. (1996). The discursive accomplishment of normality. On „lingua franca‟ English
and conversation analysis. Journal of Pragmatics, 26(2), 237-260.
Fraser, B. (1990). Perspectives on politeness. Journal of Pragmatics, 14, 219-236.
Fushino, K. (2010). Causal relationships between communication confidence, beliefs about
group work, and willingness to communicate in foreign language group work. TESOL
Quarterly, 44(4), 700-724.
Garcia, P. (2004). Pragmatic comprehension of high and low level language learners. TESL-
Electronic Journal, 8(2), 1-9.
Garret, P. B., & Baquedano-Lopez, P. (2002). Language socialization: Reproduction and
continuity, transformation and change. Annual Review of Anthropology, 31, 339-362.
Gass, S., & Houck, N. (1999). Interlanguage refusals: A cross-cultural study of Japanese-
English. New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
Gass, S., & Selinker, L. (2001). Second language acquisition: An introductory course.
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Geertz, C. (1973). The interpretation of cultures: Selected essays. New York, NY: Basic
Books.
Geluykens, R., & Pelsmaekers, K. (Eds.). (1999). Discourse in professional context.
Munchen: Lincom Europa.
Gilmore, A. (2004). A comparison of textbooks and authentic interactions. ELT Journal,
58(4), 363-374.
Gilmore, A. (2007). Authentic materials and authenticity in foreign language learning.
Language Teaching, 40(2), 97-118.
Gnutzmann, C. (Ed.). (1999). Teaching and learning English as a global language.
Tübingen: Stauffenburg.
Goffman, E. (1967). Interaction ritual: Essays on face-to-face behavior. Allen Lane: The
Penguin Press.
Goffman, E. (1971). Relations in public: Microstudies of the public order. London:
Penguim.
Gooder, H., & Jacobs, J. (2000). On the border of the unsayable: The apology in
postcolonizing Australia. Interventions, 2, 229-247.
Görlach, M. (1990). Studies in the history of the English language. Heidelberg, Germany:
Carl Winter.
Grant, L., & Starks, D. (2001). Screening appropriate teaching materials. Closings from
textbooks and television soap operas. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 39,
39-50.
Grant, N. (1997). Some problems of identity and education: A comparative examination of
multicultural education. Comparative Education, 33(1), 9-28.
270
Green, J., & Oxford, R. L. (1995). A closer look at learning strategies, L2 proficiency, and
gender. TESOL Quarterly, 29(2), 261-297.
Grice, H. P. (1975). Logic and conversation. In P. Cole, & J. Morgan (Eds.), Syntax and
Semantics 3: Speech Acts (pp.41-58). New York: Academic Press.
Griffiths, C. (2003). Patterns of language learning strategy use. System, 31(3), 367-383.
Gu, M. M. (2010). Identities constructed in difference: English language learners in China.
Gu, Y., & Johnson, R. K. (1996). Vocabulary learning strategies and language learning
outcomes. Language Learning, 46(4), 643-679.
Gudykunst, W. B. (1983). Intercultural communication theory: Current perspectives.
Berverly Hills: Sage.
Gudykunst, W. B., & Mody, B. (Eds.) (2002) Handbook of international and intercultural
communication (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, London, New Delhi: Sage Publications.
Guilherm, M. (2004). Intercultural competence. In M. Byram (Ed.), Routledge Encyclopedia
of Language Teaching and Learning (pp.297-299). London: Routledge.
Habermas, J. (1970). Toward a theory of communicative competence. In H. P. Dreitzel (Ed.),
Recent Sociology No. 2 (pp.115-148). New York: Macmillan.
Hall, E.T. (1976). Beyond culture. Garden City, NY: Anchor Doubleday.
Halliday, M. A. K. (1973). Explorations in the functions of languages. London: Edward
Arnold.
Halloran, D. O. (2001). Task-based learning: A way of promoting transferable skills in the
curriculum. Journal of Vocational Education and Training, 53(1), 101-120.
Harlow, L. (1990). Do they mean what they say?: Sociopragmatic competence and second
language learners. The Modern Language Journal, 74, 328-51.
Haugh, M. (2009). Intention(ality) and the conceptualization of communication in
pragmatics. Australian Journal of Linguistics, 29(1), 91-113.
He, D., & Zhang, Q. Y. (2010). Native speaker norms and China English: From the
perspective of learners and teachers in China. TESOL Quarterly, 44(4), 769-789.
He, Y. (2007). Gender language difference: A new interpretation of face-saving theory. US-
China Foreign Language, 5(1), 5-8.
He, Z. (1988). A survey of pragmatics. Changsha: Hunan Education Press.
Hedge, T. (2000). Teaching and learning in the language classroom. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Held, D., McGrew, A., Goldblatt, D., & Perraton, J. (1999). Global transformations:
Politics, economics and culture. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Herbert, R. (1986). Say “thank you” – or something. American Speech, 61(1), 76-88.
Hiep, P. H. (2007). Communicative language teaching: Unity within diversity. ELT Journal,
61(3), 193-201.
Hill, T. (1997). The development of pragmatic competence in an EFL context. Dissertation
Abstracts International, 58, 3905.
Ho, W. K. (2004). English language teaching in East Asia today: An overview. In W. K. Ho
& R. Y. L. Wong (Eds.), English Language Teaching in East Asia Today (pp.1-32).
Singapore: Eastern Universities Press.
271
Hoebel, E. A., & Frost, E. L. (1976). Culture and social anthropology. New York: McGraw-
Hill.
Hoegl, M., & Gemuenden, H. G. (2001). Teamwork quality and the success of innovative
projects: A theoretical concept and empirical evidence. Organization Science, 12(4),
435-449.
Hofstede, G. (1991). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind. New York, NY:
McGraw-Hill.
Hollander, E. (2002). Is ELF a pidgin? A corpus-based study of the grammar of English as a
lingua franca. Unpublished M.A. thesis. Vienna: University of Vienna.
Holmes, J. (1988) Paying compliments: A sex preferential positive politeness strategy.
Holmes, J. (1995) Women, men and politeness. London: Longman.
Holmes, J. (2005). Sociopragmatic aspects of workplace talk. In Y. Kawaguchi, S. Zaima, T.
Takagaki, K. Shibano & M. Usami (Eds.), Linguistic Informatics - State of the Art and
the Future: The First International Conference on Linguistic Informatics (pp.196-
220). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Holmes, J., & Brown, D. F. (1987). Teachers and students learning about compliments.
TESOL Quarterly, 21(3), 523-546.
Hong-Nam, K., & Leavell, A. G. (2006). Language learning strategy use of ESL students in
an intensive English learning context. System, 34(3), 399-415.
Hou, T. (2007). A survey on pragmatic competence development of Chinese English learners
and implications for pragmatic English teaching. Unpublished M.A. thesis. Taiyuan:
Taiyuan Technology University.
House, J. (1999). Misunderstanding in intercultural communication: Interactions in English
as a lingua franca and the myth of mutual intelligibility. In C. Gnutzman (Ed.),
Teaching and Learning English as a Global Language (pp. 73-89). Tübingen:
Stauffenburg.
House, J. (2003). English as a lingua franca: A threat to multilingualism? Journal of
Sociolinguistics, 7(4), 556-578.
House, J. (2010). The pragmatics of English as a lingua franca. In A. Trosborg (Ed.),
Pragmatics across Languages and Cultures (pp.363-387). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
House, J., & Kasper, G. (1987). Interlanguage pragmatics: Requesting in a foreign language.
In W. Lörscher & R. Schulze (Eds.), Perspectives on Language in Performance (vol.
2, pp.1250-1288). Tübingen, Germany: Narr.
Hu, G. (2005). English language education in China: Policies, progress, and problems.
Language Policy, 4, 5-24.
Hu, Y., & Zhang, W. (2006). Language learners‟ abilities of using metacognitive strategies
in College English learning. Foreign Language Education, 3, 59-61.
Hudson, T. (2001). Indicators for pragmatic instruction: Some quantitative tools. In K. R.
Rose & G. Kasper (Eds.), Pragmatics in Language Teaching (pp.283-300).
Hurd, S., & Lewis, T. (Eds.). (2008). Language learning strategies in independent settings.
Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Hymes, D. (1972). On communicative competence. In J. B. Pride & J. Holmes (Eds.),
Sociolinguistic (pp.269-285). Harmondsworth: Penguin.
272
İlin, G., İnözü, J., & Yumru, H. (2007). Teachers‟ and learners‟ perceptions of tasks:
Objectives and outcomes. Journal of Theory and Practice in Education, 3(1), 60-68.
Jacobs, G. M., Power, M. A., & Loh, W. I. (2002). The teacher‟s sourcebook for cooperative
learning. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
James, A. (2000). English as a European lingua franca: Current realities and existing
dichotomies. In J. Cenoz & U. Jessner (Eds.), English in Europe: The Acquisition of a
Third Language (pp. 22-38). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Jandt, F. E. (1998). Intercultural communication: A introduction (2nd ed). Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage.
Jandt, F. E. (2001). Intercultural communication: A introduction (3rd ed). Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage.
Jandt, F. E. (2004). An introduction to intercultural communication: Identities in global
community. Thousand Oaks, CA; London: Sage.
Jebahi, K. (2011). Tunisian university students‟ choice of apology strategies in a discourse
completion task. Journal of Pragmatics, 43(2), 648-662.
Jenkins, J. (2000). The phonology of English as an international language. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Jenkins, J. (2003). World Englishes. London: Routledge.
Jenkins, J. (2006). Current perspectives on teaching world Englishes and English as a lingua
franca. TESOL Quarterly, 40(1), 157-181.
Jenkins, J. (2007). English as a lingua franca: Attitude and identity. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Jenkins, J., Cogo, A., & Dewey, M. (2011). Review of developments in research into English
as a lingua franca. Language Teaching, 44(3), 281-315.
Jenks, C. J. (2007). Floor management in task-based interaction: The interactional role of
participatory structures. System, 35(4), 609-622.
Ji, P. (2008). Pragmatics and pedagogy in College English teaching. Shanghai: Shanghai
Foreign Language Education Press.
Jiang, Y. (2002). China English: Issues, studies and features. Asian Englishes, 5, 4-23.
Jin, L., & Cortazzi, M. (2011). Re-evaluating traditional approaches to second language
teaching and learning. In E. Hinkel (Ed.), Handbook of Research in Second Language
Teaching and Learning (Vol. II, pp.558-575). New York: Routledge.
Johnson, D. W., & Christensen, L. (2004). Educational research: Quantitative, qualitative
and mixed approaches (2nd ed). Boston: Pearson.
Kachru, B. B. (1992). The other tongue: English across cultures. Urbana: University of
Illinois Press.
Kachru, B. B. (1997). World Englishes and English-using communities. Annual Review of
Applied Linguistics, 17, 66-90.
Kachru, B. B. (2006). World Englishes and culture wars. In B. B. Kachru, Y. Kachru, & C.
L. Nelson (Eds.), The Handbook of World Englishes (pp.446-472). Oxford: Blackwell
Publishing.
Kachru, Y. (2005). Teaching and learning of world Englishes. In E. Hinkel, (Ed.), Handbook
of Research in Second Language Learning and Teaching (pp.155-173). Mahwah:
Lawrence Elbraum Associates.
273
Kaplan, R. B. (2002). The Oxford handbook of applied linguistics. New York: Oxford
University Press.
Karsten, G. A. (1993). Lingua franca discourse: An investigation of the use of English in an
international business context. MA thesis. Denmark: Aalborg University.
Kasper, G. (1989). Variation in interlanguage speech act realization. In S. Gass, C. Madden,
D. Preston, & L. Selinker (Eds.), Variation in Second Language Acquisiton: Discourse
and Pragmatics (pp.37-58). Clevedon and Philadelphia: Multilingual Matters.
Kasper, G. (1992). Pragmatic transfer. Second Language Research, 8, 203-231.
Kasper, G. (1997). Can pragmatic competence be taught? NFLRC NetWork (6) Honolulu:
University of Hawaii, Second Language Teaching and Curriculum Center. Retrieved
April 12, 2010 from http://nflrc.hawaii.edu/networks/NW06/default.html.
Kasper, G. (1998). Interlanguage pragmatics. In H. Byrnes (Ed.), Learning Foreign and
Second Languages: Perspectives in Research and Scholarship (pp.183-208). New
York: Modern Language Association.
Kasper, G., & Blum-Kulka, S. (Eds.). (1993). Interlanguage pragmatics. New York: Oxford
University Press.
Kasper, G., & Rose, K. R. (1999). Pragmatics and SLA. Annual Review of Applied
Kasper, G., & Röver, C. (2005). Pragmatics in second language learning. In E. Hinkel (Ed.),
Handbook of Research in Second Language Teaching and Learning (pp.317-334).
Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Katz, J.J. & Fodor, J. A. (1963). The structure of a semantic theory. Language, 39, 170-210.
Keeves, J. P. (Ed.). (1988). Educational research, methodology, and measurement: An
international handbook. Oxford, New York: Pergamon Press.
Kelly, L. (1969). 25 countries of language teaching. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Keshavarz, M. H., Eslami, Z. R., & Ghahraman, V. (2006). Pragmatic transfer and Iranian
EFL refusals: A cross-cultural perspective of Persian and English. In K. Bardovi-
Harlig, C. Félix-Brasdefer, & A. S. Omar (Eds.), Pragmatics Language Learning (vol.
11, pp.359-402). Honolulu: University of Hawai‟i Press.
Kiet, H. S. T. (2011). An intercultural perspective on teaching and learning in the
Vietnamese EFL classroom. University of Sydney Papers in TESOL, 6, 43-69.
Kim, D., & Hall, J. K. (2002). The role of an interactive book reading program in the
development of second language pragmatic competence. Modern Language Journal,
86, 332-348.
Kiong, T. C., Pakir, A., Choon, B. K., & Crope, R. B. H., (Eds.). (2001). Ariels: Departures
and returns: Essays for Edwin Thumboo. Singapore: Oxford University Press.
Kirkpatrick, A. (2006). Which model of English: Native-speaker, nativised or lingua franca?
In R. Rubdy & M. Saraceni (Eds.), English in the World: Global Rules, Global Roles
(pp.71-83). London: Continuum.
Kirkpatrick, A. (2007). World Englishes: Implications for international communication and
English language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Kirkpatrick, A. (2010). English as an Asian lingua franca and the multilingual model of
ELT. Language Teaching, 43(3), 1-13.
Klopf, D. W., & Park, M. (1982). Cross cultural communication: A introduction to the
fundamental. Seoul: Hanshin Publishing Co.
274
Knapp, M., Hopper, R., & Bell, R. A. (1984). Compliments: A descriptive taxonomy.
Journal of Communication, 34, 12-31.
Koike, D.A. (1989). Pragmatic competence and adult L2 acquisition: Speech acts in
interlanguage. The Modern Language Journal, 73(3), 279-289.
Kramsch, C. (1991). Culture in language learning: A view from the U.S. In K. Bot, R. B.
Ginsberg, & C. Kramsch (Eds.), Foreign Language Research in Cross-cultural
Perspective (pp.217-240). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Kramsch, C. (1993). Context and culture in language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Kramsch, C. (1998). Language and culture. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Kramsch, C. (2005). Post 9/11: Foreign languages between knowledge and power. Applied
Linguistics, 26(4), 545-567.
Kramsch, C., & Lam, W. (1999). Textual identities: The importance of being non-native. In
Braine, G. (Ed.), Non-Native Educators in English Language Teaching (pp. 57-72).
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Earlbaum Associates.
Kramsch, C., & Whiteside, A. (2008). Language ecology in multilingual setting: Towards a
theory of symbolic competence. Applied Linguistics, 29, 645-671.
Kumaravadivelu, B. (2008). Cultural globalization and language education. New Haven:
Yale University Press.
Kuo, H. (1995). The (in)appropriateness and (in)effectiveness of importing communicative
language teaching to Taiwan. University of Hawaii‟s Working Papers in ESL, 13(2),
21-47.
Kuo, I. (2006). Addressing the issue of teaching English as a lingua franca. ELT Journal,
60(3), 213-221.
Lambert, R. (1999). Language and intercultural competence. In J. L. Bianco, A. J. Liddicoat,
& C. Crozet (Eds.), Striving for the Third Place: Intercultural Competence through
Language Education (pp.65-72). Melbourne: Language Australia.
Lamie, J. (2001). Understanding change: The impact of in-service training on teachers of
English in Japan. Huntington, NY: Nova Science Publishers.
Larsen-Freeman, D., & Freeman, D. (2008). Language moves: The place of “foreign”
languages in classroom teaching and learning. Review of Research in Education,
32(1), 147-186.
Larsen-Freeman, D., & Long, M. H. (1991). An introduction to second language acquisition
research. London: Longman.
Lee, Y. A. (2006). Towards respecification of communicative competence: Condition of L2
instruction or its objective? Applied Linguistics, 27(3), 349-376.
Leech, G. (1983). Principles of pragmatics. London: Longman.
Leinonen, E., Ryder, N., Ellis, M., & Hammond, C. (2003). The use of context in pragmatic
comprehension by specifically language-impaired and control children. Linguistics,
41(2), 407-423.
Levinson, S. (1983). Pragmatics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Li, E. S. (2010). Making suggestions: A contrastive study of young Hong Kong and
Australian students. Journal of Pragmatics, 42(3), 598-616.
Li, H. (2007). A comparative study of refusal speech acts in Chinese and American English.
Canadian Social Science, 3(4), 64-67.
275
Li, J. (2002). Chinese students‟ perceptions and practice of language learning strategies in
