Comb Science Physics Notes

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COMB Science Physics Notes
Department of Sciences (University of Zimbabwe)
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Prepared by Farirayi D.T. (0736243049/0775957748)

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TOPICS
 DATA PRESENTATION
 MEASUREMENTS
 FORCE
 MECHANICAL SYSTEMS
 ENERGY
 MAGNETISM
 ELECTRICITY
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DATA PRESENTATION
- Data is information collected in form of numbers
- Data collected by scientists and researchers can be presented in different ways so that
it is easier to understand, interpret and analyse the information.
PIE CHARTS AND LINE GRAPHS
Pie charts
- Is a circular graph divided proportionally into segments to illustrate one set of data as
a percentage of the total.
- Each sector is represented as a portion of 360o because there is 360o in a full circle
- The angle of each sector is proportional to the amount of data in that data set. The
more data there is, the larger the angle.
Constructing a pie chart
- 36 learners were asked the type of transport they use to get to school every day. The
number of learners that use each transport type were recorded in the table below
Transport type Number of learners
Bicycle 3
Bus 9
Car 2
Kombi 8
Foot 14
- Calculate the size of the angle for each sector and percentage of the data relative to
the total number of learners.
Transport type Number of Size of angle (o) % number of learners
learners
Bicycle 3 3 3
𝑥 360 = 30𝑜 𝑥 100 = 8%
36 36
Bus 9 9 9
𝑥 360 = 90𝑜 𝑥 100 = 25%
36 36
2 2
Car 2 𝑥 360 = 20𝑜 𝑥 100 = 6%
36 36
8 8
Kombi 8 𝑥 360 = 80𝑜 𝑥 100 = 22%
36 36
Foot 14 14 14
𝑥 360 = 140𝑜 𝑥 100 = 39%
36 36
 Draw a circle using a mathematical compass and use a radius of about 3cm. Draw
a radius line from the centre to the edge to intersect the circle.
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 Using a protractor, measure the central angle of each sector in a clockwise

direction.
 Start with the largest angle and end with the sector with the smallest central angle.
 Draw a line between each sector. The end of sector is the beginning of each new
sector
Example 1 There are 142 animals in an enclosure. Table 1.3 shows the number of animals
for each animal type
Animal type Number

Buffalo 70
Elephant 46
Rhino 26
a. Calculate the central angles of each data set

b. Draw the pie chart to represent the information
Example 2 A learner collected data on the numbers of learners coming from other
countries other than Zimbabwe.
Country % number of learner
Mozambique 7%
Congo 19%
South Africa 5%
China 26%
Malawi 14%
Canada 2%
Germany 10%
Namibia 17%
a. If there are 42 learners from other countries in your school, calculate
the number learners from each school
b. Calculate the central angles for each country
c. Draw a pie chart to represent the set of data
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Line graphs
- When plotting a line graph;
 Draw and label axes – axes should be labelled with the quantity and the unit in a
similar manner to column headings in a table. The independent variable (the one
you control) is put on the horizontal axis (x-axis). The dependent variable (the one
that changes due to changes in the independent variable) goes on the vertical axis
(y-axis).
 Choose sensible scales – scales should be chosen so that the points occupy at least
half the sheet of graph paper used. You do not necessarily have to include the
origin on the graph.
 Plot points accurately – points should be plotted by drawing a small cross (+) with
a sharp pencil. Do not use dots or blobs
 Draw the best-fit straight line or best smooth curve – when you draw a straight
line use a 30cm ruler and a sharp pencil. There should be an equal number of
points above and below the line. Take care that those points above and those
below the line are evenly distributed along the line.
- Curves should be drawn with a single sweep, with no feathering or sudden jerks
- Always give the graph a heading
- The line that you draw after plotting the points, should always show up the general
pattern that the results take.
- A graph can show a steady increase or decrease in the measurements. This kind of
pattern is called a trend.
- A graph can show the high points and low points in your measurements (peaks and
trough)
- A graph can be used to find values that you have not actually measured
Example 1 An investigation was carried out to find out the effect of temperature on
germination time. Table below shows the results of the investigation
Temperature/oC 5 10 20 25 30 35 40 50
Germination
time/ days 20 15 6 4 8 13 22 No germination
a) Plot the graph of germination time against temperature
b) From your curve, how long would these seeds take to germinate when
temperature was 15oC?
c) Explain why there was no germination at 50oC.
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MEASUREMENT
PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
- Physical quantity is a property of an object or substance that can be measured using

an appropriate measuring instrument.
SI units
- All quantities in science consist of a number and a unit
- There is a system of units used throughout the scientific world known as SI units. The
SI units are based on the units of six base quantities:
 Length metre (m)
 Mass kilogram (kg)
 Time second (s)
 Temperature Kelvin (K)
 Electric current ampere (A)
 Amount of substance mole (mol)
Derived Units
- The units of all other quantities are derived from these base units. For example, speed
is found by dividing the distance travelled by the time taken. Therefore the unit of
speed is metres per second which can be written as m/s or ms-1
- Each derived quantity has units which show how it is related to the base quantities.
Example The unit of force is the Newton. What is this in derived SI units?
Force(N) = mass(kg) × acceleration(ms −2 )
Unit of mass = kg
Unit of acceleration = ms-2

Therefore units of Newtons = kgms-2
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MEASURING LENGTH
- Length is a straight line distance between two points along an object
- SI unit for length is the metre (m)
- Instruments used to measure length include
 Ruler, measuring tape
 Vernier callipers
 Screw gauge micrometre
Ruler
- Have markings as small as a centimetre. Each centimetre is divided into 10 divisions
which are millimetre.
- When taking measurements your eye must be directly above the reading to avoid
parallax error
- Place the object to be measured in line with the zero mark to avoid zero error.
- Rulers can measure to the nearest millimetre
Vernier callipers
- Is used to accurately measure the thickness or internal diameter of small objects.

- The callipers use a vernier scale and the simplest type enables a length to be measured
to 0.01cm. it is a small sliding scale which is 9mm long but divided into 10 equal
divisions so;
9
1 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = 0.9𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑟 0.09𝑐𝑚
10
- One end of length to be measured is made to coincide with the zero of the millimetre
scale and the other end with the zero of the vernier scale
- To measure internal diameter of a narrow tube, place the internal jaws inside the tube.
Move the jaws apart until they touch the inner sides of the object. Once the jaws are in
position, tighten the screw clamp to ensure the vernier scale does not move out of
place while measurement is read.
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How to read a vernier
- To measure the internal or external diameter

 Take the millimetres from the man scale marking before the zero on the
vernier scale.
 Take the next reading from the first vernier mark to coincide with a main scale
mark
 Add the two readings
Example What is the reading the instrument shown on the diagram above
Main scale reading = 11mm
Vernier reading = 0.4 mm
Final reading = 11.4mm
EXERCISE
Read the following vernier scales
Screw gauge micrometer
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- Can measure smaller lengths than the vernier callipers.

