MTec 121 Lab Manual

MTec 121
Workshop Theory and Practice

Laboratory Manual
TP-IMD-04 v0 07-15-20 • No. _________
Engr. Jundy R. Castil

Mark Anthony S. Arcayan
College of
ENGINEERING
AND TECHNOLOGY
Department of
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 2020
No copies temporary or permanent, in whole or in part of this
IM shall be made without written permission from the
author/s.
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Vision: A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Mission: Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge TP-IMD-04
V0 07-15-2020
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
No.
3
Vision
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and

environmental conservation
Mission
Development of a highly competitive human resource,

cutting-edge scientific knowledge and innovative
technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
Quality Policy
The Visayas State University (VSU) is a higher education institution created by

law to provide excellent instruction, conduct relevant research and foster
community engagement that produce highly competent graduates necessary
for the development of the country. Toward this end, we, at the Visayas State
University, commit to:
1. produce highly competent, quality and world-class manpower in
science and technology (S&T), especially for agriculture,
environmental management and industry who are proficient in
communication skills, critical thinking and analytical abilities,
2. generate and disseminate relevant knowledge and technology that
lead to improved productivity, profitability and sustainability in
agriculture, environment and industry,
3. satisfy the needs of the industry, the community and government
sector who are in need of quality graduates and technology ready for
commercialization through the establishment, operation, maintenance
and continuous improvement of a Quality Management System which
is aligned with the requirements of ISO 9001:2015.
It shall be the policy of the university that the quality policies and procedures
are communicated to and understood by all faculties, staff, students and
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Vision: A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation. 188
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment. V0 07-15-2020
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MTec 121: Workshop Theory and Practice
other stakeholders and that the system shall be continually improved for their
relevance and effectiveness.
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Laboratory Manual in
MTec 121: Workshop

Theory and Practice
Page 5 of
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Foreword
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Integer pharetra placerat lacus, egestas fermentum libero varius vitae.
Aenean vitae accumsan metus, ac elementum velit. Fusce bibendum tellus
eros, et imperdiet massa sodales id. Orci varius natoque penatibus et magnis
dis parturient montes, nascetur ridiculus mus. Donec consequat tincidunt
justo et maximus. Nunc at nulla sem. In dictum nisl eget interdum cursus.
Praesent sit amet molestie mi, eget euismod massa. Curabitur nec dolor
vestibulum, pharetra elit vel, lacinia urna. Ut sed quam ut mi mattis
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eu.
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lectus tempus a. Pellentesque feugiat neque ut dolor efficitur sollicitudin.
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posuere. Morbi non eleifend metus. Curabitur maximus nunc neque, id
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BONIFACIO DEDAL
College Dean
Page 6 of 188
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Acknowledgment
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venenatis fermentum. Suspendisse pulvinar finibus molestie. Vestibulum
vitae mauris molestie enim posuere condimentum at ut eros. Phasellus at
elementum odio. Fusce eu lectus at risus dapibus maximus id pharetra quam.
Phasellus mollis eleifend dui, at efficitur tortor lacinia sed. Curabitur placerat
odio metus, sit amet sodales est porta et. Sed ultrices justo felis, id iaculis
nisl lacinia nec. Proin a magna purus. Nulla imperdiet risus quis massa
lacinia, quis elementum justo dapibus. Aliquam erat volutpat. Sed eleifend
nisi id orci maximus fermentum.
Pellentesque consequat viverra nibh in dictum. Aenean vitae elementum nisl.
Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. Sed sit amet ornare
ipsum. Aenean scelerisque placerat nisi non sodales. Suspendisse sit amet
elit ac neque pulvinar blandit vel et massa. Duis vulputate justo volutpat dui
porta rutrum.
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About the Authors
Jundy R. Castil
Completed his Bachelor of Science in

Mechanical Engineering (BSME) degree
from the Bohol Island State University at
Tagbilaran City, Bohol on April 2014 and
Master of Science in Mechanical
Engineering (MSME) from the University of
San Carlos at Cebu City on April 2018 with
his of field of
Had his first teaching experience as

instructor at Visayas State University right
after passing the Mechanical Engineering
Licensure Examination last October 2014.
Currently appointed as Head of the

Department of Mechanical Engineering of
the College of Engineering and Technology,
Visayas State University and is handling
undergraduate courses in Bachelor of
Science in Mechanical Engineering.
Mark Anthony S. Arcayan
Completed his Bachelor of Science in

Mechanical Engineering (BSME) degree
from the Visayas State University,
Visca,Brgy, Pangasugan, Baybay City,
Leyte
Currently appointed as college Instructor I

of the Department of Mechanical
Engineering of the College of Engineering
and Technology, Visayas State University
and is handling undergraduate courses in
Bachelor of Science in Mechanical
Engineering.
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Table of Contents
Vision i
Mission i
Quality Policy i
Title Page iii
Foreword iv
Acknowledgment v
About the Authors vi
Table of Contents vii
List of Tables xii
List of Figures xiii
Exercise No.1: Workshop Safety 1

Introduction 1
Learning Outcomes 1
Materials 1
Discussion 1
Workplace hazards and injuries 1
Types of Personal Protective Equipment and its Use 4
Safety Signs and Colors; Its Meaning and Use 5
Laboratory Tasks 7
Task 1: Identification of Workplace Hazards 7
Task 2: The Personal Protective Equipment 8
Task 3: Accident investigation 8
Guide Questions: 9
Instructions on how to prepare and submit the laboratory exercise 9
Additional Resources 10
References 10
Exercise No. 2: 12
Layout and Measuring Tool 12
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Introduction 12
Learning Outcomes 12
Materials 12
Discussion 12
The Measuring Tools 12
How to read measuring instruments 17
The Layout Tools 23
Steps in Laying out or Marking out any metal surface 26
Laboratory Tasks 27
Task 1: The Vernier Caliper 27
Task 2: The Micrometer Caliper 28
Task 3: Laying out on a Metal 30
Guide Questions: 32
Instructions on how to prepare and submit Laboratory Exercise 36
References 38
Exercise No. 3 40
Hand Tools and Processes 40

Introduction 40
Materials 40
Discussion 40
Hand Tools 40
Classification of Hand Tools and its Processes 41
1. Cutting tools 41
2. Gripping and Clamping Tools 65
3. Tightening and Driving Tools 70
4. Striking Tools 73
5. Miscellaneous Tools 75
Laboratory Tasks 78
Task 1: The applications of hand tools 78
Task 2: Familiarization of the basic hand tools 81
Guide Questions: 82
References 85
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Exercise No. 4 88
Sheet Metal Works 88

Introduction 88
Materials 88
Discussion 88
What is Sheet Metal 88
Sheet Metal Cutting Process 89
1. Shearing Process 89
2. Blanking Process 89
3. Punching Process 90
4. Trimming Process 93
5. Deburring Process 93
Sheet Metal Forming Process 95
1. Bending Process 95
2. Roll forming process 98
3. Spinning process 99
4. Deep drawing process 99
5. Stretch Forming process 100
6. Embossing 101
7. Manual forming process 102
Sheet metal joining process 103
1. Screw Joints 103
2. Rivet Joints 104
3. Sheet metal clinching joints 104
4. Welding joints 105
5. Folding or seaming joints 105
6. Adhesive Bonding 105
The Stamping Process 106
Laboratory Tasks 107
Task1: Identification of Sheet metal Processes 107
Task 2: Different types of sheet metal edge forming and joining
processes 109
Guide Questions: 112
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References 115
Exercise No. 5 117
Welding 117
Introduction 117
Materials 117
Discussion 117
What is Welding 117
Types of Welding operation 118
1. Gas Welding 118
2. Arc Welding 119
3. Resistance welding 126
4. Solid state welding 127
5. Thermo-chemical Welding 128
6. Radiant energy Welding 128
Welding joints and welding positions 129
Laboratory Task 131
Task: Perform Virtual Welding Operation 131
References 135
Exercise No. 6 137
Soldering and Brazing 137

Introduction 137
Materials 137
Discussion 138
What is Soldering 138
Soldering Techniques 139
1. Induction soldering 139
2. Hand soldering 139
3. Laser Soldering 139
4. Fiber focus infrared soldering 139
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5. Resistance soldering 139

6. Active soldering 140
What is Brazing 141
Brazing Techniques 142
1. Torch Brazing 142
2. Furnace brazing 142
3. Braze welding 142
4. Cast iron welding 142
5. Vacuum brazing 142
6. Dip brazing 142
Laboratory Task 145
Task: The Manual Soldering Process 145
References 149
Exercise No. 7 150
Foundry and Metal Casting 150

Introduction 150
Materials 150
Discussion 150
Foundry and Metal Casting 150
Metal Casting Tools and Equipment 159
Safety in the Foundry Area 161
Laboratory Task 163
Task: The Sand molding process 163
References 167
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List of Tables
1 Table 3-1 TPI for each type of Material 47

2 Table 3-1 TPI for each type of Material 47
3 Table 3-2 Cutting Speed and lubricant for following
materials 59
4 Table 5-1 Different types of SMAW welding electrodes 124
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List of Figures
5 Figure 3- 1 (a) Ripsaw, (b) Crosscut saw, (c) Toolbox Saw,

(d) Back saw, (e) Compass and Keyhole saw, (f) Dovetail
saw, (g) Frame saw, (h) Bow saw, (i) Cope saw, (j) Flush
cutter saw, (k) Japanese Saws, and (l) Saw Blade
nomenclature. 43
6 Figure 3- 2 (a) Different saw cutting angles, and (b) Angle
cutting using miter box. 44
7 Figure 3- 3(a) Parts of hacksaw, and (b) Types of adjustable
frame hacksaw 46
8 Figure 3- 4 Sets for hacksaw blade 47
9 Figure 3-5 (a) Lineman’s' pliers, (b) diagonal pliers, (c)
tinner's snip, (d) compound-action snip, (e) tube cutter, (f)
pipe cutter for plastic, and (g) pipe cutter for GI pipes 49
10 Figure 3-5 (a) Lineman’s' pliers, (b) diagonal pliers, (c)
tinner's snip, (d) compound-action snip, (e) tube cutter, (f)
pipe cutter for plastic, and (g) pipe cutter for GI pipes 49
11 Figure 3-6 (a) hot chisel, (b) cold chisel, (c) Bevel-edge
chisel, (d) Mortise Chisel, (e) Firmer Chisel, (f) Japanese
Chisel, and (g) Set of wood lathe chisels 51
12 Figure 3-6 (a) hot chisel, (b) cold chisel, (c) Bevel-edge
Chisel, and (g) Set of wood lathe chisels 51
13 Figure 3- 7 (a) Parts of a file, (b) single cut, (c) double cut,
(d) curved tooth cut, (e) rasp cut, and (f) Types of files
based on the its cross sectional area 53
14 Figure 3- 7 (a) Parts of a file, (b) single cut, (c) double cut,
(d) curved tooth cut, (e) rasp cut, and (f) Types of files
based on the its cross sectional area 53
15 Figure 3-8 (a) Parts of a hand reamer, (b) straight flute, (c)
Helical flute, (d) Straight flute expansion reamer, (e)
Adjustable reamers, (f) Taper pin reamers, (g1) Morse taper
socket roughing reamer, (g2) Morse taper socket finishing
reamer, (h) Hand reaming on a bench vise using the tap
wrench, (i) Hand reaming in which the reamer is secured on
the vise and the workpiece rotates. 57
16 Figure 3-8 (a) Parts of a hand reamer, (b) straight flute, (c)
Helical flute, (d) Straight flute expansion reamer, (e)
Adjustable reamers, (f) Taper pin reamers, (g1) Morse taper
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socket roughing reamer, (g2) Morse taper socket finishing

reamer, (h) Hand reaming on a bench vise using the tap
wrench, (i) Hand reaming in which the reamer is secured on
the vise and the workpiece rotates. 57
17 Figure 3-9 (a) Tap nomenclature, (b) from top to botom;
taper tap, plug tap, and bottoming tap, (c) interrupted thread
tap, (d) spiral pointed tap, and (e) pulley tap. 59
18 Figure 3-9 (a) Tap nomenclature, (b) from top to botom;
taper tap, plug tap, and bottoming tap, (c) interrupted thread
tap, (d) spiral pointed tap, and (e) pulley tap. 59
19 Figure 3-10 (a) Countersinking a hole, (b) Centering the tap
on the hole using the tap wrench, (c) Proper execution in
tapping, (d) Squaring the tap using L-square 62
20 Figure 3-11 (a) die and diestock or stock, (b) split adjustable
die, (c) split adjustable collet die, (d) hexagonal rethreading
die, (e) pipe stock and die, (f) centering the die on the
workpiece, (g) proper execution of die threading, (h) thread
ring gage 64
21 Figure 3-12 a man using a hand drill 65
22 Figure 3-13 Hand Plane 65
23 Figure 3- 14 A collection of different varieties of clamps 68
24 Figure 3-15 A collection of different clamp accessories 69
25 Figure 3-16 (a) bench vise, (b) woodworking vise, (c) hand
vise, (d) multi-angle vise, and (e) vise grip or locking pliers.
69
26 Figure 3-17 (a) combination or slip joint pliers, (b)
interlocking pliers or pump pliers, (c) round nose pliers or
wire looper pliers, and (d) needle nose pliers bent and
straight 70
27 Figure 3-18 (a) combination wrench, (b) open end wrench,
(c) box wrench, (d) socket wrench, (e) pipe wrench, (f) strap
wrench, (g) hook spanner and adjustable hook spanner, (h)
socket-head wrench or Allen wrench, (i) fixed and
adjustable face spanner, (j) Torque wrench, (k) hand tap
wrench and t-handle tap wrench, and (l) combination
wrench 72
28 Figure 3-19 (a) Philip screwdriver, (b) standard screwdriver,
(c) offset screwdriver, (d) ratchet screwdriver with
interchangeable points, (e) set of security screwdrivers, and
(f) varieties of security screws. 73
29 Figure 3-20 (a) ball peen hammer, (b) straight and cross
peen hammers, (c) plastic hammers, (d) lead hammer, (e)
claw hammer, and (f) maul 75
30 Figure 3-21 (a) bearing puller, and (b-f) five steps for
extracting a bearing on a shaft. 76
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31 Figure 3-22 (a) set of flaring and swaging tools, (b) flaring
tool bit, (c) swaging tool bit, and (d) the form of a swaged
and flared tubing 77
32 Figure 4-1 The principles of (a) shearing and, (b) blanking 90

33 Figure 4-2 The punching process 90
34 Figure 4-3 (a) the lancing tool and lanced sheet, (b) the
nibbling process, (c) the perforated sheet metal, (d) piercing
process, (e) notches on sheet metal, (f) a perforating
machine, (g) notching machine, and (h) a punch press 93
35 Figure 4-4 The Trimming process 93
36 Figure 4-5 Deburring Tool 94
37 Figure 4-6 (a) Laser cutting, (b) plasma cutting, and (c)
water jet cutting 94
38 Figure 4-7 (a) the bending diagram, and (b) bending
operations 96
39 Figure 4-8 (a) coining machine, (b) types of hem, (c) curled
edge, (d) type of edge flanging, (e) proper inside bend
radius, (f) bend relief, (g) manual sheet metal brake and (h)
hydraulic press brake 98
40 Figure 4-9 Roll forming process 98
41 Figure 4-10 spinning process 99
42 Figure 4-11 deep drawing process 100
43 Figure 4-12 (a) a stretch press and, (b) the stretch forming
process 101
44 Figure 4-13 embossing process 101
45 Figure 4-14 (a) The manual forming process involves (a)
making the template, (b) hammering operation, (c) filing
operation, and (d) finishing. (e) Sheet metal forming on a
shot bag. 103
46 Figure 4-15 (a) Self tapping screw, and (b) machine screw
104
47 Figure 4-16 (a) types of rivets, and (b) rivet machine or rivet
gun 104
48 Figure 4-17 a clinched joint 105
49 Figure 4-18 A seamed joint 105
50 Figure 5-1 the nomenclature of the weldment 118

51 Figure 5-2 (a) A diagram of a gas welding, and (b) a person
dress with PPE doing gas welding 119
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52 Figure 5-3 shows a diagram of an arc welding 120

53 Figure 5-4 shows diagrams for (a) plasma arc welding, (b)
Tungsten Inert Gas welding, and (c) Metal Inert Gas Welding
121
54 Figure 5-5 shows a diagram of the Shielded Metal Arc
Welding 122
55 Figure 5-6 (a) SMAW Power supply, (b) Electrode holder,
and (c) SMAWs welding electrode 123
56 Figure 5-7 (a) weld puddle/weld pool, (b) arrangement of
weld pass, (c) weld strokes, (d) weld undercut, and (e) weld
spatters 126
57 Figure 5-8 shows a resistance welding machine 127
58 Figure 5-9 an example of a solid state roll welding 127
59 Figure 5-10 diagram of a Thermit welding operation 128
60 Figure 5-11 (a) electron beam welding, and (b) Laser beam
welding 129
61 Figure 5-12 welding joints 130
62 Figure 5-13 welding positions 130
63 Figure 6- 1 the soldering process on electric circuit board