second language acquisition. Foreign Language Education, 1, 42-49.
Li, Y. (Ed.). (2001). New College English – Integrated course 1. Shanghai: Shanghai
Liaw, M. L. (2006). E-learning and the development of intercultural competence. Language
Learning and Technology, 10(3), 49-64.
Lichtkoppler, J. (2010). Language use in the European Union – The role of “English as a
lingua franca”. Retrieved March 17, 2010 from
http://www.coleurop.be/file/content/studyprogrammes/law/.../Chapter%2011.pdf.
Liddicoat, A. J., & Crozet, C. (2001). Acquiring French interactional norms through
instruction. In K. R. Rose & G. Kasper (Eds.), Pragmatics in Language Teaching
Liddicoat, A. J., Papademetre, L., Scarino, A., & Kohler, M. (2003). Report on intercultural
language learning. Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia.
Lightbown, P. M., & Spada, N. (1999). How language are learned. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Littlewood, W. (2004). The task-based approach: Some questions and suggestions. ELT
Journal, 58(4), 319-326.
Littlewood, W. (2007). Communicative and task-based language teaching in East Asian
classrooms. Language Teaching, 40(3), 243-249.
Liu, A. (2010). On pragmatic “borrowing transfer” evidence from Chinese EFL learner‟s
compliment response behavior. Chinese Journal of Applied Linguistics, 33(4), 26-44.
Liu, G. (2010). Gender differences in foreign language learning: Research on Chinese
university students‟ language learning strategies and motivations. Journal of
Changchun University of Technology (Higher Education Study Edition), 31(2), 75-78.
Liu, S. (2004). Differences between NS and NNS in pragmatics. Foreign Languages and
Their Teaching, 8, 14-18.
Liu, S. (2005). What is pragmatics? Retrieved March 24, 2010 from
http://www.gxnu.edu.cn/Personal/szliu/definition.html.
LoCastro, V. (2003). An introduction to pragmatics: Social action for language teachers.
Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press.
Locher, M. (2004). Power and politeness in action: Disagreements in oral communication.
Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Locher, M., & Watter, R. (2005). Politeness theory and relational work. Journal of
Politeness Research, 1, 9-33.
Long, M. (1996). The role of the linguistic environment in second language acquisition. In
W. C. Ritchie & T. K. Bhatia (Eds.), Handbook of Second Language Acquisition
(pp.413-468). San Diego: Academic Press.
276
Long, M., & Crookes, G. (1991). Three approaches to task-based syllabus design. TESOL
Quarterly, 26(1), 27-55.
Lorenzo-Dus, N. (2001). Compliment responses among British and Spanish university
students: A contrastive study. Journal of Pragmatics, 33(1), 107-127.
Loukusa, S., Leinonen, E., Kuusikko, S., Jussila, K., Mattila, M. L., Ryder, N., Ebeling, H.,
& Moilanen, I. (2007). Use of context in pragmatic language comprehension by
children with asperger syndrome or high-functioning autism. Journal of Autism and
Developmental Disorders, 37(6), 1049-1059.
Lustig, M. W., & Koester, J. (2003). Intercultural competence: Interpersonal communication
across cultures (4th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Lynch, B. K. (2003). Language assessment and programme evaluation. Edinburgh:
Edinburgh University Press.
Ma, R., & Xu, X. (2010). Investigations on non-English majors‟ pragmatic competence.
Outside School Education in China, 10, 93-94.
MacNamara, J. (1973). Nurseries, streets and classrooms: Some comparisons and
deductions. Modern Language Journal, 57, 250-254.
Marinoff, L. (1999). Plato not Prozac: Applying eternal wisdom to everyday problems. New
York: Harper Collins.
Márquez-Reiter, R. (2000). Linguistic politeness in Britain and Uruguay: A contrastive study
of requests and apologies. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Martínez-Flor, A., & Alcón-Soler, E. A. (2007). Developing pragmatic awareness of
suggestions in the ELF classroom: A focus on instructional effects. Canadian Journal
of Applied Linguistic, 10(1), 47-76.
Martínez-Flor, A., & Fukuya, Y. J. (2005). The effects of instruction on learners‟ production
of appropriate and accurate suggestions. System, 33(3), 463-480.
McArthur, A. (1987). The English language. English Today, 11, 9-13.
McArthur, T. (1998). The English languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
McArthur, T. (2001). World English and world Englishes: Trend, tensions, varieties, and
standards. Language Teaching, 34, 1-20.
Mckay, S. L. (2002). Teaching English as an international language. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Melchers, G., & Shaw, P. (2003). World Englishes. London: Arnold.
Men, M., & Liu, Q. (2000). A research report on university students‟ pragmatic competence.
Journal of Xi‟an Foreign Languages University, 8(4), 92-94.
Mendelsohn, D. J. (1998). Teaching listening. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 18, 81-
98.
Merriam, S. (1998). Qualitative research and case study applications in education. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Mey, J. L. (2001). Pragmatics: An introduction (2nd ed.). Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.
Mey, J. L. (2008). Developing pragmatics interculturally. In I. Kecskes & L. R. Horn, (Eds.),
Explorations in Pragmatics: Linguistic, Cognitive and Intercultural Aspects (pp.165-
189). Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
Miller, D. (1974). On the comparison of false theories by their bases. The British Journal for
the Philosophy of Science, 25, 178-188.
277
Mills, S. (2003). Gender and politeness. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Milroy, J., & Milroy, L. (1990). Language in society: sociolinguistics. In N. E. Collinge
(Ed.), Encyclopedia of Language (pp.485-517). London: Routledge.
Modiano, M. (2009). Inclusive/exclusive? English as a lingua franca in European Union.
World Englishes, 28(2), 208-223.
Morris, C. H. (1938). Foundation of the theory of signs. In O. Neurath (Ed.), International
Encyclopedia of Unified Science (vol. 1). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Mott, B. L. (2003). Introductory semantics and pragmatics for Spanish learners of English.
Barcelona: Edicions Universitat Barcelona.
Nash, R. J., & Murray, M. C. (2010). Helping college students find purposes: The campus
guide to meaning-making. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Niezgoda, K., & Röver, C. (2001). Pragmatic and grammatical awareness: A function of the
learning environment. In K. R. Rose & K. Kasper (Eds.), Pragmatics in Language
Teaching (pp.1-12). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Nikula, T. (2008). Learning pragmatics in content-based classrooms. In E. Alcón-Soler & A.
Martínez-Flor (Eds.), Investigating Pragmatics in Foreign Language Learning,
Teaching and Testing (pp.94-113). Bristol, Buffalo, Toronto: Multilingual Matters.
Nisbet, J., & Shucksmith, J. (1986). Learning Strategies. London, Boston and Henley:
Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Niu, Q. (2001). Problems in current College English Tests in China. Foreign Language
Teaching and Research, 33(2), 140-143.
Norris, J., & Ortega, L. (2000). Effectiveness of L2 instruction: A research synthesis and
quantitative meta-analysis. Language Learning, 50(3), 417-467.
Nunan, D. (1992). Research methods in language education. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Nunan, D. (1999). Second language teaching and learning. Boston: Heinle and Heinle.
Nunan, D. (2004). Task-based language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Nunan, D., & Bailey, K. M. (2009). Exploring second language classroom research. Boston:
Heinle, Cengage Learning.
Nureddeen, F. A. (2008). Cross cultural pragmatics: Apology strategies in Sudanese Arabic.
Journal of Pragmatics, 40 (2), 279-306.
Oller, J. W. (Ed.). (1983). Issues in language teasing research. Rowley, MA: Newbury
House.
Olshtain, E. (1989). Apologies across languages. In S. Blum-Kulka, J. House & G. Kasper
(Eds.), Cross-cultural Pragmatics: Requests and Apologies (pp.155-173). Norwood,
NJ: Ablex.
Olshtain, E., & Cohen, A. (1989). Speech act behavior across languages. In H. W. Dechert &
M. Raupach (Eds.), Transfer in Language Production (pp.53-67). Norwood, NJ:
Ablex.
O‟Malley, J. M., & Chamot, A. U. (1990). Learning strategies in second language
acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Oxford, R. L. (1990). Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know. New
York: Newbury House.
Oxford, R. L. (1993). Research on second language learning strategies. Annual Review of
Applied Linguistics, 13, 175-187.
278
Oxford, R. L. (Ed.). (1996). Language learning strategies around the world: Cross-cultural
perspectives. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
Oxford, R. L., & Nyikos, M. (1989). Variables affecting choice of language learning
strategies by university students. Modern Language Journal, 73, 404-419.
Paltridge, B., Harbon, L., Hirsh, D., Shen, H. Stevenson, M., Phakiti, A., & Woodrow, L.
(2009). Teaching academic writing: An introduction for teachers of second language
writers. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press.
Pang, J., Zhou, X., & Fu, Z. (2002). English for international trade: China enters the WTO.
World Englishes, 21(2), 201-216.
Papademetre, L., & Scarino, A. (2006). Teaching and learning for intercultural
communication: A multi-perspective conceptual and applied journey for teachers of
world culture languages. Adelaide: University of South Australia.
Parks, S. D. (2000). Big questions, worthy dreams: Mentoring your adults in their search for
meaning, purpose, and faith. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Parvaresh, V., & Tavakoli, M. (2009). Discourse completion tasks as elicitation tools: How
Convergent are They? The Social Sciences, 4(4), 366-373.
Pavlenko, A. (2001). In the world of the tradition I was unimagined: Negotiation of identities
in cross-cultural autobiographies. The International Journal of Bilingualism, 5, 317-
344.
Pavlenko, A., & Lantolf, J.P. (2000). Second language learning as participation and
(re)construction of selves. In J.P. Lantolf (Ed.), Sociocultural theory and second
language learning (pp.155-177). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Pawley, A., & Syder, F. H. (1983) Two puzzles for linguistic theory: Nativelike selection
and native like fluency. In J. C. Richards & R. W. Schmidt (Eds.), Language and
Communication (pp.191-225). London: Longman.
Peng, D. (2002). Research on independent learners in College English teaching and learning.
Foreign Language World, 3, 15-19.
Pennycook, A. (2010). Language as a local practice. London and New York: Routledge.
Phillipson, R. (1992). Linguistic imperialism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Phipps, A., & Gonzalez, M. (2004). Modern languages: Learning and teaching in an
intercultural field. London: Sage Publications.
Pinto, D. (2000). Intercultural communication: A three-step method for dealing with
differences. Belgium: Garant Publishers.
Pohl, G. (2004). Cross-cultural pragmatic failure and implications for language teaching.
Studies in Languages and Language Teaching, 4. Retrieved March 24, 2010 from
http://www.usq.edu.au/users/sonjb/sllt/4/Poh104.html.
Poole, D. (1992). Language socialization on the second language classroom. Language
Learning, 42, 593-616.
Price, F. (2000). The naked Australian: The valuable Australian. Melbourne: Workshop.
Prodromou, L. (1997). Global English and the Octopus. IATEFL Newsletter, 137, 18-22.
Purdie, N., & Oliver, R. (1999). Language learning strategies used by bilingual school-aged
children. System, 27(3), 375-388.
Pütz, M., & Neff-Aertselaer, J. (2008). Introduction: Developing contrastive pragmatics. In
M. Pütz, & J. Neff-Aertselaer (Eds.), Developing Contrastive Pragmatics:
279
Interlanguage and Cross-cultural Perspectives, (pp.ix-xviii). Berlin and New York:
Mouton de Gruyter.
Qiao, X. (2010). Relations between English and employment in China. Retrieved May 12,
2010 from http://www.wyzxsx.com/Article/Class22/201001/126804.html.
Quirk, R. (1995). Grammatical and lexical variance in English. London: Longman.
Rajagopalan, K. (2004). The concept of “World English” and its implication for ELT. ELT
Journal, 58(2), III-17.
Rao, Z. (2002). Chinese students‟ perceptions of communicative and non-communicative
activities in EFL classroom. System, 30(1), 85-105.
Richards, J., & Rodgers, T. (1986). Approaches and methods in language teaching.
Richards, J., Schmidt, R., Platt, H., & Schmidt, M. (2002). Longman dictionary of language
teaching and applied linguistics. London: Longman.
Richards, J. C. (2005). Communicative language teaching today. Singapore: RELC.
Rickheit, G., Strohner, H., & Vorwerg, C. (2008). The concept of communicative
competence. In G. Rickheit & Strohner, H. (Eds.), Handbook of Communicative
Competence (pp.15-62). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Riddiford, N., & Joe, A. (2010). Tracking the development of sociopragmatic skills. TESOL
Quarterly, 44(1), 195-205.
Rigg, P. (1991). Whole language in TESOL. TESOL Quarterly, 25(3), 521-542.
Risager, K. (2005). Languaculture as a key concept in language and culture teaching. In A.
F. Bent-Preisler, S. Kjaerbeck, & K. Risager (Eds.), The Consequences of Mobility
(pp.185-196). Roskilde: Roskilde University.
Roever, C. (2010). Researching pragmatics. In B. Paltridege & A. Phakiti (Eds.), Continuum
Comparison to Research Methods in Applied Linguistics (pp. 240-255). London, New
York: Continuum International Publishing Group.
Rose, K. R. (2000). An exploratory cross-sectional study of interlanguage pragmatic
development. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 22, 27-67.
Rose, K. R. (2001). Compliments and compliment responses in film: Implications for
pragmatics research and language teaching. International Review of Applied
Rose, K. R. (2009). Interlanguage pragmatic development in Hong Kong, phase 2. Journal of
Pragmatics, 41(11), 2345-2364.
Rose, K. R., & Kasper, K. (Eds.). (2001). Pragmatics in language teaching. Cambridge:
Rose, K. R., & Kwai-fun, C. N. (2001). Inductive and deductive teaching of compliments
and compliment responses. In K. R. Rose & G. Kasper (Eds.), Pragmatics in
Language Teaching (pp.145-170). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ruan, S. (2007). An empirical study on English pragmatic competence of Chinese non-
English majors. Unpublished M.A. thesis. Beijing: China University of Petroleum.
Ruan, Y., & Jacob, W.J. (2009). The transformation of College English in China. Front.
Educ China, 4(3), 466-487.
Rubdi, R., & Saraceni, M. (Eds.). (2006). English in the world: Global rules, global roles.
London: Continuum.
280
Rubin, J. (1981). Study of cognitive processes in second language learning. Applied
Rubin, J. (1987). Learner strategies: Theoretical assumptions, research history and typology.
In A. L. Wenden and J. Rubin (Eds.). Learner Strategies in Language Learning
(pp.15-30). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Sakui, K., & Gaies, S. J. (1999). Investigating Japanese learners‟ beliefs about language
learning. System, 27(4), 473-492.
Salmani-Nodoushan, M. A. (2007). A framework for task-oriented language instruction. I-
manager‟s Journal on School Educational Technology, 3, 5-16.
Samovar, L. A., & Porter, R. E. (Eds.) (1991). Communication between cultures. Belmont,
Ca: Wadsworth Publishing Company.
Samovar, L. A., & Porter, R. E. (Eds.) (1997). Intercultural communication: A reader (8th
ed.). Belmont, Ca: Wadsworth Publishing Company.
Samovar, L. A., & Porter, R. E. (Eds.) (2003). Intercultural communication: A reader (10th
ed.). Belmont, Ca: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.
Samovar, L. A., Porter, R. E., & McDaniel, E. R. (Eds.) (2009). Intercultural
communication: A reader (12th ed.). Belmont, Ca: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
Samovar, L. A., Porter, R. E., & Stefani, L. A. (1998). Communication between cultures.
(3rd ed.). Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing Company.
Sandelowski, M. (2003). Tables of tableaux? The challenges of writing and reading mixed
methods studies. In A. Tashakkori & C. Teddlie (Eds.). Handbook of Mixed Methods
in Social and Behavioral Research (pp.321-350). Thousands Oaks, California: Sage.
Savignon, S. (1983). Communicative competence: Theory and classroom practice. Reading,
MA: Addison-Wesley.
Savignon, S. (1987). Communicative language teaching. Theory into Practice, 26(4), 235-
242.
Savignon, S. (1991). Communicative language teaching: State of the art. TESOL Quarterly,
25, 261-277.
Savignon, S., & Wang (2003). Communicative language teaching in EFL contexts: Learner
attitudes and perceptions. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language
Teaching, 41(3), 223-249.
Scarcella, R. (1983). Discourse accent in second language performance. In S. Gass & L.
Selinker (Eds.), Language Transfer in Language Learning (pp.306-326). Rowley,
MA: Newbury House.
Schauer, G. A. (2006). The development of ESL learners‟ pragmatic competence: A
longitudinal investigation of awareness and production. In K. Bardovi-Harlig, C.
Félix-Brasdefer & A. S. Omar (Eds.), Pragmatics Language Learning (vol. 11,
pp.135-164). Honolulu: University of Hawai‟i Press.
Schauer, G. A. (2009). Interlanguage pragmatics development: The study abroad context.
London: Continuum.
Schauer, G. A., & Adolphs, S. (2006). Expressions of gratitude in corpus and DCT data:
Vocabulary, formulaic sequences, and pedagogy. System, 32(1), 119-134.
Schegloff, E. A. (1987). Some sources of misunderstanding in talk-in-interaction.
281