- It can measure very small objects to 0.001cm. one revolution of the thimble opens the
accurately flat, parallel jaws by one division on the scale on the shaft of the gauge;
1
this is usually 𝑚𝑚, i.e. 0.05cm
2
- If the thimble has a scale of 50 divisions round it, then rotation of the drum by one
0.05
division opens the jaws by = 0.001𝑐𝑚
50
- A friction clutch ensures that the jaws exert the same force when the object is gripped.
- To read the micrometer
1. Take the reading of millimetres and half millimetres from the sleeve 3.50mm
2. Take the reading from the thimble 0.11mm
3. Add the readings together 3.61mm
EXERCISE Read a micrometer screw gauge
MEASURING CURRENT AND VOLTAGE
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DENSITY
Density of liquids
- Density is the mass per unit volume

- The units of density is g/cm3 or kg/m3
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑚)
Density =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝑣)
- To determine density of a liquid, first determine both its mass and volume
- Volume is found by pouring the liquid into a measuring cylinder
- Mass is found by;
 Weighing the beaker and record its mass in grams
 Pour the liquid into the beaker and measure the mass in grams
 Subtract the two measurements of mass, to find the mass of water
- Then use the mass and volume obtained to find its density
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FORCE
WEIGHT AND MASS
Weight
- It is the force acting on mass due to gravity. It is the pull of gravity on the body
- It is measured in Newtons (N) using a spring balance or forcemeter
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
W = mg
- The gravitation field strength near the surface of the earth is 10Nkg-1. Therefore a
mass of about 100g (0.1kg) has a weight of just less than 1N on the earth’s surface.
- Its weight on moon is only 0.16N. The gravitational acceleration on the moon is not
the same as on the earth. On the moon gravitational acceleration is 1.6Nkgs-1 while on
earth is 10Nkg-1
Example An astronaut and his spacesuit have a total mass of 120kg. What will be his
(a) Weight on earth (b) Mass on moon (c) Weight on moon
Differences between mass and weight
Mass Weight
- Is a measure of the body’s inertia - force acting on mass due to gravity
- Measured in kilograms using a - Measured in newtons using a force
balance meter or spring balance
- Depends on inertia - Depends on mass
- Is independent of the position of - Varies according to the
a body gravitational field in which the
- Has only magnitude and no body lies
direction - Has both magnitude and direction
Momentum
- Linear momentum is defined as the product of mass and velocity

- It is a measure of an object’s resistance to stop.
- The units are kgms-1
𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
- For example, that a body of mass 2 kg travelling 3ms-1 has a momentum of 6kgms-1.
A body of the same mass travelling at the same speed but in the opposite direction has
a moment of 6kgms-1
Example 1 A trolley has a mass of 30Kg. The trolley is moving at a constant (uniform)
velocity of 2ms-1 to the right. Calculate the momentum of the trolley.
Example 2 calculate the momentum of a cruise tuner of mass 20 000tonne when travelling
at 6.0ms-1 (1 tonne = 1000kg)

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Inertia
- It is the property of a mass which resists change from its state rest or uniform motion.
- The inertia of an object refers to the reluctance of the object to start moving if it is
stationery or reluctance of the object to stop moving if it is moving in the first
instance.
Newton’s laws of motion

Newton’s first law
A body will remain at rest, or to move with a constant velocity, unless acted upon by a
resultant force
- The first law tells us two things i.e. if there is no resultant force acting on an object at
rest, the object will remain at rest an if there is no resultant force acting on a moving
object, the moving object will continue to move at a constant speed in a straight line,
i.e. constant velocity.
Application
- Drivers need to wear seat belts when driving because of the effect of inertia. Without
the seat belt, if the driver suddenly applies his car brakes, he will continue to move
forward due to his inertia and crash into the windscreen.
- Slide a glass full of water across a table to the right. The water in the glass will seem
as though it is moving to the left of the glass. This is a result of inertia.
- A foot ball will remain stationery forever unless moved by some external force
Newton’s second law
The acceleration of mass is proportional to the force on it, provided the mass stays the same
- Newton’s second law tells us that when there is a resultant force acting on an object,
the object will either slow down (decelerate) or speed up (accelerate)
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
Example 1 A boy pushed a box of mass 20kg with a force of 50N. What is the
acceleration of the box?

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Example 2 What is the force that acts on 2kg mass when a constant acceleration of 3m/s-2
is expressed?
Example 3 A car of mass 1.2 tonnes accelerates from 5ms-1 to 30ms-1 in 7.5s. Calculate
the average accelerating force on the car.
Verifying Newton’s second law experimentally
- Place a trolley on the top of sloped plank and friction compensates the slope. This
means lift the plank till the trolley is just ready to roll i.e. the friction forces balance
the gravitational forces. Any further force applied to the trolley will cause it to move.
- Place a mass on the hook, which will cause the trolley to move down the slope, and its
acceleration can be found from the ticker-tape.
- Record this result. As the mass is subject to gravitational force, this must be what is
causing the acceleration, a. This mass value must be multiplied by 10 to change into
Newtons. Record this value as being the acceleration force, F.
- Repeat the procedure at least six times, but change the mass which is causing the
accelerating force so that a graph of acceleration can be plotted against force
Newton’s third law
Action and reaction are equal and opposite
- If body A exerts a force on body B then body B will exert a force on body A of equal
magnitude but in opposite direction.
- Forces occur in pairs i.e. action force and reaction force
- The action and reaction are equal in magnitude, act opposite to one another and act on
different bodies.
Application

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- A high jump will exert an action on the ground which reacts by causing the jumper to
spring upwards.
- As birds push down on the air with their wings, the air pushes their wings up and
gives them lift thus making it possible for them to fly
- A fish uses its fins to push water backwards. The water reacts by pushing the fish
forward, propelling the fish through the water.
- The baseball forces the ball to the left and the bat forces the ball to the right.

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MECHANICAL SYSTEMS
MACHINES
- A machine is a device that causes a change in the way that these forces act.
- Machines are mechanical systems designed to make hard work easier e.g. inclined
planes, gears, pulleys and levers by using less applied force (effort) to lift a larger
force (load)
Mechanical Advantage (MA)

- It is the measure of how much easier it is to complete a task using a simple machine.
The greater the MA, the easier it is to do work
- Is the ratio of two forces
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 (𝐿)
𝑀𝐴 =
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 (𝐸)
Velocity Ratio (VR)

- Is the ratio of two distances i.e. distance moved by the effort and the distance moved
by load.
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑉𝑅 =
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Efficiency
- Is the ratio of work output (MA) and work input (VR). It can be expressed as a
percentage.
𝑀𝐴
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = (× 100%)
𝑉𝑅
NB Efficiency, VR and MA are all ratios hence have no units
Levers

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- Is a rigid bar that rotates around a fixed support called a fulcrum to lift a load
- The lever is a machine which acts as a force multiplier i.e. it allows a smaller force
(effort) to overcome a large force (load) e.g. pliers, crowbar, scissors, wheelbarrow
- By increasing the effort distance MA and VR increases while efficiency remains the
same.
- Efficiency is improved through lubrication as it reduces friction
Gears
- A gear is a system of wheels with interlocking teeth so that one wheel drives another
by transferring force from one gear to another.
- Effort gear is smaller than load gear and has to be turned several times for the load
gear to turn
- A gear with 12 teeth makes two revolutions to drive and rotate another gear with 24
teeth a full cycle.
number of teeth on load gear
VR =
number of teeth on effort gear
diameter of load gear

MA =
diameter of effort gear
- Efficiency can be improved by
 Lubrication
 Appropriate shaping of gear teeth
 Proper alignment of gear teeth to reduce friction
Inclined Plane
- Is a flat surface that is at an angle to the horizontal

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- Efficiency can be improved through

 Lubrication
 Increasing length of incline
length of incline(d)
VR =
height of incline(h)
Pulleys
- Is a wheel with a groove through which a rope or belt passes
Single fixed pulley
- The load is raised off the ground by an effort which is also directed down wards;
therefore the pulley changes the direction of the force.
- MA = 1 because the values of the load and effort will be the same
- VR = 1 because distance moved by the load and effort must be the same
Single moveable pulley
- The tension in the string is the same as the effort i.e. it is also an upward force.