138
64 Figure 6-2 (a) Soldering iron, and (b) Soldering gun 139
65 Figure 6-3 (a) induction soldering, (b) hand soldering, (c)
LASER soldering, (d) Fiber focused Infrared soldering
machine, (e) Resistance soldering machine, and (f) Active
soldering diagram 140
66 Figure 6-4 The Brazing apparatus 141
67 Figure 6-5 (a) Torch brazing, (b) Furnace brazing process,
(c) Braze welding, (d) Vacuum brazing equipment, and (e)
Dip brazing process 144
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Exercise No.1: Workshop

Safety
Introduction
Safety is the top priority in a workshop. To achieve this, a thorough
knowledge of the hazards and injuries and its corresponding safety measures
is needed which will be discussed and further assessed to the students
throughout this exercise.
Learning Outcomes
1. Define workplace hazards;
2. Identify different types of workplace hazards and injuries;
3. Define personal protective equipment (PPE);
4. Identify different types of PPE’s base on its applications;
5. Identify safety signs and symbols.
Materials
Exercise Manual, Pen and Pencil, Bond Paper
Discussion
Workplace hazards and injuries
A workplace hazard is anything at work that can harm a person – physically

or mentally. It may cause both temporary (like cuts and burns) and
permanent injuries and illnesses (like developing work-related asthma or
losing your vision). Some hazards will create an injury or illness right away.
Other hazards may not cause an injury or illness until much later in life. For
this reason, workers should take all hazards seriously, even if they do not
experience problems.
There are many kinds of workplace hazards and these can be divided into the
following categories:
a. Physical – This type of hazard is due to a transfer of energy between
an object and a worker (e.g., falling from a height, a burn from a hot
oven, the loss of a finger while operating a machine, a loss of hearing
from noisy machinery).
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For instructional purposes only • 1st Semester SY 2020-2021 21
Figure 1- 1 Worker falling from a vehicle
Shown in Figure 1-1 is an illustration of a physical hazard where a

worker falls from a vehicle. Physical hazard is the most common
hazard in the workshop. This is because of the presence of different
equipment, objects and its operation.
b. Chemical – This type of hazard is due to contact with chemicals (e.g.,
cleaners, pesticides, fertilizers).
Figure 1- 2 Hazard expose due to chemicals
Illustration of a worker exposed to a chemical hazard is shown in

Figure 1-2. Exposure to most chemicals can cause burns and other
injuries. Other cases may not be observed right away; these may
affect much later in life causing illness.
c. Biological – This type of hazard is due to contact with living
organisms or their by-products (e.g., mold, bacteria, HIV, grain dust).
The same with chemical hazards, prolonged exposure to bacteria and
other living organisms may cause illnesses later in life.
Figure 1- 3 Worker expose to a dust
Shown in Figure 1-3 is a worker exposed to a dusty work. Exposure to

dust may cause respiratory illness. Its severity depends on the size of
dust that enters the lung. Inhaled dust particles may not be exhaled
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causing it to be stored within the lungs. Prolonged exposure to this

may cause sever lung illnesses.
d. Ergonomic – This hazard refers to workplace conditions that stress
and strain the body. They can be caused by the design of the
machinery, the use of tools, and the way work is done (repetitive
motion, stooping, etc.). There are jobs in the workshop that may
require unusual body positions. A worker as shown in Figure 1-4 is
performing drilling operation while in an unusual position. Prolonged
and repetitive exposure to this type of work may cause body stress
and strain.
Figure 1- 4 Ergonomic hazard in a workshop
Common Workplace Injuries and its Source

The following are different injuries related to the hazards discussed above.
a. Fall – This is the most common type of workplace accident where it
can be a fall to the same surface (slide) or falls to below. The severity
of the injury obtained depends on the (1) velocity of impact; (2)
hardness of the surface; and (3) orientation of the body during the fall.
b. Impact – Impact resulting from being struck by and struck against
objects may cause serious accidents. Its severity depends on the (1)
velocity of the impact; (2) characteristics of the object (size, hardness,
shape etc.); and (3) the part of the body impacted.
c. Mechanical – as discussed, there are many mechanical related
injuries in the workshop. This can be caused by moving machine
parts, being caught and crush accidents that can cut, crush, amputate,
break bones, and other physical injuries.
d. Noise – Exposure to noisy environment can result in hearing loss.
Noise is common in the workshop because of the operation of
different machineries and equipment.
e. Toxics – Toxic materials can cause injury such as tissue damage,
cancer, etc. The four (4) possible entry of toxic materials into the
human body are through (1) inhalation, (2) ingestion, (3) absorption
and (4) injections.
f. Heat and Temperature – Contact to hot objects results to burns
g. Fire – fire may cause burn injuries
h. Explosives – results of explosion may range from minor to major
injury
i. Pressure – high and low pressure conditions in the workplace can
result to injury. Most common hazards include (1) ruptured cylinders,
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(2) whipping of hoses and lines and (3) improper use of compressed
air.
j. Electrical Contact – Exposure to electrical current may cause death
and injury
Types of Personal Protective Equipment and its Use
PPE is defined as all equipment which is intended to be worn or held to

protect against risk to health and safety. This includes most types of
protective clothing and equipment such as: eye, head, foot and hand
protection; and protective clothing for the body.
PPE should always be relied upon as a last resort to protect against health
and safety. Engineering controls and safe systems of work should always be
considered first. PPE will only be suitable if it is (1) appropriate for the risks
and the working conditions; (2) takes account of the workers’ needs and fits
properly; (3) gives adequate protection; and (4) is compatible with any other
item of PPE worn.
The following are types of PPE base on its application:
a. Eye Protection - Serves as a guard against the hazards of impact,
splashes from chemicals or molten metal, liquid droplets (chemical
mists and sprays), dust, gases and welding arcs. Eye protectors
include safety spectacles, eye-shields, goggles, welding filters, face
shields and hoods (Figure 1-5).
Figure 1- 5 Head protection PPEs
b. Head Protection - Includes industrial safety helmets to protect against

falling objects or impact with fixed objects; industrial scalp protectors
to protect against striking fixed obstacles, scalping or entanglement
and caps and hairnets to protect against scalping and entanglement
(Figure 1-6).
c. Foot Protection - Includes safety boots or shoes with steel toe caps;
foundry boots with steel toe caps, which are heat resistance and
designed to keep out molten metal; wellington boots to protect
against water and wet conditions and anti-static footwear to prevent
the build-up of static electricity on the wearer (Figure 1-7).
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Figure 1- 6 Foot protection PPEs
d. Hand Protection - Gloves of various design provide protection against

a range of hazards including cuts and abrasions; extremes of
temperature (hot and cold); skin irritation and dermatitis and contact
with toxic or corrosive liquids. Barrier creams may sometimes be used
as an aid to skin hygiene in situations where gloves cannot be used
(Figure 1-8).
Figure 1- 7 Hand Protection PPEs
e. Protective Clothing - Types of clothing used for body protection

include coveralls, overalls and aprons to protect against chemicals
and other hazardous substances; outfits to protect against cold, heat
and bad weather; and clothing to protect against machinery such as
chain saws. Types of clothing worn on the body to protect the person
include high-visibility clothing; life-jackets and buoyancy aids.
Examples of protective clothing are shown in Figure 1-9.
Figure 1- 8 Hand Protection PPEs
f. Ear protection – These are used to reduce exposure to noise. The

main types of hearing protection are shown inf Figure 1-10. The
following are (1) earmuffs, which completely cover the ear; (2)
earplugs, which are inserted into the ear canal; (3) semi-inserts (also
called ‘canal caps’ which cover the entrance to the ear canals.
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Figure 1- 9 Ear Protection PPEs
Safety Signs and Colors; Its Meaning and Use
Colors plan an essential safety role in giving information for use in the
prevention of accidents, for warning of health and safety hazards. Specific
color is used to identify gas contents of gas cylinders, pipeline and services,
the identification and safe use of cables and components in electronic and
electrical installations as well as the correct use of fire-fighting equipment.
The purpose of a system of safety colors and safety signs is to draw
attention to objects and situations which affect or could affect health and
safety. It should be understood that the use of a system of safety colors and
safety signs does not replace the need for appropriate accident prevention
measures. Table 1-1 shows the meaning and examples of use of safety color.
Table 1- 1. Safety color; its meaning and use
Safety color Meaning Example of use
Red (white Stop

background color Prohibition (Don’t
with black symbols) do)
Figure 1- 10 Stop Sign
Red (white symbols Fire equipment

and text)
Figure 1- 11 Fire equipment sign
Yellow (black Warning (risk of

symbols and text) danger)
Figure 1- 12 Electrical hazard symbol
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Table break
Table continuation
Safety color Meaning Example of use
Green (white Safe condition

symbols and text) (the safe way)
Figure 1- 13 Emergency exit sign
Blue (white symbols Mandatory action

and text) (MUST do)
Figure 1- 14 Obligation to wear symbol
Laboratory Tasks
Task 1: Identification of Workplace Hazards
The photos below are taken inside a workshop. Identify the operation
and its possible hazards.
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Task 2: The Personal Protective

Equipment
Illustrate and identify what PPE should a worker have to wear when
he/she is to perform Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW). The PPE should be
specific to the name and description of eye, head, foot, hand, protective
clothing and ear protection.
Task 3: Accident investigation
Search for a case/accident involving a worker in an industry. Briefly

discuss what type of hazard and injuries present and its possible prevention.
Cite the source of the article and include the picture of the accident.
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Guide Questions:
1. Your instructor gave you a task to make a project that involves
machining operation. You went to the workshop alone on Saturday to
finish the task because you were busy for the entire weekdays. When
Monday came, your instructor reprimand you telling you that what you did
was not good. Explain why you’re wrong.
2. Suppose you are a freshman student. One of your subject requires you
together with your groupmates a project that involves metal fabrication
(cutting, drilling, grinding, and polishing). Your group then make a plan and
come up a design ready for fabrication. When you and your groupmates
are already inside the workshop, your groupmates then go abruptly to the
respective machine or equipment ready to do the fabrication. Your
instructor found out what your groupmates did and hurriedly approach you
telling you that what you did wasn’t right. Explain why. (Are there risks
present and what are these? What should be the proper thing to do
especially when dealing this kind of project that involves fabrication?)
3. Why it is not allowed to use cotton cloth or loose long sleeve when
working on a lathe machine?
4. Differentiate between OSHA and ISO in terms of its contribution to the
safety in the workshop.
5. The Department of Mechanical Engineering has a welding area where
students can do metal fabrication. As a student, list the appropriate safety
signs that can be applied in this area and briefly add an explanation. (Write
the safety message and its corresponding color code example: no parking-
red & white and a short explanation why you choose it)
Instructions on how to prepare and submit the laboratory

exercise
1. for Task 1
Write or encode your answers in an A4 size bond paper with 1 inch
margin on all sides. Use arial-12 as font style and font size if you choose to
encode your answer. The heading at the top of the bond paper must have
your Name, Course Title and offering number, the Laboratory exercise
number and title, and the task number.
2. for Task 2
Draw your output in an A4 size bond paper with 1 inch margin on all
sides. The heading at the top of the bond paper must have your Name,
Course Title and offering number, the Laboratory exercise number and title,
and the task number. You can use either pen or pencil as mode of
illustration. Digital illustration is not allowed.
3. for Task 3
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No.
number and title, and the task number. Do not forget to cite the article you
selected. No two or more students should have the same article, failure to
do so will mark incomplete with this exercise.
4. for Guide Questions
Write or encode your answers in any type of paper as long as it is
readable. Use arial-12 as font style and font size if you choose to encode
your answer. The heading at the top of the bond paper must have your
Name, Course Title and offering number, the Laboratory exercise number
and title, and the task number.
If you choose to submit all the outputs ONLINE, scan everything, convert it
into pdf file ONLY (you can download CAMSCANNER in the app store), and
submit it on the VSU eLearning site under our Course MTec 121.
If you choose to submit all the outputs VIA COURIER, put it on an envelope
with your Name, Course Title and Offering Number, and Laboratory
Exercise number written on the back side. Address your output to the
Instructor’s Name, Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of
Engineering and Technology, Visayas State University, Visca, Brgy.
Pangasugan, Baybay City, Leyte.
Failure to follow these instructions will have deduction of points.
Additional Resources
Reading Materials:
A. M. Wagener and H. R. Arthur, Machine Shop Theory and Practice, Van
Nostrand, 1950.
A. Wagener, Workbook on Machine Shop Theory and Practice, Van
Nostrand, 1942.
Videos:
1. Hazard Identification: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X0ai7Fkh4tA
2. Workshop Safety: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UuDJWUxmtUk
3. Personal protective equipment:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GRQ0iDq5UfM
4. Regulations for PPE: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r9vp1q1L2ro
5. ISO Safety signs and symbols:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=izeWHwDCUes
6. OSHA/ANSI Safety sign standard:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7KI-jBbSxTU
7. OSHA Safety Training: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lNnOzLl1gsE
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References
B. J. Black, Workshop Processes, Practices and Materials, Elsevier, 2004.

Editorial Comittee, Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) NC In Common
Welding Competencies Book 1, Academic Publishing Corporation
Philippines, 2008.
Digital Pictures:
Figure 1-15 task 1.1 www.tjcwelding.com

Figure 1-16 task 1.2 www.thefabricator.com
Figure 1-18 task 1.3 www.commons.wikimedia.org
Figure 1-17 task 1.4 www.PickPik.com
Figure 1-22 task 1.5 www.piqsels.com
Figure 1-21 task 1.6 www.piqsels.com
Figure 1-20 task 1.7 commons.wikimedia.org
Figure 1-19 task 1.8 www.pikrepo.com
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Exercise No. 2:
Layout and Measuring Tool
Introduction
No one could fabricate a project without transferring the plan from the
blueprint to the blank (a piece of material use for fabrication) and without
measuring the dimensions. This is because, it is very difficult to know where
to cut, or drill a hole or bend a section of a workpiece. To overcome this
difficulty, this exercise will provide the proper procedures on how to use
measuring and layout tools in order to produce a well-define sketch on the
blank ready for fabrication.
Learning Outcomes
1. Discuss the importance of using standard;
2. Define the terminologies involve in measurement and lay-out;
3. Identify different tools and equipment in lay-out and measurement;
and
4. Discuss the steps in reading measurement and applying lay-out on a
surface.
Materials
Exercise Manual, Ball pen, Bond paper, Laptop or PC, aluminum can, blue dye,
wood nail or needle, hammer, scissor or cutter, ruler, zip ties, compass
Discussion
The Measuring Tools
Measuring tools play an important part in a workshop. It helps

technicians in determining the size of a workpiece, the no of pitch of a screw
or bolt, the clearance of the valves inside an engine and the angle of
inclination of the workpiece. Having these wide variety of measuring tools
with specific applications requires precision and accuracy. To achieve this, a
standard was set as a reference value that would be the bases of the
measuring tools whenever they will be subjected for recalibration. The SI unit
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is the common measurement standard used worldwide and replaces the

older version of metric system. Table 2.1 below shows the Si units with their
corresponding values and abbreviations.
Table 2- 1 The SI units
Physical Quantity SI unit Abbreviation