Scheinkman, J. A. (2008). Social interactions. In S. N. Durlauf & L. E. Blume (Eds.), The
New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics (2nd ed.). Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave
Macmillan.
Schmidt, R. (1993). Consciousness, learning and interlanguage pragmatics. In G. Kasper &
S. Blum-Kulka (Eds.), Interlanguage Pragmatics (pp. 21-42). New York: Oxford
University Press.
Schmidt, R. (1995). Consciousness and foreign language learning: A tutorial on the role of
attention and awareness in learning. In R. Schmidt (Ed.), Attention and Awareness in
Foreign Language Learning (Technical Report 9, pp.1-63). Honolulu: University of
Hawaii, Second Language Teaching and Curriculum Center.
Schmidt, R. (2001). Attention. In P. Robinson (Ed.), Cognition and Second Language
Instruction (pp.3-33). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Schwitzgebel, E. (2006). Belief. In Z. Edward (Ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy, Stanford, CA: The Metaphysics Research Lab.
Searle, J. R. (1969). Speech acts. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Searle, J. R. (1971). What is a speech act? In J. R. Searle (Ed.), The Philosophy of Language
(pp.39-53). London: Oxford University Press.
Searle, J. R. (1975). Indirect speech acts. In P. Cole & J. L. Morgan (Eds.), Syntax and
semantics vol. 3: Speech acts (pp.59-82). New York, NY: Academic Press.
Searle, J. R. (1976). The classification of illocutionary acts. Language in Society, 5, 1-24.
Searle, J. R. (1977). A classification of illocutionary acts. In A. Rogers, B. Wall, & J.
Murphy (Eds.), Proceedings of the Texas Conference on Performatives,
Presupposition, and Implicatures (pp.27-45). Washington DC: Center for Applied
Linguistics.
Searle, J. R. (1979). A taxonomy of illocutionary acts. In J. R. Searle (Ed.), Expression and
Meaning (pp.1-29). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Searle, J. R., Kiefer, F., & Bierwisch, M. (Eds.). (1980). Speech act theory and pragmatics.
Synthese Language Library, Vol. 10. Dordrecht: Reidel.
Seidlhofer, B. (2001). Closing a conceptual gap: The case for a description of English as a
lingua franca. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 11, 133-158.
Seidlhofer, B. (2004). Research perspectives on teaching English as a lingua franca. Annual
Review of Applied Linguistics, 24, 209-239.
Seidlhofer, B. (2005). English as a lingua franca. ELT Journal, 59 (4), 339-341.
Selinker, L. (1972). Interlanguage. IRAL, 10, 209-231.
Semrud-Clikeman, M., Walkowiak, J., Wilkinson, A., & Minne, E. P. (2010). Direct and
indirect measures of social perception, behavior, and emotional functioning in children
with asperger‟s disorder, nonverbal learning disability, or ADHD. J Abnorm Child
Psychol, 38, 509-519.
Shaul, D. L., & Furbee, N. L. (1998). Language and culture. Illinois: Waveland.
Sheorey, R. (1999). An examination of language learning strategy use in the setting of an
indigenized variety of English. System, 27(2), 173-190.
Shi, X. (2010). Intercultural language socialization of a Chinese MBA student in an
American negotiation class. Journal of Pragmatics, 42(9), 2475-2486.
Shridhar, K., & Shridhar, S. (1986). Bridging the paradigm gap: Second language acquisition
theory and indigenized varieties of English. World Englishes, 5, 3-14.
282
Shridhar, S., & Shridhar, K. (1994). Indigenized Englishes as second languages: Toward a
functional theory of second language acquisition in multilingual contexts. In R.
Agnihotri & A. Khanna (Eds.), Language Acquisition: Socio-cultural and Linguistic
Aspects of English in India (pp.41-53). New Delhi: Sage Publications.
Silverman, D. (1985). Qualitative methodology and sociology. Aldershot: Gower.
Silverman, D. (2005). Doing qualitative research: A practical handbook (2nd ed.). London:
Sage.
Silverstein, M. (2001). The Limits of Awareness. In A. Duranti (Ed.), Linguistic
Anthropology: A Reader (pp. 382–401). Malden: Blackwell.
Singh, R., Lele, J., & Martohardjono, G. (1988). Communication in multilingual society:
Some missed opportunities. Language in Society, 17, 43-59.
Skehan, P. (2003). Task-based instruction. Language Teaching, 36(1), 1-14.
Skutnabb-Kangas, T. (2000). Linguistic genocide on education – Or worldwide diversity and
human rights? Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Skutnabb- Kangas, T., & Phillipson, R. (1995). Linguistic human rights: Overcoming
linguistic discrimination. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Smith, C. (1998). Can adults „Just Say No?‟: How gender, status and social goals affect
refusals. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of South Florida.
Spanoudis, G., Natsopoulos, D., & Panayiotou, G. (2007). Research report: Mental verbs and
pragmatic language difficulties. International Journal of Language and
Communication Disorders, 42(4), 487-504.
Stelma, J. (2009). What is communicative language teaching. In S. Hunston & D. Oakey
(Eds.), Introducing Applied Linguistics: Concepts and Skills (pp. 53-59). London and
New York: Routledge.
Strawson, P. F. (1964). Intention and convention in speech acts. Philosophical Review, 73,
439-460.
Su, L. (2011). Situations of English language teaching in the western areas of China.
Education Teaching Forum, 8, 11.
Taguchi, N. (Ed.). (2009). Pragmatic competence. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Takahashi, S. (2001). The role of input enhancement in developing pragmatic competence.
In K. R. Rose & G. Kasper (Eds.), Pragmatics in Language Teaching (pp.171-199).
Takahashi, S., & Beebe, L. (1987). The development of pragmatic competence by Japanese
learners of English. JALT Journal, 8, 131-155.
Takaku, S., Weiner, B., & Ohbuchi, K. (2001). A cross-cultural examination of the effects of
apology and perspective taking on forgiveness. Journal of Language and Social
Psychology, 20, 144-167.
Takimoto, M. (2009). Exploring the effects of input-based treatment and test on the
development of learners‟ pragmatic proficiency. Journal of Pragmatics, 41(5), 1029-
1046.
Tanck, S. (2004). Speech act sets of refusal and complaint: A comparison of native and non-
native English speakers‟ production. TESOL Working Papers, 4(2), 1-22.
Tang, C. H., & Zhang, G. Q. (2009). A contrastive study of compliment responses among
Australian English and Mandarin Chinese speakers. Journal of Pragmatics, 41(2),
325-345.
283
Tarone, E. (1980). Communication strategies, foreigner talk, and repair in interlanguage.
Language Learning, 30(2), 417-431.
Tateyama, Y. (2001). Explicit and implicit teaching of pragmatic routines: Japanese
sumimasen. In K. R. Rose & G. Kasper (Eds.), Pragmatics in Language Teaching
Thomas, J. (1983). Cross-cultural pragmatic failure. Applied Linguistics, 4(2), 91-112.
Thomas, J. (1995). Meaning in interaction: An introduction to pragmatics. London:
Longman.
Tinto, V. (1995). Discovering the sources of student success from vision to reality: Student
affairs agenda for the ‟90s. Iowa City, Iowa: ACT.
Titone, R. (1968). Teaching foreign languages: An historical sketch. Washington, DC:
George-town University Press.
Tomlin, R. (1990). Functionalism in second language acquisition. Studies in Second
Language Acquisition, 12, 155-177.
Tran, G. (2006). The nature and condition or pragmatic and discourse transfer investigated
through naturalized role-play. Muenchen: Lincom Europa.
Triandis, H. C. (1989). The self and social behavior in differing cultural contexts.
Psychological Review, 96, 506-520.
Trosborg, A. (1987). Apology strategies in natives/ non-natives. Journal of Pragmatics, 11,
147-167.
Trosborg, A. (1995). Interlanguage pragmatics: Requests, complaints and apologies. Berlin,
New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
Trosborg, A. (Ed.). (2010). Pragmatics across languages and cultures. Berlin: Mouton de
Gruyter.
Tuncer, U. (2009). How do monolingual and bilingual language learners differ in use of
learning strategies while learning a foreign language? Evidences from Mersin
University. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 1(1), 852-856.
Turnbull, W., & Saxton, K. L. (1997). Modal expressions as facework in refusals to comply
with requests: I think I should say „no‟ right now. Journal of Pragmatics, 27(2), 145-
181.
van Dijk, T. A., & Kintsch, W. (1983). Strategies of discourse comprehension. New York,
London: Academic Press.
Vellenga, H. (2004). Learning pragmatics from ESL and EFL textbooks: How likely? TESL-
Electronic Journal, 8(2), 1-18.
Verdonik, D. (2010). Between understanding and misunderstanding. Journal of Pragmatics,
42(5), 1364-1379.
Verschueren, J. (1987). Pragmatics as a theory of linguistic adaptation. In: Working
Document #1. Antwerp: International Pragmatics Association.
Verschueren, J. (1999). Understanding pragmatics. London, New York, Sydney: Arnold.
Verschuren, P. J. M. (2003). Cast study as a research strategy: Some ambiguities and
opportunities. International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 6(2), 121-139.
Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes.
London: Harvard University Press.
Wang, D. (2002). Developing independent ability in College English learning. Foreign
Language World, 5, 17-23.
284
Wang, D. (2005). An investigation on non-English major undergraduates‟ ability to use
hedges. Unpublished M.A. thesis. Shandong: Shandong Normal University.
Wang, J. (2005). On Chinese EFL learners‟ intercultural pragmatic failures. Unpublished
M.A. thesis. Nanjing: Nanjing Normal University.
Wang, S. (2004). Strategies employed in improving non-English majors‟ pragmatic
competence. Unpublished M.A. thesis. Yangzhou: Yangzhou University.
Wang, Y. (2010). Application of pragmatics theories in College English teaching. Language
and Literature Learning, 7, 127-128.
Washburn, G. N. (2001). Using situation comedies for pragmatic language teaching and
learning. TESOL Journal, 10(4), 21-26.
Watkins, C. (2005). Classrooms as learning communities: What‟s in it for schools? London:
Routledge.
Watts, R. (2003). Politeness. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Weaver, S., & Cohen, A. (1997). Strategies-based instruction: A teacher-training manual.
Minneapolis, MN: Center for Advanced Research on Language Acquisition,
University of Minnesota.
Weedon, C. (1997). Feminist practice and poststructuralist theory (2nd ed). Malden, MA:
Blackwell.
Wenden, A. (1983). Literature review: The process of intervention. Language Learning,
33(1), 103-121.
Wenden, A. L., & Rubin, J. (Eds.). (1987). Learner strategies in language learning.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Wedin, Ǻ. (2010). A restricted curriculum for second language learners - a self-fulfilling
teacher strategy? Language and Education, 24(3), 171-183.
Weigand, E. (1999). Misunderstanding: The standard case. Journal of Pragmatics, 31(6),
763-785.
Weizman, E., & Blum-Kulka, S. (1992). Ordinary misunderstanding. In M. Stamenov (Ed.),
Current Advances in Semantic Theory (pp.417-432). Sofia: Maxim Stamenov Institute
of the Blugarian Language.
Widdowson, H. G. (1992). Communication, community, and the problem of appropriate use.
Paper presented at the Georgetown University Round Table on Languages and
Linguistics.
Widdowson, H. G. (1994). The ownership of English. TESOL Quarterly, 28(2), 377-389.
Wierzbicka, A. (1991). Cross-cultural pragmatics: The semantics of human interaction.
Berlin: Walter de Gruyter & Co.
Wierzbicka, A. (2003). Cross-cultural pragmatics: The semantics of human interaction.
Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Wierzbicka, A. (2010). Experience, evidence, and sense: The hidden cultural legacy of
English. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Wilkins, D. A. (1976). Notional syllabuses. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Willis, D., & Willis, J. (2009). Six propositions in search of a methodology: Applying
linguistics to task-based language teaching. In S., Hunston & D. Oakey (Eds.),
Introducing Applied Linguistics: Concepts and Skills (pp. 60-71). London and New
York: Routledge.
Willis, J. (1996). A framework for task-based learning. Harlow: Longman Pearson Ed.
285
Wittgenstein, L. (1953). Philosophisal investigations. Oxford: Wode, Henning.
Wong, J. (2010). The “triple articulation” of language. Journal of Pragmatics, 42(1), 2932-
2944.
Woodfield, H. (2008). Problematising discourse completion tasks: Voices from verbal
report. Evaluation & Research in Education, 21(1), 43-69.
Wouk, F. (2006). The language of apologizing in Lombok, Indonesia. Journal of
Pragmatics, 38(9), 1457-1486.
Wu, Q. (2009). Experiments of College English teaching reform. Retrieved April 21, 2010
from http://www.cflo.com.cn/w/wznr.aspx?tag=l6&id=1651&items=47.
Wu, R. R. (2011). A conversation analysis of self-praising in everyday Mandarin interaction.
Xiao, H., & Petraki, E. (2007). An investigation of Chinese students‟ difficulties in
intercultural communication and its role in ELT. Journal of Intercultural
Communication, 13. Retrieved March 12, 2010 from
http://immi.se/intercultural/nr13/petraki.htm.
Xu, J. (2003). On developing pragmatic competence of non-English major college students.
Unpublished M.A. thesis. Wuhan: Huazhong University of Science and Technology.
Xu, J., Peng, R., & Wu, H. (2004). A survey and analysis of non-English major
undergraduates‟ autonomous English learning. Foreign Language Teaching and
Research, 36(1), 64-68.
Xu, Q. (2009). Moving beyond the intermediate EFL learning plateau. Asian Social Science,
5(2), 66-68.
Xu, W., Case, R. E., & Wang, Y. (2009). Pragmatic and grammatical competence, length of
residence, and overall L2 proficiency. System, 37(2), 205-216.
Yalom, I. D. (1980). Existential psychotherapy. New York: Basic Books.
Yan, D., Chye, L. K., Lin, Z., & Ying, W. (2010). Research on mother tongue‟s learning
strategies of pupils in Singapore. Procedia Social and Behavioral Science, 2(2), 572-
575.
Yang, N. D. (1999). The relationship between EFL learners‟ beliefs and learning strategy
use. System, 27(4), 515-535.
Yılmaz, C. (2010). The relationship between language learning strategies, gender,
proficiency and self-efficacy beliefs: A study of ELT learners in Turkey. Procedia
Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2(2), 682-687.
Yin, R. (2003). Case study research: Design and methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks,
California: Sage.
Young, R. (2000). Interactional competence: Challenges for validity. Paper presented at the
Language Testing Research Colloquium, Vancouver, Canada, March 11, 2000.
Young, R., & He, A. (Eds.). (1998). Talking and testing: Discourse approaches of the
assessment of oral proficiency. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Yu, H. (2007). Application of TBT in reading class. US-China Education Review, 4(5), 39-
42.
Yu, M. (2003). On the university of face: Evidence from Chinese compliment response
behavior. Journal of Pragmatics, 35(10-11), 1679-1710.
286
Yu, M. C. (1999). Cross-cultural and interlanguage pragmatics: Developing communicative
competence in a second language. Unpublished doctoral thesis. Cambridge: Harvard
Universtiy.
Yu, M. C. (2004). Interlinguistic variation and similarity in second language speech
behavior. The Modern Language Journal, 88(1), 102-119.
Yuan, Y. (2006). Effective vocabulary teaching. In L. Mao & D. Wang (Eds.), China‟s
English Teaching Reform Theory and Practice for Marine Universities (pp.137-151).
Beijing: China Communications Press.
Yuan, Y. & Shen, H. (2009). Pedagogy, practice and students‟ motivation: Voices from
College English classrooms. In H. Shen & Y. Yan (Eds.), Developments and prospects
of English Teaching in China (pp.21-43). Shanghai: Fudan University Press.
Yule, G. (1996). Pragmatics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Zaefferer, D. (1977). Understanding misunderstanding: A proposal for an explanation of
reading choices. Journal of Pragmatics, 1(4), 329-346.
Zhang, H. (2008). Strategies on how to help Chinese students walk out of deaf and mute
English. China Education Innovation Herald, 23, 22-23.
Zhang, L. (2007). Combination of „eastern and western‟ teaching model in College English
teaching. Read and Write Periodical, 12, 10.
Zhang, X. (2002). College English teaching and development of pragmatic competence.
Journal of South China University of Technology (Social Science Edition), 4(1), 73-
78.
Zhang, X., & Cui, G. (2010). Learning beliefs of distance foreign language learners in
China: A survey study. System, 38(1), 30-40.
Zhao, Y. (2005). Situations and analysis of education investment in China. Journal of
Mongolia Normal University (Educational Science), 12(18), 26-27.
Zhao, Y. (2009). The relationship between deaf and mute English and the foreign language
learning. Education Science and Culture Magazine, 1, 111-112.
Zhao, Y., & Campbell, K.P. (1997). English in China. World Englishes, 14(3), 377-390.
Zhao, Y., & Throssell, P. (2011). Speech act theory and its application to EFL teaching in
China. Language Society and Culture, 32, 88-95.
Zheng, L., & Huang, J. (2010). A study of Chinese EFL learners‟ pragmatic failure and the
implications for College English teaching. Polyglossia, 18, 41-54.
Zhong, Y., & Shen, H. (2002). Where is the technology-induced pedagogy? Snapshots from
two multimedia EFL classrooms. British Journal of Educational Technology, 33(1),
39-52.
Zuskin, R. D. (1993). Assessing L2 sociolinguistic competence: In search of support from
pragmatic theories. Pragmatics and Language Learning, 4, 166-182.
287
288
Appendix A: Questionnaire
Instructions: As part of a research project on Pragmatics (appropriate use of a