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- MA = 2 because the load is two times the effort

- VR = 2 because as the pulley moves up the load, the string moves twice the distance.
Block and Tackle
- Two or more pulleys used. The machines become a force multiplier as well as
direction changer.
- It uses both fixed and moveable pulley
- VR = the number of pulleys/ropes
Efficiency of pulleys can be improved through
 Lubrication
 Using lighter pulleys
 Increasing number of pulleys
Energy losses in machines

- Machines are used to do work, converting energy from one form to another. In
practice machines are never 100% efficient. This means that total energy input is
greater than the useful work output.
- Some of the energy input is converted to unwanted forms such as heat and sound. To
overcome or minimise friction, the movable parts of the machine are lubricated or
using rollers and ball bearings.
- Some of the energy input is used to overcome mass of moving parts of the machine
hence there is need for mass reduction.
PRESSURE
Pressure in solids
- Pressure is defined as the normal force exerted per unit area.
force
Pressure =
area

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- Pressure is in Nm-2. 1Nm-2 is called 1 Pascal (Pa). For high pressures the pressure is
expressed in kilopascals (kPa).
- The greater the area over which a force acts, the less the pressure. Diagram below
shows pressure exerted on the floor by the same box standing on end and lying flat.
This is why a tractor with wide wheels can move over soft ground
- The pressure is large when the area is small and this why nails are made with sharp
points
Example 1 Calculate the pressure under a girl’s feet if her mass is 50 kg and the area of
her shoes in contact with the ground is
(i) 2cm2 (high heels)

(ii) 200cm2 (flat sole)(Take acceleration due to gravity, g = 10ms-2)
Example 2 If a block is resting on one of its faces measuring 5cm x 10cm, and its weight
is 22.5 N. Calculate the pressure.
Example 3 A 1000kg truck with four wheels is parked on a tarmac road. If each tyre has a
contact surface area of 0.0080m2, what is the pressure caused on the road. [g =
10N/kg]
Pressure in fluids
Atmospheric pressure
- It is the pressure exerted by the air on earth. Atmospheric pressure decrease with
height since force of gravity decrease further away from the centre of the earth.
- It exerts pressure equally in all directions
- At sea level atmospheric pressure is approximately 100 000 Pa (100kPa)

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Liquid pressure
- A liquid exerts pressure on the sides of its container and on any object in the liquid.
The pressure exerted by the liquid increases as the depth increased.
- The diagram below shows a beaker containing a liquid of density, ρ.
- The pressure on the Area, A, is due to the weight of the column of water of height
above height, h,
- Pressure depends on the density of the liquid. The denser the liquid, the greater the
pressure at any given depth
Pressure due to a liquid column = height of column x density of the liquid x gravity
𝐥𝐢𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐝 𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐞 = 𝛒𝐠𝐡
- Pressure in a liquid increases with depth because the further down you go, the greater
the weight of the liquid above.
- At the same level, pressure is the same in all directions.
- Values calculated will be the pressure due to the fluid at each depth. The pressure
includes the atmospheric pressure due to the fluid at each depth.
- Water spurts out further from the lowest outlet and spurts out less far at highest outlet.
This shows that liquid pressure increases with depth.

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- Dam walls are wide at the base to withstand large forces of water at the bottom since
pressure increases with depth.
Gas Pressure
Manometer
- Consist of a U-tube of transparent material half filled with a coloured liquid.

- When the manometer is not connected to any gas supply, only atmospheric pressure
acts on both surfaces of the liquid. The liquid settle at same level since pressure is the
same at both ends
- If one side is connected to a gas supply, the gas exerts a pressure on the surface A and
level B rises until pressure of gas equals atmospheric pressure + pressure due to liquid
column BC.
- The pressure of the liquid column BC therefore equals the amount by which the gas
pressure exceeds atmospheric pressure
- The water level in that arm is depressed and the liquid in the other arm rises. A
measurement of height (h) is recorded
- The pressure of source equals the difference in levels plus atmospheric pressure
𝒈𝒂𝒔 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 = 𝒂𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 + 𝝆𝒈𝒉
Example 1 Atmospheric pressure at sea level supports a column of 0.76m of mercury,

density 13600kg/m3. If g is taken to be 10m/s2, calculate pressure
Example 2 Water whose density is 1000kg/m3 fills a tank 5m high. Calculate the pressure
exerted at the bottom of the tank. [g = 10ms-2]
Example 3 Given that acceleration due to gravity is 10ms-2 and the density of water is
1000kg/m3. Calculate the water pressure at a point 20cm deep.
Example 4 In a reservoir, the height of water at the dam is 50m. Given that the density of
water is 1000kg/m3 and acceleration due to gravity is 10ms-2. Calculate the
pressure exerted at the bottom of the dam(ignore atmospheric pressure)

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FLUID SYSTEMS
Siphon
- The siphon is a system that uses gravity to transfer a liquid from one container to
another using a flexible tube.
- Source container must be at a higher level than the receptacle container for siphon to
work.
- To start the siphon process, the tube must be filled with the liquid. This is done by
gently sucking air out and then releasing the liquid through the lower end C.
- The liquid will then move up into the tube and move freely as long as the upper arm
remains in the liquid in the tank.
- Atmospheric pressure on the surface of the water pushes water out
- The theory for the siphon action is based on the molecules nature of matter and the
fact that the molecules in the liquid have a force of attraction between them. Once the
liquid is moving under these conditions, the molecular force of attraction in the
remaining stream will allow the liquid to continue to flow.
HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS
- Use the following principle of liquids;
 Liquids transmit pressure
 Pressure is the same throughout the liquid
 Small forces move a larger force
Car breaking system

- When the brake pedal is pressed, this creates a pressure in the fluid which is
transmitted equally through the cylinder and into the brake (slave) cylinders.
- Pressure acts on slave cylinder pistons and force is exerted on brake shoes so that they
come into contact with the wheel drum. This causes friction which stops the car.
- By having large slave cylinders than the master cylinder, the driver will exert a small
force on the brake pedal than is finally felt by the brakes.