Length meter m
Mass gram g
Time second s
Temperature kelvin K
Electric Current ampere A
Amount of substance mole mol
Intensity of light candela cd
The science of measurement is known as Metrology and it has gone

through a lot of development since the last industrial revolution. One of its
challenges before was getting a measurement error that leads to
uncertainties. Uncertainty in measurement is a parameter that would
determine how far or close the measurement from the true value. This
problem would also occur inevitably inside the workshop and the need for
proper orientation and proper application of the measuring tools is highly
recommended in order to reduce it’s (the problem) effect.
Below are the commonly used measuring tools inside the workshop
and its corresponding description and application.
1. Ruler – a tool used to measure linear dimensions and serves as guide in
marking straight lines. It is usually graduated either in inches or centimeter
(Figure 2-1a).
2. Measuring tape - is a flexible version of a ruler that is made from cloth,
plastic or metal strips. It can measure long distances or even curve surfaces,
and can be transported anywhere (Figure 2-1b).
3. Height gauge – a tool used either for measuring vertical distances, or
marking a workpiece being oriented upward (Figure 2-1c).
4. Feeler gauge – a collection of thin strips of metal with different thickness
that is used to measure clearances or gaps (Figure 2-1d).
5. Thread gauge – a collection of thin strips of metal with teeth on one edge
that is used to determine the profile of a thread (also known as pitch) (Figure
2-1e).
6. Inside caliper – a tool used to measure the inside dimension of large
objects such as metal pipe. This tool does not measure directly the
dimension but rather transfers it to a ruler for reading. It comes into two
types; the Firm joint inside caliper (Figure 2-1f) for large adjustments and
Adjustable screw inside caliper (Figure 2-1g) for precise adjustments.
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7. Outside caliper – the same with inside caliper but intended primarily for
outside dimensions such as the diameter of a cylinder. It comes into two
types; the Firm joint outside caliper (Figure 2-1h) and the Adjustable screw
inside caliper (Figure 2-1i).
8. Dial indicator – a tool used to measure misalignments on shafts precisely
up to tens of thousands of an inch. A zero reading indicates that the shaft
does not have deflection (Figure 2-1j).
a b
c d
f
e
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g
h
i j
9. Vernier Caliper – is a precision tool that can measure inside and outside
dimensions including depth (Figure 2-2).
Parts of a Vernier caliper
1. Outside Jaws – used to measure the external diameter
or width of the workpiece.
2. Inside Jaws – used to measure the internal diameter of
an object.
3. Depth probe – used to measure the depth of an object
or a hole
4. Main Scale – the scale mark every mm, inch, or fraction
of an inch.
5. Vernier Scale – gives interpolated measurements in
1/10 of mm or better, or smaller fractions of an inch.
6. Retainer – used to block movable part to allow easy
transferring of a measurement.
7. Locknut – used to keep measurement permanently.
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10. Micrometer Caliper – also known as micrometer screw gauge, is more

powerful than a Vernier since it can measure objects with accuracy up to
thousandths of an inch or mm (Figure 2-3).
Parts of a Micrometer Caliper
1. Frame – C-shape structure that hold the anvil and the
barrel.
2. Anvil – a shaft-like part where the spindle is directed
and where the object to be measured is rested against.
3. Thimble – a part on the barrel that can be turn by one’s
thumb and where the Vernier scale is located.
4. Thimble lock – The knurled part that one can tighten to
hold the object in stationary position when taking
measurement.
5. Ratchet Knob – a safety accessory that prevents
excessive pressure on the internal parts of the caliper
since it will limit the amount of turning required to carry
out a measurement.
6. Spindle – another shaft-like part that the thimble
causes to move towards the anvil.
7. Sleeve – The stationary part on the barrel that holds
the main scale of the caliper.
8. Lock nut – an accessory used to keep measurement
permanently.
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How to read measuring instruments
Proper measurement reading is very important in order to reduce the

error or uncertainties of the measuring tool. In this section, three essential
measuring tools; the Vernier caliper, micrometer caliper, and dial indicator are
to be discussed.
Reading a Vernier Caliper
Vernier caliper can read three dimensions: inside, outside, and depth.
Regardless of which dimension to be performed, all of them follow the same
procedure in reading the measurement. Before having the measurement, be
sure that the tool is clean; free from dust, dirt, and grease. Then secure the
object to be measured on the outside jaws if reading outside dimension, on
the inside jaws if reading inside dimension, or on the depth probe if reading
the depth. Afterwards, secure the measurement permanently by using the
locknut in order to maintain the position of the reading of the scale.
To read the value of the measurement, first look to the main scale and
note the position of the zero mark of the Vernier scale on it; record the
reading on the main scale just before the zero mark of the Vernier scale (that
would be the MSR-main scale reading value). In Figure 2-4a, that is 16 mm.
Second, locate where the Vernier scale mark coincides to one of the marks in
the main scale and note its reading (that would be the VSR-Vernier scale
reading value). The VSR value should follow the least count of the tool. In
Figure 2-4, the least count (The lowest value that can be measured by an
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instrument) is 0.05 mm, therefore, the VSR value is 0.25 mm. Finally, add the
MSR and VSR values to get the final reading.
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Reading a Micrometer Caliper

In reading a micrometer caliper, be sure that it is calibrated properly
and the zero mark corresponds to zero gap between the spindle and the anvil.
Free the tool from any dust, dirt and oil.
To measure an object, place it between the anvil and the spindle. Then
rest the object on the anvil and move the spindle towards the object by
rotating the thimble lock. To avoid excessive torque in turning, use the ratchet
knob. Once the spindle touches the object, lock the instrument permanently
using the locknut in order to secure the reading.
Like the Vernier caliper, the micrometer has a least count. The
standard formula to get the least count is the lowest scale value of the main
scale divided by the number of graduations in the Vernier scale or micrometer
scale. In Figure 2-5, that is lowest scale value equal to 0.25 mm divided by the
number of graduations in the Vernier or Micrometer scale equal to 25 is equal
to 0.01 mm. This formula can also be applied on the Vernier Caliper.
To read a micrometer caliper, locate the final graduation or mark of
the main scale on the sleeve just before the edge of the thimble and note it as
MSR. In Figure 2-5a, that is 1.75 mm. Then, locate the intersection of the mark
on the Vernier or micrometer scale and the horizontal line on the sleeve and
note it as VSR. In Figure 2-5a, that is at the zero mark. Finally, multiply the
VSR and the least count and add the product to the MSR in order to get the
final reading; in Figure 2-5b, that is 1.75 mm.
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Reading a Dial indicator

Reading a dial indicator is essential especially in aligning the shafts of
a centrifugal pump and the motor, lathe machining a cylindrical workpiece,
and verifying the flatness of a surface.
Before using a dial indicator, familiarizing the parts is highly
recommended in order to avoid damaging the sensitive tool as shown in
Figure 2-6a. It has a spindle or a plunger that is used as a probe that will
contact to the object to be measured. It will also deflect based on the degree
of misalignment. The bezel or the case which can be rotated is used to
calibrate or reposition the zero mark of the dial. The outer dial would serve as
the reading per one rotation of the needle or pointer while the short needle
serves as the number or rotation that the main needle makes. It also has
some important accessories such as the stem where the mountings are
attached, and etc.
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To read a dial indicator, be sure to know first its least count since
different dials varies significantly. In our sample Figure 2-6b&c, one rotation
correspond to 1 mm deflection of the spindle and the number of graduations
in the outer dial is 100; therefore its least count is equal to 0.01 mm (that is 1
mm divided by the outer dial total graduation equal to 100). Once the value of
the least count is determined, start the reading by looking at the value
indicated by the short needle. In Figure 2-6b, that is 7 rotations and more; it
means that the spindle has already traveled 7 mm and more. Then, locate the
position of the main needle on the outer dial and note its reading. In Figure 2-
6c, that is 71 units. Then multiply this value by the least count to get the dial
reading of 0.71 mm. Finally, add both value (7 mm and 0.71 mm) to get the
final reading of the tool.
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The Layout Tools
“Laying out” or “marking out” is a process that transfers the design

from a blueprint to the workpiece by using specialized tools that scribes lines,
circles, arcs and centers. It should be noted that the output of this process
should not be used as a reference for other designs since its measurements
will lead to errors when transferred. The importance of applying this method
especially when fabricating a model is to guide the technicians or machinists
on where to drill, where to bend or cut and where to attach the other parts.
Below are the commonly used marking tools and equipment used
inside a workshop.
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1. Scriber – usually made of hardened steel used to mark fine lines on

the metal (Figure 2-7a).
2. Divider – is used to accurately layout circles, arcs, and radii, and to
divide a certain length into several parts equally (Figure 2-7b).
3. Trammel – has the same functionality with divider but is more
suitable on a situation that is too large to handle by the divider (Figure
2-7f).
4. Hermaphrodite caliper – also known as odd leg caliper is a tool used
to layout lines that are parallel with the edges of the workpiece and to
locate the center of a cylindrical workpiece (Figure 2-7e).
5. Center punch – is used to mark center of a point, circle or an arc
(Figure 2-7c).
6. Surface gage - a tool that comes with a scriber that marks lines
parallel to the workpiece’s surface. It is also a multi-purpose tool
(Figure 2-7d).
7. Surface plate – a layout equipment that aid the surface gage since it
provides true, smooth, plane surface. It can be used as a reference
plane for other workpieces to verify that their surface are absolutely
flat (figure 2-7g).
8. Blue dye – a marking material used to enhance the visibility of the
layout being generated (Figure 2-7h).
9. Combination square – comprise of a ruler blade, a square head,
protractor head and center head that has a wide range of layout
operations. Such common operations are setting the angle, locating
the center of a circle, and marking out incline lines (Figure 2-7i).
10. Bevel protractor – a tool used to lay out angles precisely (Figure 2-7j).
11. Tri square – a tool used to set and mark two workpieces in right
angles and usually applied on wooden materials (Figure 2-7k).
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Page 43 of
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j
i
Steps in Laying out or Marking out any metal surface
The following steps can be applied in order to achieve a nice layout ready for
fabrication.
1. Be sure to analyze your design first by reading every details of your
blueprint and try to convert those sketches into useful information
needed for your layout.
2. Clean the blank metal you are working by freeing it from any dirt, oil,
grease, and rust.
3. Coat the entire surface of your blank metal with the blue dye in order
to make your layout more visible.
4. Set your datum; it could be a point, a line, or an edge or a surface of
your workpiece where you refer all other measurements and
dimensions.
a) If your datum is a line, use a steel ruler and a scriber. This is
applicable in marking out centerlines for circles and arcs, and
base lines for other construction lines.
b) If your datum is a point, use prickle or center punch.
c) If your datum is an edge of the workpiece, use hermaphrodite
caliper to lay out the rest of the construction lines. And
d) If your datum is a surface of the workpiece, use surface plate.
5. Lay out the remaining construction lines and object lines with
reference to the datum. To mark out a circle or an arc, use divider, or
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trammel with a built-in scriber. To mark out a line, use steel ruler and a
scriber. To mark out a center point (like the center of an arc or a
circle), use center punch. To mark a line parallel to an edge or a
surface, use hermaphrodite caliper or a surface gauge. And finally to
set angles and mark out incline lines, use combination square or bevel
protractor and a scriber.
Laboratory Tasks
Task 1: The Vernier Caliper
Objective: To solve the volume of a solid sphere and cylinder, and the
capacity of a beaker using the OLABS Vernier Caliper online simulator.
Material: Laboratory guide, Personal computer or Laptop (with access
the OLABS website)
Procedure:
1. Open any browser and input the url of OLABS Vernier Caliper simulator
(Figure 2-8).
http://amrita.olabs.edu.in/?sub=1&brch=5&sim=16&cnt=4
2. Start the task by choosing the solid sphere. Left click the sphere and it
will automatically position itself between the outer jaws of the caliper.
Adjust the right outer jaw by pressing and then dragging the caliper’s
Vernier scale until it touches to the sphere. The parameter for this
object is the object’s diameter.
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3. When reading the caliper, refer to the monitor screen on the top right
of the simulator and input your reading value (object’s diameter) in the
“enter reading (cm)” box.
4. Take a screen shot of the whole simulator window (the same
appearance as in Figure 2-8).
5. Solve for the volume of the sphere using the parameter you have
gathered from the simulator.
6. Press the reset button in order to proceed to the next object.
7. Next, choose the cylinder. Left click the cylinder and it will
automatically position itself between the outer jaws of the caliper.
Adjust the right outer jaw by pressing and then dragging the caliper’s
Vernier scale until it touches to the cylinder. The parameters for this
object are the object’s outer diameter and length. To change the type
of parameter to be measured, go to the “Select what to measure:”
section and choose diameter or length.
of the simulator and input your reading value (object’s diameter or
length) in the “enter reading (cm)” box.
appearance as in Figure 2-8).Since there are two parameters present,
there will be two screen shots for this object.
10. Solve for the volume of the cylinder using the parameters you have
11. Press the reset button in order to proceed to the next object.
12. Next, choose the beaker. Left click the beaker and it will automatically
position itself between the inner jaws of the caliper. Adjust the right
inner jaw by pressing and then dragging the caliper’s Vernier scale
until it touches to the inner surface of the beaker. The parameters for
this object are the object’s outer inner diameter and depth. To change
the type of parameter to be measured, go to the “Select what to
measure:” section and choose inner diameter or depth. For the depth
option, the beaker will automatically position on the depth probe of the
caliper.
of the simulator and input your reading value (object’s inner diameter
or depth) in the “enter reading (cm)” box.
appearance as in Figure 2-8).Since there are two parameters present,
there will be two screen shots for this object.
15. Solve for the capacity of the beaker using the parameters you have
16. Draft the task by starting with the screen shot for the sphere, solution
for the volume of the sphere, two screen shots for the cylinder,
solution for the volume of the cylinder, two screen shots for the
beaker, and solution for the capacity of the beaker.
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Task 2: The Micrometer Caliper
Objective: To solve the volume of a lead shot and a wire using the
OLABS Screw Gauge online simulator.
Material: Laboratory guide, Personal computer or Laptop (with access
the OLABS website)
Procedure:
1. Open any browser and input the url of OLABS Screw Gauge simulator
(Figure 2-9).
http://amrita.olabs.edu.in/?sub=1&brch=5&sim=156&cnt=4
2. In the simulator window, be sure that the LC or least count on the

“select screw gauge” section should be 0.01 mm.
3. Start the Task by choosing the Lead shot. In the “Select an object”
section, choose from the drop down box the “lead shot” object. It will
then appear automatically between the anvil and the spindle. The
parameter here is the diameter of the lead shot.
4. Press the “arrow up” symbol on the ratchet knob in order to adjust the
spindle until it touches the lead shot. A monitor screen on the bottom
right of the simulator window will appear; indicating that the spindle
already stick to the lead shot.
5. Take your reading on the monitor screen and input this value on the
“Enter the reading (mm)” section.
7. Solve for the volume of the lead shot using the parameter you have
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8. Press the reset button below the Result tab in order to proceed to the
next object.
9. Next, choose the wire. In the “Select an object” section, choose from
the drop down box the “wire” object. It will then appear automatically
between the anvil and the spindle. The parameter here is the diameter
of the wire.
10. Press the “arrow up” symbol on the ratchet knob in order to adjust the
spindle until it touches the wire. A monitor screen on the bottom right
of the simulator window will appear; indicating that the spindle already
stick to the wire.
11. Take your reading on the monitor screen and input this value on the
“Enter the reading (mm)” section.
13. Solve for the volume of the wire using the parameter you have
gathered from the simulator and the given length of the wire as
indicated in the simulator.
14. Draft the task by starting with the screen shot for the lead shot,
solution for the volume of the lead shot, screen shot for the wire, and
solution for the volume of the wire.
Task 3: Laying out on a Metal
Objective: To transfer a design from a Computer Aided Design (CAD)

plan to the surface of an aluminum sheet using improvise layout tools and
equipment.
Material: Laboratory guide, Hard copy of the CAD plan, Aluminum can,
“Aniel” – (household blue dye) or a blue marker, Compass (serves as a
divider), nails (serves as a scriber), zip ties, ruler, scissors or cutter, and
smartphone or video camera
Procedure:
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No.
1. Secure a hardcopy of the CAD plan (Figure 2-10) and analyze what are
the drawing elements present (lines, circles, arcs, centerlines, etc.)
and the meaning of the labels being mark for each elements.
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2.
Clean one aluminum can and remove its caps both top and
bottom leaving the side sheets using a scissor or a cutter. Don’t forget
to wear gloves to avoid any injury from the sharp tools.
3. Flatten the aluminum can as much as possible. Sand the edges of the
aluminum sheet in order make it smooth. See the YouTube link below
on how to achieve a nice flat aluminum sheet.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lRDR3EzZIMw
4. You may also remove the outer coating of the aluminum sheet but it’s
not necessarily required. See the YouTube link below on how to
remove the outer coating of the aluminum sheet.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HHWNqxCYMtA
5. Using your smartphone or any video camera, document all the
procedures right after step number 4.
6. Coat one side of the aluminum sheet with the “Aniel solution” (mixture
of “Aniel” powder and small amount of water) using a paint brush or a
piece of cloth. If the coating does not stick well, use blue marker
instead.
7. Mark out the datum line 1 (a centerline) which is a line that divides the
aluminum sheet lengthwise using a ruler and an *improvised scriber.
*Wood nails of any size can be used as improvised scriber.
8. Before marking out the datum line 2, divide first the length of the
aluminum sheet into four equal parts without measuring it; just used
the *improvised divider.
*The improvised divider can be an old or a new compass. Just remove
the attachment for the pencil in the compass and replace it with
enough size of wood nail; using zip ties to secure the wood nail in
place. The wood nail would serve as the scriber for the improvised
divider.
Note: To understand how to divide a certain distance into smaller equal
parts, see the YouTube link below.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bquDFzldzjo
9. Mark out the datum line 2 (a centerline) using the output from the
previous step using again a ruler and the improvised scriber.
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10. From the three intersections made by the datum lines 1 and 2, mark
out three centers for the three 1” holes as indicated in the CAD plan
using a hammer and an improvised center punch; vertically position
the *improvised center punch on the point of intersection and strike a
small amount of force on it using a hammer just enough to create a
small indentation.
* Wood nails of any size can be used as improvised center punch.
11. Using the improvised divider, mark out the three 1 inch diameter
circles on the three intersections. To do this, position one tip of the
improvised divider on the zero mark of your ruler and the other tip on
the 0.5 inch mark. This will serve as the radius of the circle. Then, on
the aluminum sheet, position the tip without the scriber at the middle
of the intersection or center punched hole and the other tip with the
wood nail on the surface of the sheet. Finally, rotate the improvised
divider freely to create a nice lay out of a circle. Do the same steps for
the remaining two holes.
12. Take a clear picture of your output and paste it on a bond paper. Save
your recorded video since it will also be submitted together with the
picture.
Guide Questions:
1. How can dirt or dust contributes measurement effectiveness of a
Vernier and micrometer caliper?
2. From the two instruments; Vernier and micrometer, which is more
precise in reading measurements? And why?
3. Give the Vernier caliper reading for each picture (Figure 2-11) below
and encircle the intersection of the Vernier scale mark and the main
scale mark.
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4. Give the Micrometer caliper reading for each picture (Figure 2-12)
below and encircle the intersection of the micrometer scale mark and
the main scale mark.
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No.
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5. Give the Dial indicator reading for each picture (Figure 2-13) below
and encircle the intersection of the outer dial scale mark and the main
pointer.
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6. From Task 3, what is the purpose of having datum line 2 in the layout
of the aluminum sheet?
7. If you want to mark out a line parallel and 3 centimeters away from the
edge of a sheet metal, what type of datum are you referring to and
what appropriate marking tool are you going to use?
Instructions on how to prepare and submit Laboratory