language), Perceptions and Strategies in Chinese College English Learning, we
would like you to help us by completing this questionnaire about your pragmatic
knowledge/competence and your language learning strategies of pragmatics in using
English. This is not a test and you do not need to write your name on it. We are
interested in your personal experiences of learning and your views. Your answers to
the questions will help us ensure the accuracy of the data. The information obtained
will be kept confidential and used only for the purposes of academic research. Thank
you very much for your help.
Section I Demographic information (Please choose your answer from the following
choices.)
1. What is your gender?

A. Male. B. Female.
2. What is your age?
A. Under 20. B. Over 20 (include 20).
3. What is your major?
A. Liberal Arts. B. Science.
C. Engineering. D. Other.
4. How many years have you learned English?
A. Less than 6 years. B. 6-10 years.
C. More than 10 years.
5. Do you have any overseas English language learning experience?
A. Yes. B. No.
6. Which College English course do you take this semester?
A. College English II. B. College English III.
289
Section II Your views on pragmatics in College English learning and teaching.
Part A: The Likert 1-5 rating scale is used. You can choose only one answer to each
question.
1= Strongly disagree 2 = Disagree 3 = Neutral 4 = Agree 5 = Strongly agree

I believe learning English grammar, 1 2 3 4 5
7 vocabulary, and pronunciation mean
learning English.
□ □ □ □ □
I think that the knowledge of how to use the 1 2 3 4 5
8 language is as important as linguistic
knowledge (e.g. vocabulary and grammar).
□ □ □ □ □
The main reason why I need to learn English 1 2 3 4 5
9
is to pass the examination. □ □ □ □ □
College English textbooks provide much 1 2 3 4 5
10 information on culture, conversation rules,
usage, and on how to use English correctly.
□ □ □ □ □
Communicative activities are a waste of 1 2 3 4 5
11
time in the English class. □ □ □ □ □
I admire the people who can communicate 1 2 3 4 5
12 with others in English fluently and
accurately.
□ □ □ □ □
I think teachers should teach us how to
communicate with people, and how to use 1 2 3 4 5
13
English appropriately in the classroom □ □ □ □ □
teaching.
I know how to obtain cultural knowledge 1 2 3 4 5
14 and appropriateness of language use in my
learning.
□ □ □ □ □
Tasks used in English class provide me 1 2 3 4 5
15 knowledge and skills to improve my ability
to use English appropriately.
□ □ □ □ □
I prefer my English class to be focused on
communicative language teaching and 1 2 3 4 5
16
practice, with grammar explained when □ □ □ □ □
necessary.
I like grammar and vocabulary explanation, 1 2 3 4 5
17
and sentence drills in my English class. □ □ □ □ □
I wish to speak like native English speakers 1 2 3 4 5
18 and would like to imitate their pronunciation
and intonation.
□ □ □ □ □
290
Part B: Please choose only one answer from following choices to each question.
19. What English would you like to learn to use most?