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- The hydraulic fluid has the following properties

 Cannot be compressed
 Transmit pressure equally in all directions
 Prevents bubble formation-presence of bubbles in the fluid means any
transmitted force would compress the bubbles instead of passing on the
pressure.
Hydraulic jack
- Suppose a downward force f acts on a piston of area a. The pressure transmitted

through the liquid is
𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑓
𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = =
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴
- This pressure acts on a second piston of larger area A, producing an upward force,
𝐹 = pressure × area:
𝑓
𝐹 = ×𝐴
𝑎
- Since A is larger than a, F must be larger than f and the hydraulic system is a force
multiplier; the multiplying factor is 𝐴⁄𝑎

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Example 1 Suppose f = 40N; a = 0.2m2 and A = 0.5m2, calculate force on the load.
40N
F= x 0.5 = 100N
0.2
- A force of 1N could lift a load of 50N; the hydraulic system multiplies the force 50
times.
- Both valves open only to the right and they allow B to be raised a long way when A
moves up and down repeatedly.
- Small force is applied at the effort piston (A) and pressure is created in the fluid by
the piston.
- Pressure is transmitted equally in all directions and the fluid moves towards the larger
piston (B). Same pressure acts on the load piston causing the load to rise
- Load piston has greater area, therefore greater force to raise the load than the force on
the small piston.
PUMPS
The Blair Lift Pump

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- When the plunger is moved down, the valve at the base of the cylinder to closes.
Water moves up past the piston valve into the pump raising main.
- When the handle is pulled up, the piston valve closes due to the weight of the water
above the valve. Water moves up past the valve at the base of the cylinder and fills the
cylinder. Water flow from the nozzle and can be used to fill a bucket
Common Lift Pump

- During upstroke, piston moves up and a partial vacuum is created in the cylinder and
atmospheric pressure forces water into the cylinder through the cylinder valve. Piston
valve remains closed and water passes out through the nozzle.
- During downstroke, piston moves down and a partial vacuum is created in the
cylinder above the piston. Pressure below the piston closes the cylinder valve and
forces the piston valve open. Water moves through piston valve and fills the cylinder
above the piston.
- Continous upstroke and downstrokes will result in continous flow of water. It should
be noted that the lift pump cannot pump more than 10 metres high.
The Force Pump
- During downstroke, piston moves down, valve A closes and valve B opens. Water is
filled in the temporary tank with air being highly compressed. Water is forced out
through the nozzle.
- On upstroke, A opens as atmospheric pressure forces water into pump. Air pressure in
temporary tank is exerted on the water and this causes valve B to lose, while water is
forced continously come out through the nozzle.
The Bicycle Pump

- Is used to force air into tyres

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- When the piston is moved inwards, the leather washer presses against the sides of the
cylinder forming an air tight seal. The air in the cylinder is forced into the tyre
through the tyre valve. The value allows air to pass one way only
- When the piston is pulled out, pressure in the cylinder is reduced and the washer
collapses allowing air into the cylinder
- The strength of the washer is vital if a lot air is to be forced into an already high
pressure tyre. The force pump used must be able to produce higher pressures than this,
otherwise and the force air would not be able to enter the tyre.

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ENERGY
PETROL AND DIESEL ENGINES
Operation of a four stroke petrol and diesel engine
PETROL DIESEL
Diagrams
Intake - Inlet valve opens and - Inlet valve opens and exhaust
exhaust valves closed valve closes
- Piston moves down and - Piston moves down
pressure in the cylinder - air is drawn into the cylinder
decreases
- Petrol air mixture is
sucked in
Compression - All valves closed - All valves closed
- Piston moves up - Piston moves up, compressing
- Petrol air mixture is the air so that it heats up
compressed
Power - Both valves are closed - Diesel is injected into the hot
- A spark from the spark air through the fuel injector
plug ignites the mixture - Diesel immediately ignites
- The mixture explodes and and drives
expands forcing the piston - Pressure caused by the quick
down expansion of the gases pushes
- Chemical energy is the piston down
converted to kinetic
energy causing motion in
the vehicle
Exhaust - Inlet valve is closed and - Exhaust valve opens
exhaust valve opens - Piston moves up and exhaust
- Piston moves up and gases are expelled
exhaust gases are expelled

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The role of the fuel injector and carburettor

Fuel injector
- Pump fuel into the combustion chamber. It makes sure that the correct quantity of fuel
is injected at the correct time.
Carburettor
- Ensures that the correct amount of air and fuel are mixed together in the cylinder to
make sure that the engine runs correctly
- When the engine is running a stream of air passes above the jet in the venturi. A low
pressure is created above the jet such that atmospheric pressure pushes petrol out of
the jet.
- The petrol comes out as fine sprays that mixes with air forming a petrol-air mixture
which then passes into the cylinder
Parts of the carburretor and their functions
1. Filters – clean air and fuel

2. Choke – control air supply
3. Jet – fuel supply
4. Throttle – controls amount of fuel air mixtures that gets to the cylinders
Compare petrol and diesel engine
DIESEL PETROL
- Fuel is ignited by heat produced - Fuel ignited by the spark plug
from compressing the air
- Diesel engine is more efficient - Less efficient (25%)
(40%)
- Less pollution by carbon monoxide - More pollution by carbon
monoxide produced by
incomplete combustion.
- Fuel injector present - Carburettor present
- No spark plug - Spark plug

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The operation of a modern petrol and diesel engine

Petrol Engine
- Have more powerful, better fuel efficiency and release few harmful emissions
- Carburettors have been replaced with an electronically controlled fuel injector to
allow for more accurate ratio of fuel and air before the spark plugs ignite the mixture.
This improves efficiency of the petrol engines.
- Most of the operating systems of new petrol engines are run by computers, which
makes the process more accurate
- It has turbo chargers to increase compression power
Diesel Engine
- Cylinder made of stronger material to allow the temperature of the air in the cylinder
to increase even more.
- Higher air temperature increases the efficiency of the ignition of the diesel fuel. It
allows for a more powerful explosion that increases the efficiency and power output
of the engine.
- It has turbo-intercooler to improve efficiency
- Has pre-combustion chambers and has multiple holes on the injector
Advantages of modern petrol engines over old petrol engines
- Fast start
- Increased efficiency due to use of computers and stronger materials
- Increased power due to use of more accurate fuel injector and more powerful
explosions can occur in the combustion chamber.
- Reduces the number of litres of petrol needed to drive a certain distance thus reducing
running costs of the vehicle
HEAT TRANSFER
Conduction
- Heat transfer through solids by vibrations of particles.
- All solids are made up of atoms or molecules
- When heat is applied at one end free electrons are given kinetic energy by heat and
they move along the metal carrying energy. Particles begin to vibrate vigorously and
in turn transmit the energy they have to their neighbouring particles.
Good and bad Conductors
- Equal sized rods of different materials had match sticks attached on ends by wax and
heat is applied.
- Heat flows from a region of higher temperature to a region of lower temperature,
therefore the wax on the rods melts.