Exercise
1. for Task 1
number and title, and the task number. Don’t forget to paste the screen
shots as a proof that you perform the simulation.
2. for Task 2
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number and title, and the task number. Don’t forget to paste the screen
shots as a proof that you perform the simulation.
3. for Task 3
Paste the picture of your layout in an A4 size bond paper with 1 inch
encode your headings. The heading at the top of the bond paper must have
number and title, and the task number. Save your video file with a filename:
“Name_CourseTitle_Offering number”.
and title, and the task number. Don’t forget to include the pictures for nos.
3 to 5 since it is one of the requirements being stated in these 3 questions.
For your recorded video file, submit it via GMAIL
([email protected]). If the file is too large, you will be
forced to upload on google drive and just share the file link. This output
can only be submitted online.
Videos:
1. Measurement: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oAtDAoqdExw
2. Measuring and Marking Tools:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rEp2qqvt8Po
3. Marking out a Metal:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V2QT2C5larE
4. How to measure a Vernier Caliper:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vkPlzmalvN4
5. How to measure Micrometer Caliper:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=StBc56ZifMs
6. How to measure dial indicator:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0KbMTKq4SLk&t=179s
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Websites:
1 E. J. Stefanelli, "Eduard J. Stefanelli," 2020. [Online]. Available:
https://www.stefanelli.eng.br/en/virtual-vernier-caliper-simulator-05-
millimeter/#swiffycontainer_2. [Accessed 14 december 2020].
2 E. J. Stefanelli, "Eduardo J, Stefanelli," 2020. [Online]. Available:
https://www.stefanelli.eng.br/en/simulator-virtual-micrometer-tenths-
thousandth-inch/. [Accessed 14 December 2020].
3 E. J. Stefanelli, "Eduardo J. Stefanelli," 2020. [Online]. Available:
https://www.stefanelli.eng.br/en/virtual-dial-indicator-simulator-hundredths-
millimeter/. [Accessed 6 December 2020].
References
1 Headquarters Department of the Army, "Fundamentals of Machine

Tools," Washington, DC, 1996.
2 Weldinginst.yolasite, "Certificate in Metal Machining: Measuring and
Marking".
3 ifs.olabs.co.in,. (2014). Vernier Calipers. Retrieved 9 December 2020,
from ifs.olabs.co.in/?sub=1&brch=5&sim=16&cnt=1
4 amrita.olabs.edu.in,. (2014). Screw Gauge. Retrieved 18 December 2020,
from amrita.olabs.edu.in/?sub=1&brch=5&sim=156&cnt=4
Digital Pictures:
1. Figure 2-1
a) Steel Ruler www.pixabay.com
b) Measuring Tape www.pixabay.com
c) Height Gauge www.shop.mitutoyo.eu
d) Feeler Gauge www.commons,wikimedia,org
e) Thread Gauge www.starmoto.ee
f) Firm Joint Inside Caliper www.weldinginst.yolasite
g) Adjustable Screw Inside Caliper www.lazada.com
h) Firm Joint Outside Caliper www.weldinginst.yolasite
i) Adjustable Screw Outside Caliper
www.commons.wikimedia,org
j) Dial Indicator
www.indiamart.com
2. Figure 2-2
Parts of a Vernier Caliper www.en.wikipedia.org
3. Figure 2-3
Parts of a Micrometer Caliper www.indiamart.com
4. Figure 2-4
(a,b,c) Steps in Reading a Vernier Caliper
www.weldinginst.yolasite
5. Figure 2-5
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(a,b,c) Steps in Reading Micrometer Caliper

6. Figure 2-6
a) Parts of a Dial Indicator www.jet.co.th
b) Steps in Reading Dial indicator
c) Steps in Reading Dial indicator
7. Figure 2-7
a) Scribers www.commons,wikimedia.org
b) Dividers www.toolbytool.org
c) Set of Center-punches www.mscdirect.com
d) Surface Gauge www.indiamart.com
e) Hermaphrodite Caliper www.amazon.com
f) Trammel www.obishi.co.jp
g) Surface Plate www.qc-solutions.com
h) Blue Dye www.mini-lathe.com
i) Combination Square www.littlemachineshop.com
j) Bevel Protractor www.starrett.com
k) Tri Square www.ebay.com
8. Figure 2-8
Vernier Caliper Simulator Interface
www.amrita.olabs.edu.in
9. Figure 2-9
Micrometer Caliper Simulator Interface www.amrita.olabs.edu.in
10. Figure 2-11
(A,B,C) Vernier Caliper Readings www.iwant2study.org
11. Figure 2-12
(A,B,C) Micrometer Caliper Readings www.iwant2study.org
12. Figure 2-13
(A,B,C) Dial Indicator Readings www.stefanelli.eng.br
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Exercise No. 3
Hand Tools and Processes
Introduction
Inside the machine shop, cold works are tasks that involve the
machining of a material without creating heat or ignition. These are also
simple activities that can be done even the absence of power tools and such
tools are known as “hand tools”. In this exercise, the classifications and
examples of these hand tools as well as some procedures on how to perform
them were discussed. At the latter part, the students will perform activities
that will familiarize them on some basic hand tools and how to use these
tools properly.
Learning Outcomes
1. Define hand tools;
2. Identify the different classifications of hand tools and its examples;
and
3. Discuss the steps on how to perform certain cold working processes
using these hand tools.
Materials
Exercise Manual, Ball pen, Bond paper, Available household hand tools,
smartphone or video camera.
Discussion
Hand Tools
Hand tools are instruments which do not require electric power or any
power source to perform cold working tasks. Such tasks are tightening a nut,
cutting a piece of sheet metal, bending a wire, driving a screw unto a
workpiece, and etc. These tools varies considerably according to its usage
from cutting tools, gripping and clamping tools, tightening and fastening
tools, striking tools, and lastly service or miscellaneous tools. Although
measuring and lay outing tools are considered as hand tools, it will not be
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covered in this lesson anymore since it has already been discussed in the
previous exercise.
Classification of Hand Tools and its Processes
In this exercise, we are going to discuss five types of hand tools and
its uses as well as the steps in performing a certain workshop process using
these tools.
1. Cutting tools
These are tools that can be broken down into two parts; the one which
shears a workpiece and the other one shapes or removes some amount of
material from the workpiece.
A. Shearing tools
1. Hand Saw – are used to cut wooden pieces either in straight or curve
patterns along the edge or the interior part of the workpiece. It has
several varieties starting with the Ripsaw- with coarse teeth (Figure 3-
1a) which is 26-in long that cuts along the wood grain, the Crosscut
saw- with smaller teeth (Figure 3-1b) which is slightly shorter than the
ripsaw that cuts across the wood grain, the Toolbox saw (Figure 3-1c)
which can be fit inside a conventional toolbox that combines the
capabilities of the rip and crosscut saws, the Backsaw (Figure 3-1d)
that makes angled or mitered cuts, the Compass saw (Figure 3-1e)
and the Keyhole saw-which is slightly smaller than the compass
(Figure 3-1e) that both makes interior cuts either linear or curved
patterns, the Dovetail Saw (Figure 3-1f) that cuts dovetail patterns for
wood joinery, the Frame Saw (Figure 3-1g) that cuts longer patterns
along wood grains, the Bow saw – wooden in construction (Figure 3-
1h) that cuts ideal curves in woods, the Coping saw- metallic in
construction (Figure 3-1i) that cuts interior and exterior wood patterns,
and the Flush cutter saw (Figure 3-1j) with an offset handle that cuts
extra materials flushing beyond the surface of a workpiece.
There are other variants of saws being used in Japan which are the
“Ryoba”, the “Dozuki”, the “Kugihiki”, and the Hikimawashi” (Figure 3-
1k); all differ from the common classifications of saws by the cutting
stroke which for them are experience during pulling rather than
pushing. This difference can be seen in Figure 3-1l in which the blade
of the conventional saw points outward while for Japanese saws, it
points inward. Additionally, in the same figure, we can also notice that
the vertical teeth of the ripsaw is use to cut aggressively while the
sloppy teeth for the crosscut saw is used to produce clean and nice
cuts.
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In performing a “saw cutting process”, be sure that the workpiece

should be clamped securely; don’t use your hand to hold it. Then, if
you’re cutting along the grain, your angle of cut should be 60 degrees,
if doing a crosscutting, your angle should be 45 degrees, and if doing
a smooth cutting, your angle should be 20 degrees (Figure 3-2a). For
interior cuts such as curves, circles and arcs, drill a hole on a wasted
area; this will serve as the starting point of your cut using either
keyhole, coping or compass saw. In performing angle cuts, you can
use a miter box (Figure 3-2b) which serves as a template to guide the
direction of your cut. If you experience that your cut does not follow
your cutting line, twist the blade slightly during the push stroke to
reset the direction of cutting as explained by the book of “The Art of
Woodworking hand tools”. Lastly, when arriving at the last part of your
cutting line, change the angle of your saw to 90 degrees to achieve a
nice finishing cut.
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2. Hacksaw- are intended to shear steel and other metals but it can also
be applied on woods for finer cuts. It comprises of five major parts,
the blade, the handle, the frame, the prongs or the stud, and the blade
tension nut or the wing nut (Figure 3-3a). The frame is the part that
classifies the hacksaw into two types; the fixed hacksaw and the
adjustable hacksaw. Both types have prongs that can swivel the
blades in horizontal and right angles to allow deeper cuts without
worrying the frame. The advantage of the adjustable hacksaw is its
capacity to cut longer strokes and it comes with three varieties; the
straight handle adjustable frame, the pistol type adjustable frame,
and the tubular type adjustable frame (Figure 3-3b).
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The hacksaw blade is the most important part since it is the one
which do the cut. To accomplish its duty, its composition should be
sturdy enough. The most commonly used material is a high-speed
steel that are hardened and tempered. However, hardenability of the
blade posed some risk of brittleness. That is why, another blade
construction was proposed and this would be the flexible hacksaw
blade wherein the tip of the blade was only hardened and tempered
leaving the body bendable.
The teeth of the blade should have a proper setting in order to prevent
the blade from getting stuck in the workpiece during cutting, and to
create a cut that is slightly wider than the thickness of the blade. It has
two types, the straight alternate set and the wavy set (Figure 3-4a).
These teeth also influence the quality of the cut for specific metal and
they are graded using the unit TPI or teeth per inch. Table 1 shows
several teeth grades for specific materials.
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Figure 3- 4 Sets for hacksaw blade
Table 3-1 TPI for each type of Material
In performing a “hacksaw cutting process”, follow the guidelines listed

below (Bohn K. 2006).
1. Always secure the workpiece to be cut on a vise and
perform the cut as closely as possible to the edge of the
vise to prevent the workpiece from drawing off the vise.
2. In cutting a workpiece with suitable pressure, hold the
handle with your right hand and grip the front end of the
frame with the left hand. If you’re left-handed, execute the
opposite.
3. Maintain a suitable cutting speed of about 1 stroke for
second. Apply only enough pressure on the forward stroke
since the cut happens only in this time.
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4. In sawing thin workpiece, sandwich it between two pieces of

wood or soft metal to achieve a fine cut.
5. Do not use oil as lubricant in performing hacksaw by hand.
3. Cutting Pliers – comes into two types, the side-cutting pliers or

lineman pliers (Figure 3-5a) that bends and cuts wire, and strips wire
insulation, and the diagonal cutting pliers (Figure 3-5b) that cuts and
skins wires, pins, small nails, and other fasteners.
4. Snips – are shearing tools used to cut sheet metals and other flexible
metals. A tinner’s snips have long handles and shorter blades (Figure
3-5c) and a compound-action snips have leverage handle system
design to decrease effort while increasing output (Figure 3-5d).
5. Tube cutter – is used to cut soft materials at right angle such as PVC
pipes and copper tubing that are used in air-conditioners and
refrigerators with no burrs and chips (Figure 3-5e). The blade is
usually made of stainless steel.
6. Pipe Cutter – is used mainly for plumbers in cutting pipes ranges from
PVC (Figure 3-5f) to galvanized iron which is more convenient than
using a hacksaw. The blades are usually are usually made of hardened
steel.
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B. Shaping Tool
1. Chisel – also known as engraving tool used to remove some amount
of material on the workpiece. It comprises mostly of a cylindrical
handle with a striking surface and a wedge-shaped blade on the other
side to penetrate the material. There are three types of chisel inside a
workshop; the hot chisel (Figure 3-6a) with a 30 degree-wedge that
are used mainly by blacksmiths in shaping hot metals, the cold chisel
(Figure 3-6b) with a 60 degree-wedge that are used for ordinary metal
works, and the wood chisel that comes into several varieties for
woodworking. The chisel is being drove by a ball-peen hammer or a
soft hammer.
Examples of wood chisels are bevel-edge chisel – a commonly used
chisel suitable in shaping dovetail designs and in creating finer
woodworks (Figure 3-6c), a mortise chisel - a square-edge chisel with
broad neck used to create slots on woods and pull out excess
materials without breaking the chisel (Figure 3-6d), a firmer chisel – is
a tool with rectangular section made of carbon steel that is mainly
utilized in joinery works (Figure 3-6e), the Japanese chisel – a tool
with laminated blade made either soft or hard steel with hollow
ground on the back and a handle protected with steel hoop to
withstand hammer blows is used mainly for cutting joins and finer
woodworks (Offerman N. (2018)) (Figure 3-6f), and the set of wood
lathe chisels- are tools used for wood turning operations with blade
edges ranging from flat, inclined, arched and pointed (Figure 3-6g).
For Chisel bevels, the blades should have an initial ground angle of 25
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degrees and a secondary ground angle of 30 degrees to strengthen

the blade and to reduce the effort of driving the chisel to the
workpiece.
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Figure 3-6 (a) hot chisel, (b) cold chisel, (c) Bevel-edge
Chisel, and (g) Set of wood lathe chisels
Below are the basic procedures in making a mortise or a slot on the

wood using the mortise chisel (Offerman N. (2018)).
1. Secure the workpiece with a vise and be sure that the
mortise layout is closer to the vise.
2. Create a series of smaller cuts on the mortise layout about
3 mm by holding the chisel vertically and striking a mallet
up to a depth slightly lesser than the required depth of
the mortise.
3. Remove the smaller cuts by inclining the chisel with the
bevel-side down and pushing it and levering it upwards.
4. Complete the slot or mortise by cutting the remaining
woodchips along the edges by placing the tip of the blade
on the edge with the flat face resting on the surface of
the mortise adjacent to the edge. Then, make a sudden
blow on the chisel using a mallet to cut the waste.
Always sharpen the blade of the chisel correctly and avoid using a
“blunt” chisel.
2. File – a shaping tool that removes burrs and other extra materials in a
workpiece to achieve a nice finished and it is sometimes use in fitting
operation. It is usually made of heat treated high carbon steel in order
to improve toughness and hardenability. The length of the file is
measured from point or the edge the file towards the heel; the length
of the handle or the tang is excluded (Figure 3-7a).
There are two main classifications of files; the type of cut and the
coarseness of the teeth. The cut can be single – for smooth finished
(Figure 3-7b)
, double – for maximum removal of material (Figure 3-7c), curved
tooth – for soft materials such as aluminum and plastics (Figure 3-
7d), and rasp – for woodworking (Figure 3-7e).The coarseness varies
from rough, coarse, bastard, second cut, smooth, and dead smooth.
The coarseness of the file is dependent upon its length; the shorter
the file, the less coarse it is.
Another sub-classification of files are mill and saw files – are
American single cut files and work well for bronze and brass, and are
also used for draw filing, machinists’ mill, and Swiss pattern files –
are made with closer tolerances and are narrower than American files.
Figure 3-7f also shows classification of files based on the shape of its
cross sectional area.
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Figure 3- 7 (a) Parts of a file, (b) single cut, (c) double cut, (d) curved tooth
cut, (e) rasp cut, and (f) Types of files based on the its cross sectional area
Fi 3 7( )P t f fil (b) i l t ( )d bl t (d) dt th
Below are the steps and tips in filing a certain workpiece.