A. Chinese English. B. American English.
C. British English. D. Other.
20. What tasks do your teachers most often use in the classroom teaching?
A. Group discussion. B. Pair-work.
C. Role-play. D. Debate.
21. In which way do you want to get information about the use of English?
A. Teacher‟s explanation.
B. Classroom discussion.
C. Listening to radio programs/dialogues and watching TV programs/videos.
D. Self-study.
22. What kind of abilities do you want to develop most in learning English?
A. Ability to communicate with people.
B. Ability to do well in English examinations.
C. Ability to read materials related to my major.
D. Ability to translate.
23. What kind of knowledge do you want to learn most in your English classroom
teaching?
A. Linguistic knowledge (e.g. grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation).
B. Cultural knowledge.
C. Communicative skills.
D. Knowledge on how to use English.
24. If you meet some difficulties in English learning, what will you do first?
A. Ask the English teacher or other native speaker.
B. Discuss and work with your classmates.
C. Try to solve the problem on your learned language knowledge by yourself.
D. Look up a dictionary or try to find the answer on the Internet.
291
25. What is the most effective way of learning English?
A. Memorizing vocabularies and reciting texts.
B. Doing sentence drills and translation exercises.
C. Imitating a language model and applying it in a new context.
D. Self-studying and self-evaluation.
26. Tom is buying a ticket at the booking office of a theme park.