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- The wax melts faster on the copper rod, followed by brass, iron, aluminium and lastly
wood
- Metals are good heat conductors and transfer heat energy rapidly while non metals,
gases and liquids are poor conductors and transfer heat slowly. They are called
thermal insulators
Radiation
- Heat transfer through a vacuum
- No material medium is required and heat travel in form of waves i.e. electromagnetic
waves.
Good and bad reflectors, absorbers and emitters of heat
- Absorption occurs when an object receives heat energy and increases in temperature
- Reflection occurs when heat energy strikes an object and bounces back off the object
- Emission is the transfer of heat through radiation. Emission causes temperature to fall
- Pour same amount of water in both tins

- Close the tins and place a thermometer
- Record initial temperature of water in each tin
- Place the tins in sun for 30 minutes and record the temperature again
 Black or dull tin will have a larger increase in temperature while the white tin
will have smaller increase in temperature. Black dull tins absorb all the heat
faster while the white tin reflects some of the heat and absorbs less heat
- Place the tins in a room for 30 mins and record the temperature.
 Temperature of water in the black tin decreased faster and was lower than that
of the white tin after 30 minutes

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- Dull, black surfaces are good absorbers and emitters of heat while shiny, white
surfaces are good reflectors but bad absorbers and emitter of heat.
Solar cooker
- Is made up of large curved reflectors (mirror) which focuses solar radiation on to the
pot
- Radiant energy falls on mirrors and is reflected. The reflected radiation is
concentrated and focused at one point. This produces intense heat which can reach
temperature of up to 200oC. The cooking point has a dark surface in order to increase
heat absorption.
Convection
- Convection is heat transfer through fluids (liquids or gas). The movement of a liquid
or gas allows heat to be transferred by convection currents.
- A convection current is the movement of fluid by the change in densities in various
parts of the fluid
- Convection currents occur only in fluids (liquids and gases) because convection
involves the bulk movement of the fluids which carry heat with them
Convection in liquids
- When heated at the bottom of the beaker the potassium permanganate is seen moving
around in convection currents
- The potassium permanganate is used to colour the moving water so that the
movement can be observed. Purple streams of water are seen to rise vertically
upwards in the centre of the flask of liquid and then sink again along the sides of the
flask.

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- When the water at the bottom of the flask is heated, it expands. The fluid is now less
dense than the surrounding liquid and therefore starts to rise. The cooler regions of the
fluid in the upper part of the flask, being denser now descend. This movement due to
difference in density sets up convection current.
Convection in gases
- The smouldering paper produces smoke

- Air above the candle was heated, become lighter and rises, creating a partial vacuum
which in turns is filled in by cold dense air that flows into the apparatus through one
chimney. This created convectional currents and smoke is seen continuously coming
out through the other chimney
Solar water heater

- The solar water heater is placed on the roof of a house to absorb maximum solar
radiation since there no obstacles.
- The panel is heated directly by radiation from the sun. The heat is then transferred to
water inside the panel by conduction.
- Radiation falls on blackened copper plate. Black surfaces are good absorbers of heat.
The absorbed heat is passed on to thin copper tubes. Copper is a good heat conductor.
- Heat is then passed to the water; the thin copper tubes easily pass heat to the water.
The thin copper tubing is coiled to increase surface area for heating the water.
- Heated water is stored in an insulated tank to reduce heat loss.
- The glass plate traps hot air in the panel by the green house effect
- The expanded polystyrene base prevents heat loss by convection while air spaces
prevent heat loss by conduction to the roof.

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TELECOMMUNICATION
- Telecommunication is the transmission of signals, signs, messages or information of
any nature by wire or radio
Cell phones
- A microchip inside a cell phone takes the vibrations of your voice into a tiny
microphone which turns it to strings of numbers (encoding) that are transmitted in
form of radio waves by means of the phone’s antenna to the nearest cell phone mast.
- The mast works in the same way as the tiny antenna in the phone, transmitting the
radio waves across to the next phone mast and the next, until it reaches the one closest
to the person you are trying to phone.
- From that mast it is transmitted to the other person’s phone where the encoded digital
message is decoded back into electrical pulses that get the speaker of the receiver
vibrating to produce sound waves.
- The signal is analogue at first and the cell phone digitalises it before sending it off to a
mast. The signal quality is very good i.e. there is very little loss of energy and sound
quality
- The signal is converted back to analogue by the other cell phone and into sound
waves for the other person to hear.
Email
- The internet works similar to cell phones and regular phones, converting information
into a string of numbers and transmitting these through a combination of radio waves
through antennas, electrical pulse through phone lines and pulses of lights through
fibre optics. In order to make this possible, the computer chips in the computer break
up information into smaller, addressed packets.
Telephones

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- Transmits vibrations created by a person’s vocal cords through a wire to a receiver.

- The signal is analogue from sender to receiver.
- When speaking in the mouth piece, the voice makes the diaphragm in the microphone
inside vibrate converting sound energy into electrical energy. The electrical energy
travels from the phone through exchanges to another phone where the diaphragm in
the loud speaker inside the ear piece of the receiving phone converting the incoming
electrical energy back to sound energy.
Signal transmission
- There are two types of signals are used in telecommunications i.e.
a) Analogue signals is made up of a continuous wave that varies over time in both
amplitude and frequency. The wave contains the message that is being
transmitted.
b) Digital signal is an electrical signal that has been chopped into bits which are in
form of pulses that can only take two values either 1 or 0. Therefore a digital
signal is made up of series of ones (on) and zeros (off).
Media for signal transmission

- Signal carry the message and is transmitted in two ways i.e.
a) Guided media in cables e.g. optic fibre, coaxial cables and sheathed pair cables
b) Wireless media e.g. Wi-Fi
Transmission in cables
- Optic fibre sends information coded in a beam of light down a glass pipe in modes.
The light that carries the signal cannot leave the cable but continue to totally
internally reflect off the edges of the glass until it reaches its destination
- Sheathed cables and coaxial cables all have copper wires through which electrical
signal travels.
- The signal is analogue from talker to listener. The signal travels by electrical pulses
through copper wires or by light through optic cables.
- The signals via copper cables tend to attenuate (lose energy) along the way. This is
why amplifiers (signal boosters) are needed along the way. However there is less
attenuation in optic cables and the signal speed is very fast sent via light. Optic fibre
can also carry far more data than copper cables
Wireless signal transmission
- A wireless network uses radio waves

- Wireless signals are electromagnetic waves travelling through a pathway from a
transmitter, into space and finally receiver. The space of the pathway is unguided, so
waves generally transmit in all directions and any appropriated antenna can receive
the signal.

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- A computer’s wireless adapter translates data into a radio signal and transmits it using
an antenna and waves are formed around the antenna which can travel some distance
depending on the strength of that energy. A wireless router receives the signal and
decodes it. The router sends the information to the internet thus the router relay
connections to and from the internet.
- When a device sends out a wireless signal, it is called a transmitter
- When another device picks up that wireless signal and understands the information, it
is called a receiver
- Wi-Fi is essentially two radios communicating back and forth that use lower power
and broad cast over much shorter distances. Wi-Fi is a method of linking wireless
devices to the internet through a shared connection point (router) which typically
makes a wired connection to a telephone or cable line.