1. Secure the workpiece on a bench vice without deforming its
surface.
2. Choose the appropriate file for the job. Be sure that the file
has a handle and the teeth don’t look shiny or smooth since it
will not cut properly.
3. During filing, apply only enough pressure in order to avoid
breaking the file and to cause pinning – excess materials that
deposit between the teeth. It is ideal to have a filing speed
around 40 to 50 strokes per minute (Hand tools –
docshare02).
4. To remove the pins, used a file card or apply a chalk to
reduce its effect.
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5. Use a long stroke during filing to achieve a uniform worn

out of the file’s teeth. Change also the direction of your
stroke to generate a crosshatch pattern. In this way the
surface is definitely flat.
3. Hand Reamer – resembles like a drill that is used to enlarge or

finished pre-made holes. It has four major parts; the square – where
the t-handle wrench is attached, the shank – that supports the body,
the neck – connects between the shank and the flute, the flute –
contains the cutting edge, and the chamfer – where the cutting
commences and to have less effort while starting the cutting process
(Figure 3-8a). The diameter of the reamer is measured at the end of
the starting taper. Examples of hand reamers are straight flute reamer
– for cylindrical holes (Figure 3-8b), helical flute reamer – for holes
having grooves or key seats (figure 3-8c), expansion reamer – for
bushings or holes having key seats (Figure 3-8d), adjustable hand
reamer – for taper holes or slots (Figure 3-8e), taper pin reamer – for
holes applied in machine tools and other machine parts (Figure 3-8f),
and Morse taper socket roughing reamer and Morse taper socket
finishing reamer – for holes that are compatible with American
Standard taper shank tools(Figure 3-8g1 and 3-8g2).
Below are tips and procedures on how to performing the reaming
process (Hand tools – docshare02).
1. Secure the workpiece with the hole on a vice.
2. Properly place the reamer on the hole and align it nicely.
3. Begin reaming through the help of a tap wrench or a t-
handle wrench and apply a slow rotation to start the cut
Figure 3-h). Be sure to have a uniform torque in order to make
a uniform sized hole. Do not use adjustable wrench.
4. When done, do not rotate the reamer backwards to remove
it, instead pass the reamer to the hole and pull it in the far
side.
5. In reaming soft materials, you can just secure the reamer
on the vice and insert the hole of the workpiece on the reamer
and rotate it with adequate pressure (Figure 3-8i).
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g2
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4. Tap – a tool usually made of high carbon steel or high speed steel
design to produce internal threads used in bolts and screws. The
chamfer is only the part of the tap that do the cutting operation (see
Figure 3-9a for Taps’ nomenclature). When threading a hole, start by
using the first set of tap, the taper tap, followed by the plug tap, and
finally the bottoming tap (Figure 3-9b). Other varieties of taps are the
interrupted thread tap – for tough metals such as stainless steel
(figure 3-9c), the spiral pointed tap – or gun tap is used for machine
tapping of through holes or blind holes (Figure 3-9d), and pulley tap –
for threading set screws and oil cup holes (Figure 3-9e).
To reduce friction while threading, taps are design to have a back
tapered along the thread.
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Before tapping a hole, drilling the right hole size should be

considered. The American National Unified form calculates the hole
size using the formula below
Table 3-2 shows the desired cutting speed and lubricant for different
materials.
Table 3-2 Cutting Speed and lubricant for following materials
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Below are the steps in hand tapping (Hand Tools – docshare02).

1. Solve for the right hole size using the formula as indicated above.
2. Choose the right tap that is applicable to your workpiece. You can
refer this information in a tap drill chart. When performing manual
tapping, start by using the taper tap, then plug tap, and lastly
bottoming tap. For tapping using a drill press or a tapping machine,
start by using a plug tap.
3. For hand tapping, rotate the tap with the t-handle wrench or tap
wrench with considerable speed enough to produce adequate amount
of torque. For machine tapping, solve the correct drill press rpm by
using the formula below by American National Unified form
Where CS is the cutting speed for a certain material (refer to Table 3-

1) and D as the hole diameter.
4. It is preferable to have a countersink at the rim of the hole in order
to protect the starting thread from deforming (Figure 3-10a).
5. Mount the workpiece securely on a bench vise and be sure that the
hole is at right angle.
6. Attached the tap in the tap wrench or the t-handle wrench.
7. Cup your hand at the center of the wrench (Figure 3-10b). Then
apply a steady downward pressure as you apply two to three turns to
start tapping (Figure 3-10c).
8. Take a break by removing the tap wrench and check the squareness
of the tap with respect to the workpiece using the square tool or L-
square (Figure 3-10d). If it’s not at right angle, restart the tap in order
to avoid ruining the thread and the hole.
9. During tapping, turn the tap one quarter to one half in the forward
direction and turn back three-quarters in the backward direction in
order to break the chips within the thread. Use appropriate cutting oil
for this process.
10. When tapping a blind hole, start with the plug tap and finally the
bottoming tap.
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5. Thread-cutting Dies – are used to cut external threads on a cylindrical

workpiece. It is mostly made of high-speed steel and in some cases,
carbon steel and comprises of two important components, the die and
the stock (Figure 3-11a). Dies are the ones that contains the cutting
teeth while the diestock or stock is the one that drives the die to
create the thread. This tool has several markings on its body such as
the thread diameter, the type of thread, and the threads per inch.
Examples of thread-cutting die are the split adjustable die – also
known as button die which uses a fine-pitch screw to adjust its
tightness (Figure 3-11b), the split adjustable die collet – uses a collet
mechanism to allow precise control over the size of the thread cut
(Figure 3-11c), the hexagon rethreading die – used to reshape worn
out threads and uses a large wrench as its driver (Figure 3-11d), and
the pipe stock and die – use for threading pipes (Figure 3-11e).
Below are the steps for manual threading (Hand Tools –docshare02).
1. Prepare the workpiece by acquiring its diameter and remove some
amount of material on the tip to create a 450 chamfer – used to make
the first thread sturdy.
2. Choose the appropriate die in which its diameter should have an
allowance of 0.002 to 0.00 inch with respect to the workpiece
diameter. Then secure this on a diestock.
3. Secure your workpiece on a vise either vertical – for short
workpieces, or horizontal – for long workpieces.
4. Begin the threading process by inserting the die with the stock on
the workpiece and applying a slow downward pressure while turning
the die (Figure 3-11f). Use both hands in turning to achieve uniform
torque distribution (Figure 3-11g).
5. Add some lubricating oil during the threading process and try to
reverse the direction of cut by one-half turn after every one full cutting
turn in order to break the excess materials between the threads.
6. Check the squareness of the thread using an L-square and if there
are some slight damages, just turn the die again starting from the
chamfered edge.
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7. After taking some several turns, check also the fit of the thread
using a thread ring gage (Figure 3-11h) or a micrometer. And lastly,
continue threading until reaching the required thread length.
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f
6. Hand Drill – is a manual tool design especially in woodworking whose

mechanisms follows the principle of amplifying the circular motion
generated on the crank towards the rotation of the drill chuck (Figure
3-12). To use this tool, simply insert the desired drill bit onto the drill
chuck and secure it tightly. Then position the drill bit onto the
workpiece at right angle and hold the crank with your hand and rotate
to a desired speed and pressure.
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7. Hand Plane – is a shaping tool usually applied in woodworking

operations that removes some material in a workpiece for a purpose
of reducing the workpiece’s thickness (Figure 3-13). See “The art of
woodworking hand tools” by Time life books for full detail about
different varieties of Hand Plane.
2. Gripping and Clamping Tools

Tools that secures a work from another body are known as clamping
tools while tools that holds a work tightly are known as gripping tools.
1. Clamps – are tools that are numerously present in everyone homes or
shops. Its primary function is to secure a workpiece to another body.
In woodworking operation, it is used to secure two or more wooded
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blanks that are glued together, or to secure a wooden workpiece to be

machined.
Examples of clamps ranges from clamp heads, trigger clamps, hold
down clamps, the famous C-clamp, bar clamp, quick-action bar
clamp, back-to-back clamp, pipe clamp, three-way clamp, picture
frame clamp, web clamp, band
clamp, toggle clamp, spring clamp,
pinch dog, corner clamp, and hand
screw(Figure 3-14).
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Clamps also have some accessories such as the rubber pads that
prevents marring the workpiece, the center pipe clamp fixture, the pipe
saddles, and the edge clamp fixture (Figure 3-15).
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2. Vise – a tool used to hold a workpiece by sandwiching it between two

metallic jaws for the purpose of stability while performing some
machining operations. It is usually heavy since it is made of mostly
cast iron and steel. Common varieties of a vise are the famous bench
vise (Figure 3-16a), the woodworking vise (Figure 3-16b)., the hand
vise (Figure 3-16c)., the multi-angle vise (Figure 3-16d)., and the vise
grip or the locking pliers. (Figure 3-16e).
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3. Pliers – A multi-tool used mainly for gripping, holding and bending a

workpiece. Although there are type of pliers that are used for cutting,
in this section, let’s just focus on the other types.
The varieties of pliers are combination or slip joint pliers – that can
hold large pieces (Figure 3-17a), the interlocking joints or pump pliers
– that would tighten packing gland nuts (Figure 3-17b), the round nose
or wire looper pliers (Figure 3-17c) and the needle nose pliers (bent
and straight) – that are used in grasping delicate pieces (Figure 3-
17d).
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3. Tightening and Driving Tools
1. Wrench – a tool used to tighten and loosen bolts, nuts, cap screws
and other mechanical accessories. It comes with several varieties
such as the adjustable wrench – for variable size of bolts and nuts
(Figure 3-18a), open end wrench – for square-headed bolts (Figure 3-
18b), the box wrench – has 12 points of contact to reset turning more
easily and suitable for hex-headed bolts Figure 3-18c), the socket
wrench – are driven by handles and has 12 points that encloses the
bolts or nuts and suitable also for hex-headed bolts (Figure
b 3-18d), the
pipe wrench – has serrated jaws used in pipe repairs (Figure 3-18e),
the Strap wrench – for pipe repairs and avoid the pipes from marring
(Figure 3-18f), the hook spanner (including adjustable) – for round
nuts with notches or holes (Figure 3-18g), the socketc head wrench or
Allen wrench – for socket head cap screws (Figure 3-18h), the face
spanner (fixed and adjustable) (Figure 3-18i), the torque wrench –
provides correct magnitude of tightness (Figure 3-18j), the hand tap
wrench and T-handle tap wrench – for tapping process (Figure 3-18k),
and the combination wrench (Figure 3-18l).
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2. Screwdriver – is a tool used to drive screws and even bolt screws on

the workpiece. The famous varieties of screwdriver are Philip
screwdrivers – for Philip head screws (Figure 3-19a), and the
standard screwdrivers – for standard head screws (Figure 3-19b).
Other varieties are the offset screwdrivers (Figure 3-19c), the ratchet
screwdriver with interchangeable points (Figure 3-19d), and the
security screwdrivers (Figure 3-19e) – for security screws (Figure 3-
19f).
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4. Striking Tools
1. Hammer – a tool used to apply striking force on a material for the

purpose of modifying or deforming its shape or to the drive
mechanical fasteners such as nails. It is classified into two
categories; the hard hammer – for heavy duty works requiring
excessive deformation, and the soft hammer – for striking and driving
a piece material without marring its surface. Hammers are sized
according to the weight of its head; commonly ranges from 2 oz. to 3
lbs. It should be noted that two hammers should not be struck with
each other on its flat face since it will damage its parts.
Such varieties of hammers are ball peen hammer – for upsetting or
riveting a metal (Figure 3-20a), straight peen and cross peen hammer
(Figure 3-20b), the plastic hammers – are soft hammers to drive and
position workpieces that has already been surfaced finished (Figure 3-
20c), the lead hammer – a soft hammer that doesn’t have a tendency
to bounce back when striking on a workpiece (Figure 3-20d), the claw
hammer – for driving and removing wood nails (Figure 3-20e), and the
maul – for heavy duty hammering (Figure 3-20f).
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5. Miscellaneous Tools
1. Bearing puller – a tool used to extract especially cylindrical ball

bearings from shafts (Figure 3-21a).
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Below are the procedures on how to pull a bearing from a shaft (from
wonkeedonkeetools.com)
1. Position the puller with its legs around the external or internal
part of the bearing depending upon the parts to be extracted
(Figure 3-21b).
2. Adjust the legs of the puller so that it would fit firmly on the
external or internal parts of the bearing (Figure 3-21c).
3. Position the forcing screw in a manner that it will align on the
center of the shaft without changing the anchoring of the
puller’s legs on the bearing. Rotate the screw in order to
perform this step (Figure 3-21d).
4. Using either a spanner or socket wrench, rotate the forcing
screw cap in order to slowly extract the bearing from the shaft
(Figure 3-21e).
5. Once the bearing is extracted, loosen the forcing screw in
order to detach the puller from the bearing and the shaft (Figure
3-21f).
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2. Flaring and swaging tool – a tool (Figure 3-22a) used in air-

conditioning and refrigeration system wherein the diameter of the
copper tubes is enlarged for the joining purposes. Flaring (Figure 3-
22b) is a technique to enlarge the opening of the copper tubing by
creating a funnel with shallow depth while swaging (Figure 3-22c)
technique is to increase the diameter of the tube deep within it in
order to eliminate the need for fittings. Figure 3-22d shows the
difference of flaring and swaging on the tubing.
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Laboratory Tasks
Task 1: The applications of hand tools
Objective: To determine the appropriate hand tool to be used from a

given job inside a workshop.
Material: Laboratory guide
Situation:
1. What is the appropriate hand tool to be used in shearing each
materials in the given figures below? (Be specific with the name of the
tool)
A.
B.
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C.
D.
2. You are task to loosen a GI pipe from an elbow fitting without

scratching or marring its surface. What would be the appropriate hand
tool to be used?
3. The figure below shows a round nut with holes on its side. If you were
to be told to loosen or tighten such kind of nut from a bolt, what would
be the best hand tool to be used?
4. What type of screwdriver are you going to use when loosening or

driving a screw whose head looks like the one in the picture below? Be
specific with the name of the screwdriver.
5. In the handle of your mountain bicycle, you notice that there is an

unusual screw head being fastened on the middle as shown in the
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figure below. If you want to loosen it for repairing purposes, what

would be the preferred hand tool to be used?
6. What is the least number of teeth per inch TPI of a hacksaw used to
cut copper tubing?
7. You were drilling a 1-inch hole and you found out that it is still
undersized since the diameter of the pin to be inserted in the hole is
1.2 inches. Assuming that your workpiece was already secured on a
bench vise, what other hand tools are you still needed in order to just
bring the hole diameter to the desired fit?
8. You are task to tap a cast iron workpiece with 12 TPI and a 70 %
thread Depth. Using the information in Table 3-1, what would be the
cutting speed in rpm?
9. What is the specific hand tool to be used in order to enlarge the
diameter of the copper tube as shown in the figure below?
10. Normally, in creating an internal thread on a workpiece, three types of

hand taps are used, what are these? Answer it in chronological order
and explain briefly why you arrange it in that way.
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Task 2: Familiarization of the basic hand tools
Objective: To identify different varieties of hand tools that can be

found at home.
Material: Laboratory guide, available hand tools at home, any
electronic video capturing device.
Procedure:
1. Gather all the hand tools at home as much as possible and put it on a
table.
2. Classify them into cutting tools, gripping and clamping tools,
tightening and driving tools, Striking tools, or Miscellaneous tools.
3. Once classified, state the name of each tools and give a brief
discussion about its application.
4. Note: Be sure to document this task from the start until the end.
The Criteria for rating your video is still the same on the criteria used
in the previous exercise.
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Guide Questions:
1. Living in a modern world that runs mostly with electricity, why we
are still using hand tools over the existing power tools?
2. What should be the approximate cutting angle to be maintained
when using a cross-cut saw?
3. For a standard hacksaw, the cutting stroke is the _________.
4. A type of snip that has the advantage of low effort but maximum
output.
5. A hand tool used to revive worn-out threads especially those that
have been invaded with rusts and dirt.
6. A wood chisel should always be driven by a hard hammer to
increase cutting efficiency and prevents the handle from
damaging. True or false, and why?
7. Two important types of wrench used primarily in reaming and
internal threading process.
8. What type of tool used to extract the bearing stuck on the shaft of
a centrifugal pump bearing?
9. Repairing a smartphone is a daunting task especially if you’re not
using the right tool. To decrease the repairing time specifically in
opening its casing and other internal parts, what hand tool should
you prepare beforehand?
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10. The length of the file is measured from________ to __________.