Tom: I‟d like to buy one ticket, and I want to have a map of the theme park.
Ticket seller: All right. What‟s your post code?
Question: What does the ticket seller mean?
A. The ticket seller wants to book Tom‟s address.
B. The ticket seller wants to have Tom‟s post code.
C. The ticket seller wants to know the language Tom uses.
D. The ticket seller wants to find Tom‟s post code on the map.
27. Jack, a villain, met one acquaintance, Richard, on the corridor in a hospital.
Jack: I am going to have a new heart.
Richard (contemptuously): It is about the time.
Question: What does Richard imply?
A. Jack has a serious heart disease and needs a new heart.
B. Jack has become a good man.
C. Jack has found a new heart to cure his heart disease.
D. Jack needs to realize his evil and totally change his behavior.
28. While traveling, Mary put a heavy bag on the bus shelf. The bus stopped
suddenly and the bag fell on a passenger.
The passenger: Oh, my god! What is that?
Mary: It is my bag. It‟s all right.
Question: How appropriate do you think the reply from Mary was?
A. Very appropriate. B. Appropriate.
C. Inappropriate. D. Not at all appropriate.
292
29. A university student borrowed his teacher‟s book and promised to return it that
day. When he reached the university, he discovered that he had left the book at
home.
The teacher: Have you brought the book?
The student: Sorry, I forgot. Don‟t worry. I will bring it tomorrow.
Question: How appropriate do you think the reply from the student?
30. Mary was at John‟s house. After dinner, she was offered dissert.
John: How about another piece of cake?
Mary: Thanks. I am full.
John: Come on, just a little piece?
Mary: No more, thanks.
Question: How appropriate do you think the replies from Mary was?
Part C: Please choose your answers from following choices to each question. You
can choose more than one answer to each question.
31. What do you usually do in the English class?

A. Note-taking. B. Group-discussion.
C. Presentation. D. Listening to the teacher all the time.
E. Listening to the teacher only when necessary.
32. What do you usually do to learn English after class?