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MAGNETISM
ELECTROMAGNETISM
Demonstrating magnetic field in a conductor current carrying
- A large coil with many turns of insulated copper wire is set up vertically with one of
its vertical side passing through a hole in the centre of a piece of a cardboard
supported horizontally.
- Current is passed through the coil
- A fine layer of iron filings is then sprinkled on the cardboard and is taped gently. Iron
filings set in a series of concentric circles about the wire.
- A small compass placed on the card indicates the direction of the field
Magnetic field in a long straight conductor
- The magnetic field of a straight current-carrying conductor can be investigated using

apparatus shown in diagram above.
- The field of a straight current-carrying conductor is a set of concentric circles around
the wire. The field direction depends on the current direction
Magnetic field due to a coil
- When an electric current is passed through a solenoid (coil) the resultant magnetic
field is similar to that of a bar magnet. It acts as a magnet when current flows through
it

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MOTORS
The motor effect

- When a current carrying conductor lies in a magnetic field there is a force on the
conductor. This is called the motor effect
- When the coil is placed in another magnetic field that is created by two magnets. The
interaction of the two fields creates a force that causes movement and runs the motor.
How movement is produced in a current carrying wire in a magnetic field
- A conductor carrying current has a magnetic field around it.

- When the wire is placed in another magnetic field, the interaction of the two fields
will produce movement on the wire
- Observation would confirm that the wire moved up when the current was in one
direction and moved in the other direction when the current is reversed
- Direction of induced force can be determined by using Fleming’s left hand rule.
Stretch the thumb, index and middle finger of the left hand so that they are
perpendicular to each other
 Index or first finger shows direction of field i.e. north to south
 Middle or second finger shows the direction of current
 Thumb shows the direction of force or movement
The operation of a direct current (d.c.) motor

- Consist of a coil placed in a magnetic field.
- The magnetic field due to the current in the coil interacts with that of permanent
magnet.
- Using Fleming’s left hand rule, the forces are in the clockwise direction.
- The coil overshoots vertical position because of the momentum it has gained.
- The commutator reverse its contact with the ends of the coil thereby ensuring that
current is always in one direction.
- The motor converts electrical energy to mechanical energy

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Factors that affect the rotation of the coil
 Strength of magnetic field

 Number of turns in the coil
 Amount of current passed
 Cross sectional area of the coil
- The speed of a motor is increased by
 Increasing current
 Increasing number of turns in the coil to increase surface area
 Using stronger magnets to increase density of magnetic field
 Place a soft-iron core within the magnetic field lines
GENERATORS
Generator effect
- When a conducting wire is moved through a magnetic field, a voltage is generated
along the conductor. This causes a change in the magnetic field, called a magnetic
flux. This called generator effect. The voltage induced is the e.m.f
- An e.m.f can be induced when a magnet is moved through a current carrying coil. The
rotation of the coil in a magnetic field induces an e.m.f in the coil.
An experiment which show that a change in magnetic field can induce electromotive force
(e.m.f) in a conductor.

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- When the magnet approaches the coil, north-pole first, the induced current should
flow in a direction that makes the coil behave like a magnet with its top a north pole.
The downward motion of the magnet will then be opposed since like poles repel.
- When the magnet is withdrawn, the top of the coil should become a south pole and
attract the north pole of the magnet, so hindering its removal. The induced current is
thus in the opposite direction to that when the magnet approaches
- When there is a change in the magnetic lines of force passing through the coil, an
e.m.f is induced in the conductor.
Factors which affect the magnitude of induced e.m.f.
- Strength of a magnet – a stronger magnet induces a stronger e.m.f

- Relative motion – moving or rotating the conductor (coil) faster induces a stronger
e.m.f
- Number of turns – the more the turns are in the coil, the stronger the induced e.m.f
- Area of coil – the larger the area that the magnetic field acts over the stronger the
induced e.m.f
Simple d.c. generator
- It has split ring commutator

- As the coil rotates in the magnetic field of a permanent magnet, it cuts across
magnetic lines of force at right angles causing a change in the magnetic field (flux).
This change induces an e.m.f through the coil, so current is through the coil.
- The brushes are arranged so that as the coil goes through the vertical, changeover of
contact occurs from one half of the split ring of commutator to the other. But it is
when the coil goes through the vertical position that the voltage induced in the coil
reverses, so one brush is always positive and the other negative
- From the graph shown; although varying in value, it never changes direction and
would produce a direct current(d.c.) in an external circuit
- The e.m.f on the graph always has positive value. When the coil is vertical, no
magnetic field lines are being cut by the coil, hence no current.
- When the coil is horizontal, the coil is cutting the field lines, hence maximum current
in the coil.

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Simple a.c. generator
- As the coil rotates the magnetic field through the coil changes and therefore induces
an e.m.f. between the ends of the coil. The induced current does not flow unless the
ends of the coil are connected to an external circuit with an electrical load. The slip
rings allow the transfer of alternating e.m.f. induced in the rotating coil to the external
coil.
- Each ring is connected to one end of the coil wire and electrically connected by a
carbon brush to the rest of the circuit. The brushes on the coil touch the slip rings
while the coil rotates for a full, continuous cycle thus causing the current in the
external circuit to change direction every time the coil makes half turns. An a.c
current is generated
- The current in the external circuit changes direction every half revolution.
- As the coil moves through the vertical position with ab uppermost, ab and cd are
moving along lines (bc and da do so always) and no cutting occurs. The induced
voltage is zero
HYDRO AND THERMAL POWER GENERATION

- The processes involved in the production of electricity at power stations depend on
the energy being used
- Power stations for generating electricity use alternators driven either by water or
steam turbines. A turbine is a wheel with paddles that can be rotated by running water
or steam.
Thermal power
- Turbines are connected to the generator driven by steam under great pressure
- Coal (or any fossil fuel) is burnt to produce heat energy that turns water into steam.
The steam drives turbines which in turn drive the generators that produce electrical
energy.
- If coal is used, the steam is obtained from a boiler
- Steam enters the turbine and is directed by the stator on to the rotor (sets of blades on
a shaft that can rotate)

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- The rotor revolves and drives the electrical generator. The steam expands as it passes
through the turbine and the size of the blades increases along the turbine to allow for
this
Chemical energy heat energy kinetic energy of electrical

of steam rotating turbine energy
Hydro power
- Turbines are connected to a generator driven by the movement of water.
- Water is channelled down towards the turbines and then released back into the river
after use.
- The potential energy of water falling from a height is changed by turbines to kinetic
energy and then by alternators to electrical energy.
- The alternators generate a high alternating voltage and can supply currents of
thousands of amperes.
Potential energy kinetic energy kinetic energy electrical

of water of falling water of rotating turbine energy

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ELECTRICITY
STATIC ELECTRICITY
Electrostatic charging
- Friction between objects can cause electrons to be transferred from one object to
another. When the object gains electrons, it becomes negatively charged. When an
object loses electrons it becomes positively charged. Perspex attains positive charge
while polythene attains negative charge.
- Rub a polythene rod with a woollen cloth and suspend the charged rod by a cotton
thread from a retort stand. Charge a second polythene rod and bring it towards the
suspended rod and repulsion occurs i.e. like charges repel. Charge a perspex rod
towards the suspended polythene rod and attraction occurs i.e. unlike charges attract.
Gold leaf electroscope
- The gold leaf electroscope is a simple instrument used to detect electric charges
- A gold-leaf electroscope consists of a brass rod, with a brass (metal) cap and a brass
plate at the bottom. A thin leaf of gold or aluminium foil is attached to the brass plate.
The brass rod is mounted in a glass case, supported by a plug of insulating material
Detecting a charge