Exercise
1. for Task 1
number and title, and the task number. Again, be specific with the name of
the hand tool.
2. for Task 2
Upload your video in your drive using the filename:
“Name_CourseTitle_Offering number”. Once uploaded, share the link of
your video and paste it on the “Submission of video presentation for all
sections” section in the Moodle.
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and title, and the guide question.
([email protected]). If the file is too large, you will be
forced to upload on google drive and just share the file link. This output
can only be submitted online.
Videos:
1. Flaring and swaging tools:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=STl8aYYcpb4
2. Using hacksaw: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G0NGoPF3Q6A
3. Basic of Files: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lOR2UwZRBws
4. Basic of Reamer: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V9jFWDxC70A
5. Taps and Dies: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r6Ijd9o-C10
6. Wrench: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pN-b49fSzsU
7. Pliers: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xQ2G54ebgfs
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References
[1] docshare, "Hand Tools pp 35- 85".

[2] K. Bohn, "Common Hand Tools and Their Proper Use," Shopdawg
Publishing, 2006.
[3] T. H. Flaherty, "The art of woodworking hand tools," Time-life books,
Alexadria, Virginia.
[4] N. Offerman, "The toolbook: A tool lover's guide to more than 200 hand
tools," Penguin Random House, 2018.
[5] "Wonkee Donkee Tools," 2020. [Online]. Available:
https://www.wonkeedonkeetools.co.uk/pulleys/how-to-use-a-bearing-
puller. [Accessed 17 January 2021].
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Digital Pictures:
1. Figure 3-1 (a – l)
The art of woodworking hand tools – Time life books
2. Figure 3-2
a) www.technologystudent.com
b) The art of woodworking hand tools – Time life books
3. Figure 3-3
All except a) www.theengineerspost.com
a) www.technologystudent.com
4. Figure 3-4
Hand Tools - docshare
5. Figure 3-5
a) www.pixabay.com
b) www.pxhere.com
c) www.roofmaster.com
d) www.stubai.com
e) www.toolstation.com
f) www.mgftools.de
g) www.amazon.com
6. Figure 3-6 (a – g)
www.amazon.com
7. Figure 3-7
a) www.theengineerspost.com
b) www.pinterest.com
c) www.pinterest.com
d) www.wonkeedonkeetools.co.uk
e) www.amazon.com
f) www.appropedia.com
8. Figure 3-8
a) – g) Hand tools –docshare
h) www.nzdl.org
i) Hand tools –docshare
9. Figure 3-9 (a – e)
Hand tools –docshare
10. Figure 3-10 (a – d)
11. Figure 3-11
a) www.amazon.com
b) Hand Tools – docshare
c) Hand Tools – docshare
d) Hand Tools – docshare
e) www.amazon.com
f) www.indiamart.com
12. Figure 3-12
13. Figure 3-13
www.thebestpowertools.com
14. Figure 3-14
15. Figure 3-15
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16. Figure 3-16

a) Common hand tools and their proper use – Bohn K.
b) The The toolbook: A tool lover's guide to more than 200
hand tools – Offerman N.
c) The The toolbook: A tool lover's guide to more than 200
d) The The toolbook: A tool lover's guide to more than 200
e) The art of woodworking hand tools – Time life books
17. Figure 3-17 (all)
18. Figure 3-18 (all)
19. Figure 3-19
All except e, f) Hand tools –docshare
e) www.halfords.com
f) www.artdepartmental.com
20. Figure 3-20
All except e) Hand tools –docshare
e) www.distrelec.biz
21. Figure 3-21
All except a) www.wonkeedonkeetools.co.uk
a) www.grainger.ca
22. Figure 3-22
a) www.purgear.en.made-in-china.com
b) www.amazon.com
c) yellow jacket Ritchie engineering YT channel
d) www.toolsid.com
23. Laboratory Task 1
Item 1.a www.favpng.com
Item 1.b www.amazon.com
Item 1.c www.ainscoughmetals.co.uk
Item 1.d www.bettertoolz.com
Item 3 www.fasteners.eu
Item 5 www.wikipedia.com
Item 9 www.picclick.com
Digital Tables:
1. Table 3-1
www.technologystudent.com
2. Table 3-2
Hand Tools – docshare
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Exercise No. 4
Sheet Metal Works
Introduction
Sheet metal is the common material being used in most industries
today. That is why their products are the things that we have used in our
homes and offices daily. Such examples are the casing of your cellphones
and your personal computer, your stainless bowl and plates, and etc.; all were
manufactured using different varieties of sheet metals. To create these
unique shapes and designs on the sheet metal, knowledge in sheet metal
works is required. In this exercise, three major sheet metal processes were
discussed including the tools and equipment needed; these are the sheet
metal cutting process, the sheet metal forming process, and the sheet metal
joining process.
Learning Outcomes
1. Identify tools and equipment used in the sheet metal works; and
2. Discuss the process involve in specific sheet metal works.
Materials
Exercise Manual, Ball pen, Bond paper
Discussion
What is Sheet Metal
Sheet metal is any type of metal whose thickness ranges from 0.4
mm (1/64 inches) to 6 mm (1/4 inches) and anything below this range is
known as “foil” and anything beyond this measurement is termed as “plate”. It
is an ideal raw material in manufacturing since its offers high strength and
durability, and can be shaped easily. The composition of sheet metals ranges
from aluminum sheet to steel sheet, stainless steel, copper, brass, tin, nickel
and etc.
Examples of varieties of aluminum sheets are the 1100 series (almost
pure aluminum) – soft, easy to bend and shaped, the 2024 series – for
structures requiring high strength-to-weight ratio, the 3003 series (aluminum
added with manganese) – easily formed and resists corrosion, and the 6061
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series (aluminum added with small manganese, magnesium and silicon) -

least expensive, corrosion resistant, and ideal for soldering and brazing joints.
Different classifications of steel sheets are the 1020 cold-rolled steel
(carbon steel) – common raw material in the car industry due to its strength
and malleability, the AK or SK steel – good for deep drawing, and the
Chrome-molybdenum steel – very strong and tough.
In buying sheet metal in the market, it is normally designated in gauge
numbers – the higher the gauge number the thinner the sheet metal, in
weight, and in sizes – such as 3’ by 8’, 3’ by 10’, 3’ by 12’, 4’ by 8’, 4’ by 10’, and
4’ by 12’. It is noted that you cannot purchase sheet metal with specific
dimension other than what is in the data sheet.
Sheet Metal Cutting Process
This is a process that takes out a certain portion of the sheet metal for
specific purpose such as but not limited to manufacturing and assembly. The
taking out is done by shearing the metal; that is breaking its grain structure.
This process comprises of the shearing, blanking, punching, trimming, and
deburring.
1. Shearing Process
It is the cutting of a given sheet metal in straight or curved pattern in
order to produce a smaller part that is needed for other metal working
process or to eliminate a certain part and be considered as a scrap (Figure 4-
1a).
Snips is used to cut sheet metal manually, and an electric shearing
tool will do this job much easier.
2. Blanking Process
A cutting process in which the output is a closed shape generated
from a given blank. The close shape that has been punched would be the final
product and the part of the blank that was left is considered as scrap (Figure
4-1b). Examples of parts being manufactured using this process are plane
washers, small gears, and other automotive parts.
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3. Punching Process
A cutting process in which a die shears a portion of the blank leaving
the larger part as the final product and the sheared portion as the scrap
(Figure 4-2). This process can be applied on car body parts, cabinets, and
other enclosures.
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Below are other some examples of punching operations used in the

industry.
a) Slotting operation – uses a rectangular tool in shearing rectangular
slots on a metal blank or a workpiece.
b) Lancing operation – uses a lancing tool that shears and bends the
workpiece in a single cutting stroke (Figure 4-3a). Such outputs are
vents, louvers, and tabs.
c) Nibbling operation – a process that contains a sequence of punches
in order to cut the outline of a complex shape (Figure 4-3b).
d) Perforating operation – a process that involves the cutting of array of
holes that are spaced closely with each other. This operation is used
as vents and aeration of a certain closed space (Figure 4-3c).
e) Piercing operation – a process that comprise of shearing and forming
operation that creates an extruded hole of slot on the workpiece
(Figure 4-3d).
f) Notching operation – a process that involves the cutting of sheet
metal usually along the edge in order to provide relief on the
workpiece (Figure 4-3e).
The equipment to be used for the punching operation varies on the type of
output; Figure 4-3f shows a punch press doing perforating operation, and
figure 4-3g shows a notching machine. Generally, all punching operations are
done using the punch press (Figure 4-3h) and the specific type of output can
be carried out by the type of die to be used.
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4. Trimming Process
One of the finishing process that removes waste or excess material
from a sheet metal being subjected from deep drawing process (Figure 4-4).
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5. Deburring Process
Another finishing process for sheet metal that removes excess
materials such as sharp edges and corners, and burrs in order to achieve a
nice smooth workpiece. Figure 4-5 shows an example of a deburring tool.
Several guidelines should be noted when performing sheet metal

cutting operation. One is about the recommended diameter of the hole; for
softer sheet metals, the minimum diameter should be the same to the sheet
thickness and for harder sheet metals, the minimum diameter should be two
times the sheet thickness. The other one is about the recommended distance
between two punch holes; the distance should be equal to the sum of the
radii of the two holes and twice the sheet thickness.
Another method of cutting sheet metal that does not used the
principle of shearing force are the Laser beam cutting (Figure 4-6a) that
utilizes the high energy focused Laser beam that melts and cuts the metal,
the Plasma cutting (Figure 4-6b) that utilizes the ionized gas (also known as
plasma) that heats up the metal rapidly up to its melting point causing it to
split up and cut, and lastly the water jet cutting (Figure 4-6c) the utilizes the
high pressure steam of water mixed with abrasive particles that wears and
cuts the sheet metal without worrying the effect of heat distortion.
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Sheet Metal Forming Process
It is a process that does not

remove any material on the workpiece but
rather, modifies its shape by applying a
force greater than the workpiece’s yield
strength, making it plastically deformed.
Examples of forming operations are bending, Roll forming, spinning, deep
drawing, and stretch forming.
1. Bending Process
A process that involves the application of force on a sheet metal
enough to change its geometry. For a sheet metal, this process does not
change its thickness but rather, the result only shows two zones near the
bend, (the compression zone and the tension zone – Figure 4-7a). Figure 4-7b
shows some common examples of the bending process.
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a) Coining – is a bending process that creates accurately repetitive

bends consistently. This is ideal for mass production that requires
precise control over the products dimensions. Figure 4-8a shows an
example of a coining machine.
b) Edge bending – comprise of several process that modifies and
reinforce the edge of a sheet metal such as hemming – that bends the
edge at 180 degrees in order to achieve greater strength on the edge
and concealed burrs and rough edges (Figure 4-8b), curling – that
bends the edge in a nice curve fashion, increases the moment of
inertia of the edge and promotes a smooth rounded edges (Bolianovic
V. 2004) (Figure 4-8c), and flanging – that bends the edge at 90
degrees (Figure 4-8d).
During the bending process, several guidelines should be considered
in order to avoid damage on the bend. The first one is to avoid sharp corners
on the inner bend and shallow fillet on the edge of the outer bend (Figure 4-
8e). The second one is to provide a bend relief near the bend section in order
to prevent crack formation that would lead to material failure (Figure 4-8f).
Additionally, bending a certain sheet metal also impose some “spring back”, a
condition of the sheet metal that would recover some of its elasticity after
being deformed, that is why it is recommended to perform stretch forming,
over-bending, bottoming or Ironing.
Typical equipment to be used in bending process are the sheet metal
brake (Figure 4-8g) and the hydraulic press brake (Figure 4-8h).
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2. Roll forming process

A process that involves several roll stations arrange in series with
each other at different sizes and shapes that progressively bends and
modifies the geometry of the sheet metal (Figure 4-9). Typical example of a
rolled sheet metal is our sheet roofing.
3. Spinning process
A process that spins a sheet metal at higher rotational speed and is
gradually push by a roller tool against a mold known as the mandrel that is
attached on the lathe machine or any equipment capable of rotating an entire
workpiece (Figure 4-10). The result of this process depends upon the shape
of the mandrel and it is mostly a rotationally symmetric, and hollow object
such as cookware, satellite dishes, rocket noses an etc.
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4. Deep drawing process

It is a process in which a plain sheet of metal called a blank is placed
between a die and a blank holder and is pushed and stretched onto the die
cavity to create a plastically deformed object (Figure 4-11). It is
recommended that the depth of this process is equal to half of the finished
object’s diameter. This process works best for ductile material such as
aluminum, copper and etc. In order to achieve a uniform thickness of a deep
drawn object, it is normally subjected to a second process known as ironing
that involves another set of punch and dies.
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5. Stretch Forming process

It is a process that involves the use of the stretch press (Figure 4-12a)
that grips both ends of the sheet using the press’ jaws and synchronously
stretch and bends the sheet metal in order to achieve the desired shape
(Figure 4-12b).
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6. Embossing
A process wherein a sheet metal blank is placed between a punch and
a die containing a pre-made design that imprints onto the blank producing a
raised or recessed surface (Figure 4-13).
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7. Manual forming process

Manual forming process requires a lot of effort to achieve the final
shape of the sheet metal. Usually, the operation starts with a template (Figure
4-14a) that would serve as the pattern, followed by some series of
hammering (Figure 4-14b), bending, filing (Figure 4-14c) and finishing in order
to match the object (Figure 4-14d) with the plan. A useful tip in forming a
sheet metal is by placing it on a bag that contains some soft/powdery
materials capable of absorbing vibrations such as a shot bag and then using
a mallet to deform it nicely without creating some wrinkled marks (Figure 4-
14e).
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Sheet metal joining process
Joining sheet metals can be done by several methods ranging from

the application of mechanical fasteners such as rivet joints and screw joints,
fusion joints such as welding, and chemical substance such as adhesive
bonding. However, there is a method that does not utilized any of these
materials and it is called the forming method that only deforms and then
connects two sheet metals simultaneously.
1. Screw Joints
Utilizes different varieties of screws to join sheet metals temporarily
and with ease .A self-tapping screw (Figure 4-15a) is advisable to use for hard
metal sheets and also requires a pre-extruded hole on either of the sheet to
be joined. On the other hand, for soft metal sheets like aluminum, machine
screws (Figure 4-15b) is preferable.
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2. Rivet Joints
Utilizes a rivet (Figure 4-16a) that is being inserted on the holes being
created on both sheet metals to be joined and with the help of a riveting
machine (Figure 4-16b), the rivet pin will be pulled, leaving the rivet head on
the sheet metal. The rivet head expands one side of the hole and contracts
the other, thus securing a tight joint.
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3. Sheet metal clinching joints

A cold forming operation that joints two sheet metals regardless of
material and thickness and creates a strong permanent joint as shown in
Figure 4-17. The main advantage of this method is the absence of any
fasteners thus reducing the cost.
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4. Welding joints
A hot forming operation that utilizes different welding techniques such
as Shielded metal arc welding, MIG welding, TIG welding, and etc. in order to
produce a much stronger, leak proof, and tougher joints on sheet metals.
5. Folding or seaming joints