A. Watching English movies and listening to English broadcasts.
B. Doing preview and review work.
C. Reading English newspapers and magazines.
D. Doing exercises, such as translation, sentence drills.
E. Practicing English with classmates.
F. Practicing English with English native speakers.
G. Doing self-evaluation.
H. Memorizing English words and reciting texts.
293
Part D: Please answer following questions either in English or in Chinese.
33. What kind of tasks do you think is necessary to improve students‟

communicative ability in English language teaching and learning?
34. What kind of language learning strategies do you think is necessary to improve
the students‟ pragmatic competence in English language learning?
35. Do you believe that the current College English teaching and learning will enable
294
Appendix B: Discourse Completion Tasks (DCTs)
Instructions: As part of a research project on Pragmatics (appropriate use of a

language), Perceptions and Strategies in Chinese College English Learning, we
would like you to help us by completing this Discourse Completion Tasks about your
pragmatic competence in using English. This is not a test and you do not need to
write your name on it. We are interested in your personal experiences of learning and
your views. Your answers will help us ensure the accuracy of the data. The
information obtained will be kept confidential and used only for the purposes of
academic research. Thank you very much for your help.
Directions: Please read the following 20 situations. After each situation you will be
asked to write a response in the blank after “you”. Please read each question
carefully. Respond as if you would talk to the person in English in real life
conversation. Please respond as naturally as possible. Do not worry about your
grammar. You have 30 minutes to finish the following tasks.
1. You are walking on campus. A friend of you invites you to come to a party at his
house this Saturday. You cannot go to the party because you will have three
exams to take next Monday, and his house is very far from your place.
Friend: Hi, we are having a party this Saturday. Do you want to come?
You: ___________________________________________________________
2. You are at the office in a meeting with your boss. It is getting close to the end of
the day and you want to leave the office.
Boss: If it is fine with you, I‟d like you to spare two extra hours tonight so that
we can finish up with this task.
You: ___________________________________________________________
Boss: That‟s too bad. I was hoping you could stay.
3. You are taking a break in the student lounge. A friend comes by and gets himself a
cup of coffee from the coffee machine. He offers you a coffee, too, but you cannot
drink now because you have an upset stomach.
Friend: Hey, you want some coffee?
You: __________________________________________________________
295
4. You teach English at a university. It is just about the middle of the term. One of
the students comes to speak to you.
Student: Excuse me, Professor. Some of the students discussed English lessons
after class yesterday. We believe that we could achieve better learning
outcomes if you gave us more practice in conversations and less on
grammar.
You: __________________________________________________________
Student: Well, it was only a suggestion.
5. You are a university freshman. You attend classes on time and prepare complete
lecture notes. One of your classmates often misses class and asks you to lend him
the notes before the examination once again.
Classmate: Oh, my god! There is an exam tomorrow but I don‟t have notes from
last week. I am sorry to disturb you, but could you please lend me your
notes once again?
You: ________________________________________________________
Classmate: Well…then I guess I‟ll have to ask someone else.
6. You are the owner of a restaurant. One of your best workers asks to speak to you
in private for salary increase.
Worker: As you know, I‟ve been working here for over one year, and I know
you‟ve been pleased with my work. I also enjoy working here, but, to be
honest, I really need an increase in pay.
You: _________________________________________________________
Worker: Well, then I guess I‟ll have to look for another job.
7. You are the president of a large research center. A salesman from a computer
company invites you to one of the most expensive local restaurants to have dinner.
Salesman: We have met for several times, and I‟m hoping you will buy my
company‟s computers. Would you like to have dinner with me at the
restaurant to firm up the contract?
You: ________________________________________________________
Salesman: Well, maybe we can meet another time.
296
8. You have just had your hair cut in a fashionable style, and you bump into a friend
in the street.
Friend: That hair cut makes you look great. It makes you look younger!
You: ________________________________________________________
9. You are wearing a new Rolex watch. You meet one friend at your office.
Friend: Wow! What a nice watch! I wish I had one like that.
You: ________________________________________________________
10. You have given a presentation in English class. After the presentation, one of
your classmates comes to you.
Classmate: That was a great presentation. I really enjoyed it.
You: _______________________________________________________
11. You are wearing a new sweater. One of your friends meets you on the
playground in the morning.
Friend: What a nice sweater! You look great in it!
You: _______________________________________________________
12. You are a teacher in a language school. You have invited a group of students to
your house for a meal. After the meal, one of your students comes to speak to you.
Students: I didn‟t know you were such a talented cook. The food was wonderful!
You: _______________________________________________________
13. You started a computer course three months ago. At the end of a lesson your
teacher comes up to you.
Teacher: You are very intelligent and have a flair for computers. Besides, you
show a lot of interest in what we do in the lessons.
You: _______________________________________________________
14. You have been appointed as the sales manager of a large department store
recently. You are out for coffee with a group of colleagues. One of your
employees says to you.
Employee: You‟ve got beautiful eyes.
You: _______________________________________________________
297
15. You borrowed a magazine from your best friend, and you ripped the cover page
by accident. You are giving back the magazine to your friend.
Friend: Oh! What happened to the magazine?
You: _______________________________________________________
16. You are the English teacher who mistook one student‟s examination paper for
another due to the similarity in their names and failed him. You have recognized
that you had made a mistake, and the student has known what had happened and
came to meet you in your office.
Student: What has happened, Sir?
You: _______________________________________________________
17. You showed up an hour late for a group trip on a winter morning because you got
up late on that morning. Your classmates are blaming you at the meeting place.
Classmates: Hey, what‟s happened to you? You are so late!
You: _______________________________________________________
18. You wanted to meet your English teacher in his office, but you went to the wrong
office and interrupted a strange teacher‟s writing.
You: _______________________________________________________
Teacher: It‟s all right. Take it easy.
19. You and Tom are co-workers. You forgot to pass a private message to Tom, and
this is the second time you forgot to pass a message on to him. Tom knew you had
a message for him and went up to you.
Tom: I‟ve been told that you have a message for me.
You: _______________________________________________________
20. You and Mary are classmates. Someone in the class borrowed money from you
and did not give it back. You insisted that Mary was the person who borrowed
money from you. Mary insisted that she did not borrow money from you. At that
moment, another student came into the classroom and told you that he was the
person who had borrowed the money.
Mary (angrily): Do you believe me now?
You: _______________________________________________________
298
Appendix C: Interview questions
(Interviews questions are prepared in both English and Chinese. Considering that
participants can understand the interview questions better and express themselves
much more freely and accurately in their first language – Chinese, interviews were
conducted in Chinese.)
1. What kind of knowledge do you need most at the present stage of English
learning, for example, linguistic knowledge (such as vocabulary, grammar,
phonology, etc.), pragmatic knowledge (such as functions, speech acts,
appropriate use of English, etc.), or both? Give your reasons.
2. How important do you think it is to develop students‟ pragmatic competence

(ability to use English appropriately)?
3. In which way do you like to get pragmatic information/knowledge?
4. What kind of communicative tasks in classroom teaching (such as role-play, group

discussion, pair work, presentation, debate, etc.) do you think is important in
developing students‟ pragmatic competence?
5. What tasks/activities do your English teachers usually conduct in the classroom

teaching? What do you think of your English teachers‟ classroom teaching in
terms of developing your pragmatic competence?
6. What do you think of the quantity of pragmatic knowledge and pragmatically

oriented tasks in the current College English textbooks?
7. Do you believe that current College English classroom teaching and textbooks can
help you develop your pragmatic competence? Why or why not?
8. What kind of language learning strategies do you think is important to improve the
students‟ pragmatic competence? Why?
9. What do you usually do to obtain pragmatic information/knowledge after class?

What kind of English do you want to learn? Why?
10. Do you often apply the English knowledge you have learned in class to the real
situations? Why or why not?
11. Please list a few language learning strategies you have used in learning English
and pragmatics? How do you choose to use these strategies?
12. What difficulties do you have in learning pragmatic knowledge?
299
Chinese version for interview questions
访谈问题
（此次访谈问题用中英文两种文字表述。考虑到学生能更好地理解访谈问题，并更有
效地用第一语言——中文表述自己的看法，所以此次访谈用中文进行。）
1、在目前的英语学习阶段，你最想学的是哪些知识，比如：语言学知识（词汇、语
法、语音等）、语用学知识（语言功能、言语行为、英语的正确使用等）、还是
两者都想学？给出恰当的理由。
2、你如何看待提高语用能力的重要性？
3、你喜欢用哪种方式获取语用信息/知识？
4、你认为在课堂教学中哪种交际任务（比如：角色扮演、小组讨论、配对活动、陈
述发言、辩论等）对于提高学生的语用能力起到重要作用？
5、在课堂教学中你的英语老师经常开展哪些教学任务或活动？就从提高你语用能力
方面来说，你怎样看待你英语老师的课堂教学？
6、你认为当前使用的大学英语教材中语用知识和语用练习所占比重是多少？
7、你认为当前大学英语课堂教学和大学英语教材有助于你语用能力的提高吗？为什
么？
8、你认为哪些语言学习策略对于提高学生的语用能力很重要？为什么？
9、你在课后经常如何去做去获取语用信息/知识？你想学哪种英语？为什么？
10、你能把课堂里所学的英语知识运用于真实生活中吗？为什么？
11、请列举你在英语学习和语用知识学习中经常使用的语言学习策略。你是如何去选
用这些语言学习策略的？
12、你在语用知识学习中碰到哪些困难？
300
Appendix D: Transcripts to students’ responses to open-
ended questions in the questionnaire
What kind of tasks do you think is necessary to improve students‟ communicative

ability in English language teaching and learning?
Tasks:
小组讨论 Group discussions
分角色表演 Role play
辩论 Debate
配对活动（比如：练习对话） Pair-work (e.g. practicing dialogues)
观看原版英语电影和视频 Watching original English films and videos
学唱英语歌曲 Learning to sing English songs
阅读原版英语阅读材料（比如：报纸、杂志） Reading original English
materials (e.g. newspapers, magazines)
讲演 Presentations
Reasons listed by the students:

原版英语电影和视频是很真实生动的英语学习材料。
Original English videos and films are very authentic and vivid English learning
materials.
原版英语报纸和杂志能够让我们学到原汁原味的英语。
Original English newspapers and magazines can help us learn the native-like
English.
我们可以从英语新闻报道中学习地道的英语。
We can learn the native-like English from English news report.
英语歌曲是很有趣的学习材料，能够提高我们学习英语的兴趣，帮助我们
提高英语水平。
English songs are very interesting learning materials, which can help us increase
our interests in learning English and increase our English proficiencies.
301
观看原版英语电影和视频，阅读原版英语报纸和杂志，听英语歌曲能够帮
助提高英语语感，提升我们的交际能力。
Watching original English movies and videos, reading original English
newspapers and magazines, and listening to English songs can help develop the feel
of the English language and improve our communicative ability.
小组讨论、分角色表演和辩论都是集体活动，可以消除学习过程中个人的
恐惧感。
Group discussions, role play and debate are group work, which help overcome
the individual fear in the learning process.
小组讨论、分角色表演、配对活动和辩论能帮助我们增强在使用英语时的
信心。
Group discussions, role play, pair work and debate can help us strengthen our
confidence in using English.
在集体活动中我们可以取长补短。
Individual differences can make up for each other‟s shortcomings in the group
work.
在班级里做讲演让我们感到很紧张。
Giving presentations in front of the others in class makes us feel nervous.
在讲演时我们害怕讲错，特别是犯语法错误，这会让我们感到很尴尬很没
有面子。
We are afraid of making mistakes, especially grammatical mistakes when giving
presentations, which makes us feel embarrassed and lose face.
What kind of language learning strategies do you think is necessary to improve the
students‟ pragmatic competence in English language learning?
Language learning strategies:

背诵英语单词、词组和课文 Memorizing English words, expressions and texts
模仿以英语为母语者的发音及语音语调 Imitating native English speakers‟
pronunciation and intonation
302
跟他人合作 Cooperating with others
记笔记 Note-taking
翻译 Translation
预习 Preparing lessons in advance
从上下文猜测关键词和关键句的意思 Guessing the meaning of (key) words and
sentences from the context
使用图片和视频 Using some images and videos
自我管理/自我监控 Self-management or self-monitoring
自我评估 Self-evaluation
借用中文相关知识和思维模式学习英语 Transferring the knowledge and
thinking skills of Chinese to learning English
选择性注意力 Selective attention
语境 Contextualization
Reasons listed by the students:

背诵和模仿是中国学生学习外语的基本技能。
Memorizing and imitation are the basic skills that Chinese students use in
learning a foreign language.
我们已经习惯了背诵单词、词组和课文，因为从小学开始学习英语时老师
就让我们背诵单词、词组和课文。
We get used to memorizing words, expressions and texts because English
language teachers asked us to do so when we started learning English in the primary
school.
英语老师鼓励我们模仿英语为母语者的发音及语音语调，把他们的发音和
语音语调作为范本。
English language teachers encourage us to imitate native English speakers‟
pronunciation and intonation. We need to set their pronunciation and intonation as
our examples.
英语老师让我们在课前做好预习工作，在课后做好复习工作，这能帮助我
们更好地掌握语言知识。
303
English language teachers ask us to do the preview work before class and go
over lessons after class that can help us better master the language knowledge.
英语老师要求我们上课时记好笔记，这有助于课后复习。
English language teachers require us to do the note-taking during the class,
which helps us do the revision work after class.
英语老师鼓励我们阅读时在查字典之前，通过上下文猜测关键词或关键句
的意思，这能帮助我们提高阅读技巧。
English language teachers encourage us to guess the meaning of (key) words
and sentences from the context before look up the dictionary while reading, which
helps develop our reading skills.
与其他同学合作，如：小组活动，能够帮助我们克服语言学习过程中的恐
惧感，帮助我们获得信心。
Cooperating with other students, such as group work, can help us conquer the
fear during the English language learning process and assist us to gain confidence.
图片和视频让英语学习变得更加生动，让我们通过一种更容易的方法接受
语言知识。
Images and videos make English language learning more vivid. It is easier for
us to take in language knowledge by using images and videos.
我们没有很好的英语学习语境来帮助我们提高英语语用能力。
We do not have a good English learning contex that helps improve our
在中国学习英语要考虑中国的实际情况和学习环境（语境），我们可以借
用中文相关知识和思维模式来学习英语。
Learning English in China needs to consider the practical situations and Chinese
learning context. We can try to transfer the knowledge and thinking skills of Chinese
to learning English.
我们很多时候都用翻译法来学习使用英语，翻译是提高英语学习者语言能
力不可缺少的一种策略。
We often use translation method to learn to use English, and translation is an
indispensable strategy to improve English language learners‟ language competence.
自我管理和评估能够帮助我们发现英语学习中的不足，但是我们不太清楚
具体如何去做。
304
Self-management/self-monitoring and self-evaluation can help us detect the
deficiencies in the English language learning. However, we are not aware how to
conduct self-management or self-evaluation.
选择性地关注自己想要学习的内容，能帮助我们提高学习效率，但是我们
没有得到具体的指导，如何去做。
Selectively paying attention to the content we intend to learn can help us
improve our learning efficiency. However, we have not received specific instructions
on how to conduct it.
Do you believe that the current College English teaching and learning will enable
Negative responses:
在课堂教学中老师主要注重讲解语言点和语法点。
English language teachers focus on the explanation of language points and
grammatical points in the classroom teaching and learning.
老师把课堂里的大部分时间花在讲解语言知识上，如：词汇、语法、句子
结构等等。
English language teachers spend most of the time in class explaining linguistic
knowledge, such as vocabulary, grammar, sentence structures, etc.
大学英语都是大班教学，通常一个教室里有七十或更多的学生。所以，当
前的大学英语教学都是以老师讲为主，学生没有时间和机会进行口语实践及操
练交际功能。
College English is commonly taught in large classes, usually seventy or more
student in one classroom. Therefore, the current College English teaching and
learning are teacher-centred, and students are not given chance or time to practice
their spoken English and communicative functions.
当前大学英语教学还是以通过考试为主，特别是大学英语四六级考试，往
往忽视了语言的实际应用。
305
The current College English teaching and learning is still examination-oriented,
particularly focuses on College English Test (Band Four and Band Six), which
neglects the practical use of English language.
学生和老师还是注重通过大学英语四六级考试。
Both students and teachers pay their attention on passing College English Test
(Band Four and Band Six).
在课堂教学中，老师很少关注学生语用实践能力的发展。
In the classroom teaching and learning, teachers pay little attention to the
development of students‟ pragmatic competence.
现在所使用的教材都还是以语言点、句型和语法练习为主。
The current College English textbooks focus on language points, sentence
structures and grammar practice.
大学英语教材中的课文绝大多数都已经过时，教材中没有很多练习能帮助
学生提高语用实践能力。
Texts in College English textbooks are out-dated, and there are few exercises
help students improve their pragmatic competence.
学生很难找到适合他们的最新的真实的英语语言学习材料。
It is difficult for students to get appropriate updated authentic English language
learning materials.
无论是在课内还是课外，学生几乎没有机会能与以英语为母语的人进行交
流。
Students have few chances to communicate with native English speakers either
in class or after class.
Positive responses:
在大学英语教学过程中，老师有时候会教授一些简单的语言交际功能，比
如问路、订酒店等等。
In the College English teaching and learning, sometimes teachers teach some
simple communicative functions, such as asking the way, booking a hotel, etc.
有时，老师会教学生一些技巧和策略，关于如何正确地把语言交际功能运
用到相应的情形中。
306
Occasionally, teachers teach students skills and strategies on how to correctly
apply language communicative functions to appropriate contexts.
学生有时可以把老师所教的简单的交际功能应用在日常生活中。
Students sometimes can apply simple language communicative functions that
have been taught by teachers in their daily life.
307

Yifeng Yuan Thesis

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Yifeng Yuan Thesis

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Yifeng Yuan Thesis

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

PRAGMATICS, PERCEPTIONS AND STRATEGIES

IN CHINESE COLLEGE ENGLISH LEARNING

Submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

Centre for Learning Innovation

Chinese College English, second language acquisition, pragmatics, intercultural

This study investigated Chinese College English students‟ perceptions of pragmatics,

The traditional “grammar-translation” and “examination-oriented” method is

Three strands of theories of second language acquisition (Ellis, 1985, 1994):

Key Words ............................................................................................................... i

Table 2.1 Summary of past studies of pragmatic awareness in ESL/EFL

Figure 2.1 Categorization of pragmatic knowledge ............................................. 23

CLIL: Content and language integrated learning

Many thanks go to my friends and colleagues: Associate Professor Yiming Zhang,

Thanks also go to Professor Shougen Hu, Vice-Chancellor of Shanghai Second

1.1 English in the world

“Globalization may be thought of initially as the widening, deepening and speeding

Prodromou (1997) and Crystal (2003) estimate that up to 80% of global

In core English-speaking countries, “native-speaker” English should be considered a

As English has played an indispensable role in global communication, it is essential

1.2 College English learning and teaching in China

English is regarded as the dominant language in the world as globalization comes to

College English is receiving considerable attention from the Ministry of Education of

The objective of College English is to develop students‟ ability to use English in

Independent-learning and self-assessment models have been developed and proposed

As a component of non-native English speakers‟ communicative competence

Therefore, informed by second language acquisition (SLA) theory and research

1.3 This empirical study

This study explored Chinese College English students‟ perceptions of pragmatics,

As a sub-theme of communicative competence, pragmatic competence has been

This research on College English students‟ perceptions of pragmatics, their levels of

Previous investigations of pragmatic competence in College English teaching (Du,

1.4 Research questions and aims of the study

Central to this study is the importance of the development of College English

RQ2: To what extent do College English students focus on their pragmatic

1.5 Significance of the study

The College English Curriculum Requirements (2007) stipulates that attainment of

1.6 Overall structure of the thesis

The thesis consists of seven chapters.

There has been an ever-growing focus on language learners‟ development of

2.1.1 Introduction to pragmatics

Communication in society occurs mainly through the medium of language. However,

Although pragmatics is a comparatively new branch of linguistics, reference to

Two women are discussing their children:

A: How is Tom going at school?

(Wierzbicka, 1991, p.391)

2.1.2 Definitions of pragmatics

The term “pragmatics” is defined in different ways from different perspectives.

This broad interpretation of pragmatics, covering much more than linguistic

Trosborg (1995) suggested that pragmatics can be defined as a branch of semiotics

Pütz and Neff-Aertselaer (2008) argued that “pragmatics as a usage-based

2.1.3 Features of pragmatics

Pragmatics, as explored in the study, is characterized by the following key elements:

2.1.3.1 Language users

Second language users or foreign language learners can be understood as individuals

Pragmatics, then, concentrates on language-using humans (Mey, 2001). The proper

Context is a difficult concept to describe, but it is important in distinguishing

Context has a powerful impact on how referring expressions are to be interpreted

2.1.3.4 Social interaction

Understanding social interaction is important for the development of social