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- When the gold leaf is close to the brass plate in a collapse state then the brass cap,
brass rod, brass plate and the gold leaf are electrically neutral. There is no excess
charge.
- When a charged insulator (such as a positively-charged glass rod) is brought near to
the brass cap, the free electrons from the brass and gold parts of the electroscope are
attracted to the brass cap leaving the brass plate and gold leaf positively charged. This
causes the gold leaf to diverge due to the repulsion between like positive charges.
Charging an electroscope
- To charge the electroscope negatively, slide a negatively charged rod on the brass cap
of the electroscope so that some electrons from the charged rod can be transferred to
the cap causing the gold leaf to deflect or diverge.
- Charge detection uses only the phenomenon of repulsion between like charges is used
LIGHTNING
Production of lightning
- The thunder clouds are charged by friction between the water molecules in the
thundercloud and the air molecules
- As violent movement on the cloud continues, charging also continues i.e. very high
voltage build up between the positive and negative charges within the cloud.
- When the charge on the thundercloud is sufficiently large, it can ionise the air which
then provides a conducting path for the huge quantity of charge to be discharged to
the nearest or sharpest object on the ground

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The principle of a lightning conductor

- The lightning conductor provides an alternative steady path for the flow of charge
from the top of the building to the earth.
- When a negatively charged thundercloud passes overhead, it acts inductively on the
conductor, charging the spikes positively and the earth plate negatively.
- Negative electrons are attracted to the spikes and become discharged.

- The electrons are then passed down the conductor and are dissipated (earthed) to the
ground from the copper plate.
- The conductor is placed above the building to collect charges and pass it harmlessly
into the earth.
- The conductor is made of thick copper strip to conduct electrons to the ground since
copper is a good conductor of electricity.
- The copper strip is attached to a copper plate in the ground to earth excess electrons

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Dangers of lightning
- Light voltage causes outbreak of fire
- Flow of current result in electrocution and severe burns
- Heating effect of current cause destruction of buildings
Safety precaution against lightning
- Keep away from metallic objects

- Disconnect roof top aerials
- Do not shelter near or under isolated trees
- Disconnect electrical appliances
- Avoid being in contact with water during a lightning storm i.e. swimming
CURRENT ELECTRICITY
RESISTANCE
- It is the opposition of the flow of current. It is measured in Ohms (Ω).
- When applying a fixed potential difference across different components in a circuit,
different values of current flow because the different components resist the flow of
electrons by different amounts.
An experiment to determine resistance
- To determine the resistance of a load, a simple circuit using an ammeter and a

voltmeter
- Adjust the variable resistor to allow the smallest possible current to flow in the circuit
and record corresponding ammeter and voltmeter reading.
- Adjust the variable resistor to allow a larger current to flow in the circuit and note the
values of I and V.
- Repeat the above for five sets of I and V readings
- Plot a graph showing V against I, and determine the gradient of the graph.
- The gradient of the graph gives the resistance of the load, R.

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- The graph is a straight line passing through the origin thus current is directly
proportional to the voltage across the resistor
OHM’S LAW
- The Ohm’s law states that the current through a metallic conductor is proportional to
the potential difference across the conductor provided temperature remains constant.
This means that current increases in the same ratio as when voltage increases
𝑉 𝑉
𝑅= 𝐼= 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
𝐼 𝑅
Examples 1 A p.d measured across a light bulb is 12V. The current measured is 5A.
Calculate resistance
Example 2 A potential difference of 240V applied across the heating coil of an electric
kettle drives a current of 8A through the coil. Calculate
(a) The resistance of the coil

(b) The new current flowing through the coil if the p.d. applied is changed to
220V
Limitations of the Ohm’s law

- Temperature – if temperature increases, the resistance also increases and if it
decreases resistance also decreases. This will cause variations in the answers when
using Ohm’s law
- Ohm’s law is not obeyed when
 Temperature of conductor changes e.g. bulbs and heater elements
 The conductor is cooled
 The conductor does not have a uniform cross sectional area
Factors that affect resistance

1. Length of the conductor – resistance increases with an increase in length of the
material. The longer the wire, the greater the resistance it has
2. Thickness of the conductor (cross sectional area) – resistance increases with an
increase in cross sectional area. The larger the cross sectional area of a wire, the
smaller the resistance it has.
3. Temperature – higher temperature offers more resistance

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SIMPLE ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

- In the study of current electricity, it is vital to draw simple and clear diagrams. The
following diagrams gives a list of special symbols that are used to represent common
devices that are usually employed in electric circuits
Circuit symbols
Representing some circuit diagrams using electric symbols
Resistors
- Conductors intended to have resistance are called resistors and are made either from wires of
special alloys or from carbon.
- The primary purpose of resistors is to control the size of the current flowing in a
circuit.

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Resistors in series
- The same current I flow through each and the total voltage V across all three is the
sum of the separate voltages across them.
V = V1 + V2 + V3
But 𝑉1 = 𝐼𝑅1 , 𝑉2 = 𝐼𝑅2 and𝑉3 = 𝐼𝑅3 . Also, if R is the combined resistance, 𝑉1 = 𝐼𝑅1
and so:
𝐼𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅1 + 𝐼𝑅2 + 𝐼𝑅3
Dividing both sides by I,
𝐑 𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 = 𝐑𝟏 + 𝐑𝟐 + 𝐑𝟑
Parallel arrangement of resistors

- The p.d. across the two resistors in parallel is the same. In addition, the current (I)
flowing into the common point splits into I1, I2 and I3 and rejoins into I.
- The voltage V between the ends of each is the same and total current I equals the sum
of the currents in the separate branches, i.e.
1 1 1 1
= + +
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
For the simpler case of two resistors in parallel
𝐼 𝑅1 𝑅2 product of resistances
∴ = =
𝑅 𝑅1 +𝑅2 sum of resistances
- For more than two resistors in parallel, the reciprocal of the total resistance of
resistors connected in parallel is equal to the sum of reciprocal of each individual
resistors
1 1 1 1
= + +
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

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HOUSEHOLD ELECTRICITY
Uses of electricity in the home