A joining operation that creates a plain hem on one edge and an offset
hem on the other end, then sandwiches them, and lastly, presses them to
make a robust joint (Figure 4-18). However, this method does not guarantee a
leak proof joint.
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6. Adhesive Bonding
A joining process that utilizes adhesive chemicals such as epoxy
based, silicon based, acrylic based, and cyanoarcylic adhesives in order to
produce a permanent joint on sheet metals.
The Stamping Process
Sheet metal stamping is a cold-working operation that comprise of

dies at various shapes and designs, and a stamping press which imprints
different patterns and forms on the sheet metal blank. One example of this
process is the Progressive die stamping that utilizes a series of stamping
stations to do successive punches towards the sheet metal blank. This
process can be used for longer periods of time without compensating the
preciseness of its dies. Moreover, this method is also highly repeatable which
in turn ideal for use in mass production. The other one is the transfer die
stamping which is quite similar to progressive die stamping, but the parts will
be transported into different stamping stations rather than in a single place.
This method is highly applicable for larger parts.
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Laboratory Tasks
Task1: Identification of Sheet metal Processes
Objective: To determine the type of sheet metal processes involve on

a given sheet metal product.
Material: Laboratory guide
Instruction: Identify the desired sheet metal operation being applied to
each given pictures.
1.
2.
3.
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No.
4.
5. .
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128
Task 2: Different types of sheet metal edge forming and joining

processes
Objective: To fabricate the different forms of sheet metal edge and

different varieties of sheet metal edge joints.
Material: Laboratory guide, aluminum cans, snips or heavy duty
scissors, marking pen, and ruler.
Procedure:
1. Prepare several aluminum sheets from aluminum cans enough for this
task.
2. Layout the three different sheet metal edge forms (flange, hem, and
curl) and the sheet metal edge joint (seaming) on the aluminum sheet
using the dimensions indicated below. The hidden lines indicates the
part to be folded or bent. Then, cut each aluminum sheets depending
on its dimensions.
For flange, hem, and seam (the

seam should be 2 pieces)
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No.
For curl
3. For the flange edge, bend it at right angle (90 degrees), for the hem
edge, bend it at 180 degrees, and for the curl edge, create a nice curve
bend facing inwards.
For flanged edge
For hemmed edge
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No.
For curled edge

130
4. To create a seam joint, make a hem to both edges of two aluminum

sheets to be joined. Do not press each hem yet since you need to
overlap these two hem edges to create the final joint. Once
overlapped, press the contact surfaces to make a strong seam joint.
For seamed joint
5. Take a photo to each of these aluminum sheets and paste it on an A4

size bond paper. You can paste it digitally. Arrange your output neatly.
6. To make your photo valid, put your name and signature on each
aluminum sheets and be sure that it can be seen on the photo that
you’re about to submit.
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No.
Guide Questions:
1. From Task no. 2, which of the three sheet metal edge forming (flange,
hem, curl) produces a strong edge surface and why?
2. If task no. 2 was carried out using steel sheet instead of the aluminum
sheet, which of the three edge forms (flange, hem, and curl) requires a
lot of effort to shape and why?
3. Does the seaming process guarantee a leak-proof joint? Explain your
answer.
4. Are sheet metals structural material? Explain your answer.
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132

Exercise
1. for Task 1
2. for Task 2
Paste your outputs (picture) in an A4 size bond paper with 1 inch
Page 132 of
No.
Videos:
1. Sheet metal operation:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jhBBEBDk4P4
2. Operations of shearing and bending:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VMu7_W0QE3Y&t=55s
3. Sheet metal forming:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A6mD8edTNg8&t=45s
E-books:
1. Sheet Metal Forming Processes and Die Design – Vukota Bolianovic
(2004)
2. Sheet Metal Handbook – Ron and Sue Fournier (1989)
Page 133 of
No.
134
References
SM Lease Deisgn, "Sheet Metal Cutting Operations," [Online]. Available:

https://www.smlease.com/entries/sheet-metal-design/sheet-metal-
cutting-operations/. [Accessed 24 January 2021].
G. Mills, "Understanding Metal Stamping," Thomas, [Online]. Available:
https://www.thomasnet.com/articles/custom-manufacturing-
fabricating/understanding-metal-stamping/. [Accessed 25 January
2021].
SM Lease Design, "Sheet metal design guidlines: How to design good
sheet metal parts," [Online]. Available:
https://www.smlease.com/entries/sheet-metal-design/sheetmetal-
design-guidelines/. [Accessed 24 January 2021].
Custompart.net, "Sheet metal forming," 2021. [Online]. Available:
https://www.custompartnet.com/wu/sheet-metal-forming. [Accessed
25 January 2021].
SM Lease Design, "How to join sheet metal parts : sheet metal joining
techniques," [Online]. Available:
https://www.smlease.com/entries/sheet-metal-design/how-to-join-
sheet-metal-parts/. [Accessed 25 January 2021].
R. a. S. Fournier, "Sheet metal handbook," HPBooks, Los Angeles,
California USA, 1989.
Page 134 of
No.
V. Bolianovic, "Sheet metal forming processes and die design," Industrial

Press Inc, 2004.
Digital Pictures:
1. Figure 4-1
a) www.smleasedesign.com
b) www.smleasedesign.com
2. Figure 4-2
www.smleasedesign.com
3. Figure 4-3
a - e) www.smleasedesign.com
f - g) www.technologystudent.com
h) www.machinemfg.com
4. Figure 4-4
5. Figure 4-5
6. Figure 4-6
a) www.precitec.com
b) www.thefabricator.com
c) http://bearglassblog.com/
7. Figure 4-7
a) www.custompartnet.com
b) www.slideshare.com
8. Figure 4-8
a) www.lexsonmachinery.com
b) www.pinterest.com
c) www.cdn2.hubspot.net
d) www.slideshare.com
e) www.smleasedesign.com
f) www.smleasedesign.com
g) www.baileigh.com
h) www.custompartnet.com
9. Figure 4-9
www.custompartnet.com
10. Figure 4-10
11. Figure 4-11
12. Figure 4-12
a) www.atlasgroupaero.com
b) www.custompartnet.com
13. Figure 4-13
www.ques10.com
14. Figure 4-14 (a – e)
Sheet Metal Handbook – Ron and Sue Fournier (1989)
15. Figure 4-15 (a – b)
16. Figure 4-16
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a) www.smleasedesign.com
b) www.indiamart.com
17. Figure 4-17
18. Figure 4-18
19. Laboratory Task 1
Item 1 www.shoppee.com
Item 2 www.perforatedmetal-mesh.com
Item 3 www.americancanning.com
Item 4 www.123rf.com
Item 5 www.fasteners.eu
Item 5 www.vandf.co.uk
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No.
Exercise No. 5
Welding
Introduction
The demand of metal fabrication in our society is growing faster and
faster. One of the important processes of metal fabrication is welding which
binds two parts together at greater strength and durability. In this exercise,
the principle of welding, types of welding, welding positions, and welding
tools and equipment were discussed. The shielded metal arc welding was
also emphasize as one of the most commonly used and inexpensive type of
welding.
Learning Outcomes
1. Define welding operation;
2. Identify the different welding techniques;
3. Identify the different welding position; and
4. Identify the tools and equipment used in welding operation.
Materials
Exercise Manual, Ball pen, Bond paper
Discussion
What is Welding
Welding is a joining process that fuses two materials together by an

application of heat and/or pressure in order to bond the materials as one unit
after they were cooled. This process can be applied on metals,
thermoplastics and even wood. The parts that are joined together are called
the parent materials or base materials and the joint is known as the
weldment.
There are some cases in which the welding operation requires the use
of a third metal to make the weldment even stronger, and it is termed as the
filler or consumable material. Such examples of this operation are arc
welding, oxy-acetylene welding, and etc.
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Figure 5-1 below shows the nomenclature a complete metal welding

operation. The yellow zone indicates the weld metal which is the fusion of the
melted metal and the filler, and the area around it is known as the Heat
Affected Zone (HAZ) which is the portion of the joint that was heated to
crystallization temperature but not melted. The accumulation of the HAZ and
the weld face is known as the weld zone. The excess weld metal is one of the
important factors of having a good weldment since an adequate amount
indicates a strong joint.
Several factors should be considered in order to achieve a nice
weldment for metals. These are the type and size of the filler metal, the
quantity of the power input (by heat, electricity, or pressure), the type and
thickness of the parent materials, and the welding speed/ travel speed.
A welding operation can also be used to cut metals especially sheet
metals.
Types of Welding operation
The classification of welding operation for metal fabrication varies

according to several bases. In this exercise, the basis of sorting this
operations or processes is the type of power source.
1. Gas Welding
It is a welding process that utilizes the combustion reaction of fuel
gas (such as acetylene) and oxygen to bond the two parent metals even
without the use of filler metals and a source of pressure. However, other gas
welding still needs some filler metals in order to provide additional strength
on the weldment. This is suitable for steel and also aluminum materials.
Examples of gas welding are Air Acetylene, Oxy-Acetylene, and Oxy-
Hydrogen Welding.
Figure 5-2a and 5-2b shows a simple diagram of a gas welding with
the tools and equipment and a person equipped with proper PPE doing gas
welding operation respectively.
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No.
a
k
b
k
2. Arc Welding
It is a fusion-type welding operation that binds the base metals
through the use of an electrical source (an electrical arc) from an Ac or Dc
power supply. The electrical arc being generated melts the base metal
together with the filler metal within 6500 0F. Since this operation is expose to
the atmosphere, it would normally react with oxygen and nitrogen to form a
rust, however, with the help of a protective shielding gas or slag coming from
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the filler metal, this problem will be minimized. Figure 5-3 shows a simple
diagram of an arc welding.
Examples of arc welding includes the carbon arc welding (CAW) –

that utilizes a non-consumable carbon electrode as the filler metal, plasma
arc welding (PAW) – that is similar to Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) but
only the plasma arc is being separated from the shielding gas (Figure 5-4a),
the Tungsten Inert Gas Welding (TIG) – that uses non-consumable tungsten
electrode, produces high quality and clean weldments, and can be used for a
variety of metals such as aluminum, chromium, stainless steel and other
alloys (Figure 5-4b), and the Metal Inert Gas welding (MIG) – that utilizes a
continues feed of solid metal electrode and a supply of shielding gas such as
carbon dioxide or argon, that is good for welding both thin sheet of metals,
structural metals, and even stainless steel. (Figure 5-4c).
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a
k
b
k
c
k
Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

The other example of arc welding is the Shielded Metal Arc Welding
(SMAW) or stick welding which is the most commonly used, inexpensive and
most accessible welding technique. It can be applied for a wide range of
metal fabrications in ship building, auto repair and etc. Additionally, SMAW
will work even on outside and harsh environments as long as the user is
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dressed in proper attire. Figure 5-5 shows the diagram of the SMAW
operation.
SMAW is generally comprise of several equipment. These are the

power supply (Figure 5-6a) that can be either AC or DC source (if DC,
additional equipment are needed such as a step-down transformer and a
rectifier), the electric cable (electrode lead cable and the workpiece lead
cable), the electrode holder (Figure 5-6b) that holds the electrode/filler metal,
and the consumable electrode (Figure 5-6c).
a b
k
k
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c
k
The consumable electrode being used for SMAW has its unique
designation based on the American Welding Society (AWS). The designation
is no less than a code comprising of a letter and followed by either 4 or 5 digit
numbers. The first letter denotes the type of welding electrode, the first two
digits of a 4-digit electrode or the first 3 digits of a 5-digit electrode is the
tensile strength of the resulting weldment, the second to the last digit
indicates the welding position, and the last two digits indicates the type of
coating and welding current setting. For example, an E6010 is an arc welding
electrode (E) that has a tensile strength of 60,000 pounds per square inch and
it can be applied for all positions (1). The number 2 for the last two digits
indicates flat and horizontal position, number 4 for flat, horizontal, vertical
down, and overhead positions. Table 5-1 indicates the designation of some
arc welding electrodes.
Table 5-1 Different types of SMAW welding electrodes
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In using a SMAW operation, consider some variables that needs to be

controlled in order to achieve a nice weldment. These are the current of the
power source, the travel angle – at flat or horizontal position, drag the angle
from 5-10 degrees and for vertical or overhead, push the electrode at 5-10
degrees, the arc length – ranges mostly from 1/16 to 3/32 inches or no more
than the size of the electrode, and the travel speed – select a speed enough
to generate a weld puddle (Figure 5-7a) that measures between 1.5 to 2 times
the electrode diameter.
To establish a nice weldment using SMAW, it is desired to follow the
correct arrangement of welding pass (Starts from root pass, hot pass, fill
pass, and lastly the cap pass) (Figure 5-7b) and maintain a consistent
welding stroke (Figure 5-7c).
If the SMAW operation is not executed properly, several defects would
occur. These are cracking of the weldment, shallow penetration, poor fusion
or connection, porosity, wandering arc, undercutting (Figure 5-7d) – a
depression on the base metal or at the joint due to excess weld puddle or
overstaying the arc, and welding spatters (Figure 5-7e)– small chucks of
metal sticking near the weldment.
a b
k k
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d
k
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146
e
k
Peening the weld reduces the stress level of the weldment and also
relieves the problems being discussed in the previous paragraph. This
method applies several hammer blows on the weldment while it is still hot.
3. Resistance welding
A welding process that joins two base metals by the use of pressure
and electrical current being passed on the joint area over a definite period of
time. It does not need any filler metal to aid bonding that is why it is relatively
less costly than the other techniques. The type of material being used as an
electrode is copper.
Examples of resistance welding are spot welding, seam welding,
projection welding, resistance butt welding, and flash butt welding. Figure 5-
8 shows a resistance welding machine. This type of welding is suitable on
aerospace repair and fabrication.
4. Solid state welding
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No.
It is a welding operation that does not require any fusion process. It

only needs enough pressure between the two base metals to be joined, and
then generating small amount of heat below the base metal’s melting point
that would result to a sound joint (Figure 5-9). During its joining process, both
base metals should have a constant contact in order to establish the right
amount of pressure easily. This method is also termed as friction welding.
Examples of solid state welding are cold welding, diffusion welding,
forge welding, fabrication welding, hot pressure welding, and roll welding.
5.
Thermo-chemical Welding
A welding process that utilizes the heat coming from the exothermal reaction
of a certain substance or chemical to bind the two base metals. The
substance is put between the joints and after it gives off energy exothermally,
it cools and became the weldment. A good example of this operation is
Thermit welding that utilizes the “Thermit” substance which comprise mostly
of a mixture of fine aluminum powder and iron oxide (Figure 5-10). This
method is
mostly applied
on railroads.
6. Radiant
energy
Welding
A
welding process that heats up the two base metals to be joined through the
use of a high-
energy focusing beam. This is a newly discovered welding operation and is
still developing until these days. Examples of this technique are the electron
beam welding that uses high energy electrons (Figure 5-11a) and the Laser
beam welding that uses the high intensity Laser beam (Figure 5-11b).
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a
k
e
k
Welding joints and welding positions
There are several welding connections being utilized in the metal

fabrication industry. Each of this joints has its own configuration and roles
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No.
depending on the type of application they are up to. Figure 5-12a shows some
of these welding joints.
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The welding operation also requires a lot of positions since in the

actual set-up of metal fabrication, a worker do not have an absolute freedom
to weld a certain part in horizontal position at all times. The worker should
always consider that there are some parts or assemblies that are fixed and
cannot be dismantled or repositioned anymore. Figure 5-12b shows some
welding positions for each welding joints. It should be noted that letter “G”
indicates a butt/groove, edge, and corner joints, and “F” indicates Tee, and
Lap joints.
Laboratory Task
Task: Perform Virtual Welding Operation
Objective: To perform a virtual welding operation using the online

welding game application website by Kemppi.
Material: Laboratory guide, PC or Laptop with internet access
Instruction:
1. Open the link below using any web browser. Be sure to have an
internet access in your device.
https://welding-game.firebaseapp.com/#/game/1
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2. Click on the “how to play” button in order to familiarize the game.
3. Once you already know the mechanics of the game, click on the
“Start” button.
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4. Try to practice for so many times and once you will earn a score
above 15,000 points, take a screen shot and paste it on an A4 size
bond paper. This will serve as your output for this laboratory exercise.
5. On your output, include the name of the welding simulator, and the
specific name of the welding method being used.
Guide Questions:
1. What type of welding technique is used in the laboratory task?
2. What is the travel speed setting of the welding simulator in the task?
3. What is the name of the yellow portion being displayed in the welding
simulator when performing the game?
4. What type of welding position is depicted in the welding simulator?
5. Base on your experience in the welding simulator, what are the factors
that prevent you from having a good weldment? Explain.
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No.