- Lighting
- Heating
- Powering electrical devices e.g. motors
Electrical Power
- Is the rate of using electrical energy e.g. If a bulb is marked 100W, it is converting
electrical energy to heat and light at rate of 100J/s
- The SI units of power is the watt (W)
P = VI
Examples 1 Find the power of an electric iron operating on a 240V supply using a current
of 0.5A
Example 2 Find the voltage of an electric motor if its power is 3kW and the current
passing through it is 12,5A.
Example 3 What is power of an electric light bulb if it is drawing a current of 0.25A from
the mains electricity supply of 240V?
Example 4 What current is drawn by a 1.5kW heater which operates on a 240V mains
supply?
Electrical Energy
- Electrical energy is the amount of electricity that is connected to other forms of
energy.
- Electrical energy can be found by multiplying the quantities of power and time
𝐸 = 𝑉𝐼𝑡
- SI unit for energy is the joule (J)
Example 1 An electric iron has a heating element of resistance 60Ω. If the operating
current flowing through it is 4A, Calculate
(a) The supply voltage

(b) The electrical power produced
(c) The heat energy produced in 5 minutes
Example 2 A filament lamp is rated 60W and 240V. Find
(a) The current flowing through the lamp

(b) The resistance of the filament
(c) The energy produced by the lamp in one hour

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Cost of electricity
- The cost of electricity consumption is based on the number of kWh of electrical
energy used
- The kWh is the energy is the electrical energy used by a 1kW appliance in 1 hour
- Metres are installed to measure the amount of energy used by each house.
- One unit of electricity = 1kWh
Energy(number of units) = power(kW) x time(h)
- The cost of electricity each month is determined by reading the electricity meter and
multiplying the units by the cost per unit.
Cost = number of units x cost per unit
Example 1 If a company charges 14 cents for each kWh of electrical energy used,
calculate the total cost of using a 3kW electric kettle for 20 mins and a 100W
filament bulb for 5 hours.
Example 2 If a unit of electricity costs 11,2c, calculate the cost of using an electric stove
that consume energy at a rate of 8000w for 3 hours
Example 3 Suppose you do some ironing for 3 hours using a 750W electric iron.
a) How many units of electrical energy are consumed?
b) How much did it cost to do the iron in January 2015, if cost per unit was
$0.1 per kWh?
Example 4 A 12V accumulator delivers a current of 3A through a car headlamp for 4

hours. Calculate;
(a) The power supplied in watts
(b) Energy supplied in kilowatt-hour
(c) Cost of 300 units of electricity at 14 cents per unit
Methods of saving electricity

- Use of energy saving bulbs
- Use of alternative sources of electricity e.g. solar panels, biogas
- Switch off appliances not in use
- Use of low power rating appliances
- Using appliances with heating elements sparingly as they consume the most energy.
Electrical hazards and safety precautions

Electrical hazards
- Damaged insulation – fire risks and electric shocks

- Overheating cables – fire risks because there is maximum current in a circuit
- Damp conditions – increase the severity of an electric shock because water lowers the
resistance of the path to the earth.

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Safety precautions
- Earthing all appliances

- Avoid overloading circuits
- Use insulated cables
- Do not handle appliances with wet hands
- Put on rubber foot wear when using appliances
Three pin plug

- Connects appliances to power circuits via power socket
- The neutral (N) wire (blue) completes the circuit by forming a path for the current
back to the supply. It is usually at zero volt
- The earth (E) wire (yellow with green) is a low resistance wire usually connected to
the metal casing of the appliance.
- The live (L) wire (brown) delivers the energy at high alternating voltage to the
appliance
- To wire the plug
 Remove sufficient amount of insulation from each of the three wires.
 Twist the wire strands together gently.
 Secure the three wire stands to the correct terminals according to the colour
code by means of wrap-round screws. Make sure that the insulation on the
wires extends right to the pins.
 Firmly, tighten the cord grip to grip the cord firmly.
Earthing
- The earth pin on a 3 pin plug is connected to the metal case of the appliance which is
thus joined to earth by a path of almost zero resistance.
- Earthing protects the user of the appliance from an electric shock, if the metal casing
should accidentally become live. The earth wire carries excess current to the ground
thus protecting the user from electric shocks.
Fuse

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- The fuse should be connected to the live wire so that the appliance will not become
live after the fuse has blown.
- A fuse is a component made from a metal with low melting point. The fuse melts if
too large a current flow through it thus breaking the circuit. This prevent overheating
and damage of appliance and use from electric shocks.
- Fuses are normally rated 1A, 2A, 5A, 10A and 13A
Switches
- All switches are designed to break or complete an electrical circuit. The switch must
be fitted onto the live wire so that switching off disconnects the high voltage from an
appliance.
Two pin plug

- Double insulation is a safety feature in an electrical appliance that can substitute for
an earth wire. Only the live and neutral wires are required for the appliance.
- This safety feature provides two levels of insulation i.e. the electric cable is insulated
from the internal components of the appliances and the metal parts which could
become live if a fault developed are also insulated from the external casing.
- Appliances with this feature normally have non metallic casing such as plastic or
wood e.g. radio, tv
Solar photovoltaic systems

- Photovoltaic means using light to produce voltage.
- Photovoltaic cells covert solar energy to electrical energy. It is made up of semi-
conducting material i.e. silicon.
- The electrons in the silicon gain energy from the sun and create a voltage which can
produce current in a closed circuit.
- A certain amount of light is required to cause a significant current, thus making solar
power inefficient during times with low levels of sunlight. In bright sunlight, each cell
produces 0.5V and a current of 0.03A.

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- Greater voltages and current are obtained by connecting cells in series and in parallel
on a panel. Cells are connected in series to give a higher voltage and in parallel to
give a higher current. Cells in series supply steady current which last longer.

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COMB Science Physics Notes

Department of Sciences (University of Zimbabwe)

Scan to open on Studocu

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Prepared by Farirayi D.T. (0736243049/0775957748)

Downloaded by Tanaka Murekachiro ([email protected])

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PIE CHARTS AND LINE GRAPHS

Constructing a pie chart

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 Using a protractor, measure the central angle of each sector in a clockwise

Animal type Number

a. Calculate the central angles of each data set

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- Physical quantity is a property of an object or substance that can be measured using

Force(N) = mass(kg) × acceleration(ms −2 )

Unit of acceleration = ms-2

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- Is used to accurately measure the thickness or internal diameter of small objects.

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How to read a vernier

- To measure the internal or external diameter

Final reading = 11.4mm

Read the following vernier scales

Screw gauge micrometer

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- Can measure smaller lengths than the vernier callipers.

EXERCISE Read a micrometer screw gauge

MEASURING CURRENT AND VOLTAGE

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- Density is the mass per unit volume

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(a) Weight on earth (b) Mass on moon (c) Weight on moon

Differences between mass and weight

- Linear momentum is defined as the product of mass and velocity

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Newton’s laws of motion

Newton’s second law

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Verifying Newton’s second law experimentally

Newton’s third law

Action and reaction are equal and opposite

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Mechanical Advantage (MA)

Velocity Ratio (VR)

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diameter of load gear

- Is a flat surface that is at an angle to the horizontal

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- Efficiency can be improved through

Single fixed pulley

Single moveable pulley

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- MA = 2 because the load is two times the effort

Block and Tackle

Efficiency of pulleys can be improved through