Exercise
1. for Task 1
Page 153 of
No.
154
Videos:
1. Introduction to stick welding:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4MKuUICV6-c
2. SMAW welding stroke tips:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=il88WElIAk0
3. MIG Welding:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=twUAa5LWUvk
4. TIG Welding:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uO5pVLOAmD4
5. Resistance welding:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AwL1CAg43PU
6. Thermit Welding:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gXp3aRKO4Yc
7. Radiant Energy Welding:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jOa_EV11Mng
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No.
References
The welding institute (TWI), "What is welding ? - Definition, processes

and types of welds," [Online]. Available: https://www.twi-
global.com/technical-knowledge/faqs/what-is-welding. [Accessed 04
February 2021].
Engineering hub, "Welding and its classification," 2010. [Online].
Available: http://engineeringhut.blogspot.com/2010/11/welding-and-its-
classification.html. [Accessed 04 February 2021].
O. Nguyen, "What you need to know about welding electrodes," Tulsa
welding school, 19 September 2017. [Online]. Available:
https://www.tws.edu/blog/welding/what-you-need-to-know-about-
welding-electrodes/. [Accessed 04 February 2021].
American Welding Society, "What is Resistance Welding," 2021. [Online].
Available: https://www.aws.org/rwma/page/resistance-welding.
[Accessed 04 February 2021].
H. Baek, "The theory of Oxy-Acetylene Equipment," Global Engineer
Harry, 23 February 2012. [Online]. Available:
https://engineerharry.wordpress.com/2012/02/23/oxy-acetylene-
equipment/. [Accessed 04 February 2021].
Metal Arts Press, "Terms, Joints, and Edge Preparation," 2021. [Online].
Available: https://www.metalartspress.com/books/chapters/chapter-3-
terms-joints-edge-preparation. [Accessed 04 February 2021].
Digital Pictures:
1. Figure 5-1
www.twi-global.com
2. Figure 5-2
a) www.powershow.com
b) www.engineerharry.wordpress.com
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3. Figure 5-3
www.twi-global.com
4. Figure 5-4
a) www.researchgate.com
b) www.sites.google.com
c) www.trimantec.com
5. Figure 5-5
www.drlweld.com
6. Figure 5-6
a) www.directindustry.com
b) www.shop.goldpeaktools.com.ph
c) www.amazon.com
7. Figure 5-7
a) www.weldingvideos.com
b) Enbridge: Pipe welding procedure specifications
c) www.metalartspress.com
d) www.waybuilder.net
e) www.weldguru.com
8. Figure 5-8
www.indiamart.com
9. Figure 5-9
www.pinterest.com
10. Figure 5-10
www.xtlearn.ksrct.ac.in
11. Figure 5-11
a) www.theweldings.com
b) www.theweldingmaster.com
12. Figure 5-12
a) http://engineeringhut.blogspot.com/
b) http://www.halversoncts.com/
13. Table 5-1
www.compare-bear.com
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No.
Exercise No. 6
Soldering and Brazing
Introduction
Soldering and brazing are one of the fundamental joining operations
since the beginning of the industrial revolution until this days. Both are
reversible techniques; meaning, the joints can be melted and separated. With
this characteristics, they are used primarily in plumbing, electronics, and in
refrigeration and air-conditioning system. In this exercise, the different
techniques and the corresponding tools that can be applied for both soldering
and brazing will be discussed. And on the later part, a task will be given to the
students that will help them perform manual soldering operation on electrical
circuits.
Learning Outcomes
1. Define soldering and brazing;
2. Identify the different techniques in soldering and brazing; and
3. Identify tools and equipment use in soldering and brazing operation.
Materials
Laboratory guide, soldering iron, soldering lead or solder, soldering paste/flux
(optional) PCB, 4 resistors, and Video capturing device
Discussion
What is Soldering
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Soldering is process in which a filler metal known as solder (mostly

tin and lead) is melted and introduced onto the two based metal to be joined
(Figure 6-1). Unlike welding operation, soldering is a method that does not
melt the base metals and unlike gluing (a process that joints two materials
using adhesives) also, soldering is a method that does require to apply the
filler metal all throughout the joint contact area, but rather the capillarity
action enables the melted solder to infiltrate inside the joint gaps. A flux
substance such as rosin, zinc chloride or hydrochloric acid (HCl) is also
added to the joints in order to clean the joints from impurities (oil, and dirt)
and prevent joints from oxidation.
Below are the three types of soldering.

1. Soft soldering – a soldering process that utilizes filler metals with
melting temperature ranging from 90 to 450 degrees Celsius. Due to
its relatively low melting point, it cannot be used for high temperature
applications, and heavy mechanical loads. This process uses mostly
of lead element.
2. Hard or silver soldering – utilizes relatively higher melting point filler
metals such as brass or silver ranging over 450 degrees Celsius. To
achieve this temperature, the process needs a blowtorch to supply
enough heat to the filler metal.
3. Brazing – a type of soldering process that needs filler metals that
have higher melting points (over 450 degrees Celsius) than those in
hard and soft soldering.
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The most commonly used soldering tools or equipment are the

famous soldering iron (Figure 6-2a) for electronic circuits, and the soldering
gun (Figure 6-2b) that offers much heat energy/power and cools quicker, and
is most suitable for joining stain glass, and light sheet metal. The equipment
for soldering is relatively cheaper than brazing.
a b
k k
The joints being produced by soldering are affected by high

temperature and pressure, therefore it is only applied in electrical circuit
boards, and copper pipe joints that are not exposed heavily with these
external forces.
Soldering Techniques
1. Induction soldering
It is a technique that uses the AC high frequency induction heater to
generate enough heat on the joints causing the filler metal to melt. The shape
of this heater is comprised with coils of copper tubes where the base metals
to be joint are positioned (Figure 6-3a)
2. Hand soldering
It is a technique that requires human skill and effort to achieve a nice
joint. It is mostly applied to electronic circuit board in which a 25 -100 - watt
size soldering iron is already enough (Figure 6-3b).
3. Laser Soldering
A soldering technique that utilizes a diode laser system producing 30-
50 watts of laser energy enough to solder electrical connections (Figure 6-
3c).
4. Fiber focus infrared soldering
A soldering technique that uses a focused beam of infrared light from
a specialized fiber that heats up the joint (Figure 6-3d).
5. Resistance soldering
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It is a soldering technique in which the amount of heat to melt the filler

metal or solder is being controlled by varying the amount of current that will
passed through a highly resistive material (Figure 6-3e).
6. Active soldering
A soldering technique that does not require a flux coating, but instead,
utilizes rare earth elements with higher affinity such as cerium and lanthanum
to prevent any oxidation. It uses the conventional soldering iron and
ultrasonic soldering iron, and an active solder or filler material such as
titanium, zirconium, or chromium (Figure 6-3f).
a b
k k
c d
k k
What is Brazing
It is a process
that joints two
base metals by
the use of a third
metal known as the filler or solder by
capillarity action. It is similar to soldering but only d
for filler metal with higher e
k k
melting point greater than 450 degrees Celsius. The filler material is mostly
Page 160 of
No.
an alloy of copper and zinc while the flux substance is borax and Ammonium
Chloride (NH4Cl).
Due to the higher melting point of the filler metal, the brazing
technique can be applied for joined parts that are subjected to high pressure
and temperature conditions. With this greater advantage over soldering, it
also compensates a higher equipment cost.
The equipment being used to perform brazing operation is similar to
the oxy-acetylene welding. Figure 6-4 shows a complete set-up a brazing
equipment.
Brazing Techniques
1. Torch Brazing
It is a brazing technique that is suitable for wide range of applications.
A gas flame with a torch is used as a source of heat that is introduce on the
joint, thereby melting the filler as well (Figure 6-5a). This technique can be
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manual –for small fabrications, machined – for repetitive fabrications, and

automatic – for mass and precise production.
2. Furnace brazing
It is a brazing technique in which the two base metal to be joined is
placed inside a furnace and gets heated up in a controlled manner (Figure 6-
5b). This method is suitable for mass production. Other varieties of this
technique are the batch-type, continuous type, retort type, and the vacuum
furnace.
3. Braze welding
It is another method of brazing that does not utilized capillarity action,
but instead, joining two base metals that is somewhat similar to fusion
welding. It uses bronze or brass as a filler rod coated with wax and mostly
suitable for steel workpieces (Figure 6-5c).
4. Cast iron welding
Another method of brazing applied to cast iron materials by using a
filler metal made of nickel.
5. Vacuum brazing
A brazing technique done inside a vacuum chamber wherein the
temperature and other factors are well maintained in order to achieve a clean,
superior, high strength, and accurate joint (Figure 6-5d).
6. Dip brazing
It is a brazing method suitable for aluminum parts since the air is
being removed in the process, thus preventing the creation of oxides. The
parts or assemblies to be joined are dipped into a bath of molten salt (NaCl or
KCl) which acts as a heat source and a flux coating (Figure 6-5e).
a
k
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d
k
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e
k
Laboratory Task
Task: The Manual Soldering Process
Objective: To perform manual soldering process on a printed circuit

board PCB
Material: Laboratory guide, soldering iron, soldering lead or solder,
soldering paste/flux (optional) PCB, 4 resistors, and Video capturing device
Instruction:
1. Search for the circuit diagram of a Wheatstone bridge.
Normally, this circuit comprises of 4 resistors.
Page 164 of
No.
2. Place the four resistors on the PCB according to its

arrangement from the circuit diagram.
3. Solder all connections properly. Make sure that the joints stick
to the PCB.
4. You can use a soldering paste/flux in order to heat the joints
faster and to prevent any impurities from entering the joints.
5. Make sure to document this task especially from steps 2 to 3.
When recording a video, make sure that the joints together
with your hands and the soldering iron can be clearly seen.
To know more about how to solder electrical parts, visit this site:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oqV2xU1fee8
Guide Questions:
1. All brazing operations are soldering operation, true or false? Explain
your answer.
2. In the Laboratory Tasks, which one did you heated up first, the pins of
the resistors, or the soldering lead? Explain your answer.
3. Can we use steel wires as soldering leads for manual soldering
process? Explain why.
4. What are the differences between soldering and brazing operations?
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5. How do the soldering and brazing processes differ from the welding
process?

Exercise
1. for Task 1
Upload your video in your drive using the filename:
“Name_CourseTitle_Offering number”. Once uploaded, share the link of
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No.
your video and paste it on the “Submission of video presentation for all
sections” section in the Moodle.
([email protected]) with filename. If the file is too large,
you will be forced to upload on google drive and just share the file link.
This output can only be submitted online.

Videos:
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1. How to solder electrical connections:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oqV2xU1fee8
2. How to braze copper tubing:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xn04V9yTvN4
3. Brazing Process:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iub37UzAu8w
References
The Welding Institute, "What is Soldering? A full guide (meaning,

Page 168 of
No.
definition,and types)," [Online]. Available: https://www.twi-

global.com/technical-knowledge/faqs/what-is-soldering. [Accessed 7
February 2021].
The Welding Institute, "What is Brazing? A definition and guide to the
joining process," [Online]. Available: https://www.twi-
global.com/technical-knowledge/faqs/faq-what-is-brazing. [Accessed 7
February 2021].
J. Shinde, "Soldering vs Brazing (in Hindi)," unacademy.com, [Online].
Available: https://unacademy.com/lesson/soldering-vs-brazing-in-
hindi/LH5AUV72. [Accessed 7 February 2021].
Digital Pictures:
1. Figure 6-1
www.makerspaces.com
2. Figure 6-2
a) www.sg.rs-online.com
b) www.tenaquip.com
3. Figure 6-3
a) www.ultraflexpower.com
b) www.electronicsandyou.com
c) www.apolloseiko.com
d) www.circuitspecialists.com
e) www.micromark.com
f) www.intechopen.com
4. Figure 6-4
www.globalspec.com
5. Figure 6-5
a) http://kovea.com/
b) https://slideplayer.com/
c) www.wcwelding.com
d) www.loval.fi
e) https://nptel.ac.in/
Page 169 of
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170
Exercise No. 7
Foundry and Metal Casting
Introduction
The concept of metal casting has been around for centuries. It
became very popular during the industrial age since more and more metal
products have been produced in order to improve the way of life. In this
exercise, the traditional and modern concepts of metal casting and foundry
will be discussed, including the different techniques and processes, the tools
and equipment, and lastly, the safety in the foundry area.
Learning Outcomes
1. Define terms involve in foundry and metal casting;
2. Identify the different processes involve in metal casting;
3. Identify tools and equipment use in metal casting; and
4. Discuss the safety measures found in the foundry area.
Materials
Laboratory guide
Discussion
Foundry and Metal Casting
Foundry (Figure 7-1a)is a term that refers to the area where metal
casting operation is done and metal casting (Figure 7-1b)on the other hand, is
a process of pouring a molten metal onto a mold cavity in order to achieve a
desired geometric shape that is based on the design of the mold. To make
these concepts simplier, the mold is the one that contains the template or
pattern while the term “cast” is used to refer the output or product of the
operation (Figue 7-1c). Metals that are usually undergo this process are
aluminum, and cast iron, and sometimes bronze, brass, steel, magnesium,
and zinc.
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a
k
Below are the terminologies and

processes being used in the foundry area.
b c
1. Melting – the melting of raw material is done inside a furnace.k k
2. Furnace – a heating unit. Examples of furnaces are induction furnace

– use to melt iron and steel at high capacities (Figure 7-2a), cupolas –
good for melting cast iron, Ni-resist iron, and bronze (Figure 7-2b),
open-hearth furnace – removes carbon and other impurities from pig
iron by burning and convert it into steel (Figure 7-2c), Bessemer
furnace – inexpensive and exist before the open-hearth but is now
obsolete; it’s main difference is by introducing a hot air as a means of
removing the impurities (Figure 7-2d), and the crucible furnace – used
to melt non-ferrous materials (Figure 7-2e).
3. Degassing – a process use to reduce the hydrogen concentration
from a molten metal.
4. Mold making – an operation that creates a pattern or template of the
possible shape or form of the cast.
5. Pouring – an operation that is done by either pouring the molten metal
through gravity or with the aid of a positive or negative input pressure
onto a mold. In early days, a ladle was used.
6. Shakeout – a post casting operation wherein a solidified metal part is
extracted from a sand mold in particular by shaking or tumbling.
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7. Degating – is the removal of the heads, runners, gates and risers from
the castings. These are excess parts of the cast.
8. Heat Treating – a process that applies the desired amount of heat to
a material in order to improve its physical, mechanical, and
sometimes chemical properties.
9. Surface cleaning – an operation that is done after the degating and
heat treating process by removing dirt and other debris in the casting
by using the blasting process.
10. Finishing – the final process in metal casting wherein the part’s
surface is ground, sand, and machined.
11. Ingot – a casting that has a simple geometric appearance and still
subject for further processing (Figure7-2f).
a
k
b
k
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d
k
e
k
f
k
Below are the terminologies and processes that are under the scope
of metal casting process.
1. Loam Molding – a casting process that outputs large symmetrical
objects such as cannons and church bells. It utilizes the mixture of
clay, sand with straw or dung (Figure 7-3a).
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2. Plaster molding – an inexpensive molding operation that utilizes the

plaster material as the mold, however, it promotes excellent surface
finished and close tolerances (Figure 7-3b).
3. Shell molding – similar to the sand casting but utilizes a hardened
shell as its mold cavity. To achieve this, a finer sand is used and is
mixed with resin (Figure 7-3c).
4. Investment casting – utilizes a wax substance is a means of copying
and forming the mold. Its great advantage is the ability of the wax to
be used for so many times which is good for repeatable production
(Figure 7-3d).
5. Evaporative-pattern casting – utilizes a mold material that will
evaporate when the molten metal is poured into it. One good example
is the foam material which can be easily disintegrate when there is a
presence of heat or fire (Figure 7-3e).
6. Permanent mold casting – an operation that utilizes a reusable
permanent load.
7. Die casting – a casting operation wherein the molten metal is poured
at high pressure onto a mold/die cavity that is made of nonferrous
metals such as zinc, copper or aluminum-base alloys (Figure 7-3f).
8. Centrifugal casting – a process that pours the molten metal at the
central axis of a rotating mold. By centrifugal action, the molten metal
is disperse towards the walls of the periphery of the mold. This
process uses gravity and pressure (Figure 7-3g).
9. Continuous casting – an operation suitable for continuous production
in which the casting is removed from the mold shortly after it has
been formed.
10. Shrinkage – usually prevalent when the molten metal solidifies and
then its density increases due to the fact that the molten metal
beforehand is less dense.
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Vision: A globally competitive university for science, technology,
k and environmental conservation.
No.
b
k
c
k
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d
k
f e k
k
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g
k
11. Sand molding – an operation that uses a sand as a medium for the
creation of a mold.
Parts of the sand molding process (Figure 7-4).
a) Flask – a metal or wood frame without a top or bottom which
houses the mold.
b) Cope – top half of the flask
c) Drag – bottom half of the flask
d) Core – an insert of the mold that creates the internal features
of the casting
e) Riser – also known as the feed header. It is a column of
molten metal placed in the mold to feed the castings as it
shrinks and solidifies.
f) Gate – A channel through which the molten metal enters the
mold cavity.
g) Sprue – The passage through which the molten metal, from
the pouring basin reaches the mold cavity.
h) Mold cavity – the combined open area of the molding material
and the core, where the metal is poured to produce the casting.
i) Pouring basin – a small funnel shaped cavity at the top of the
mold into which the molten metal is poured.
j) Parting line – the dividing line of the upper and lower molding
flasks.
k) Pattern – It is the replica of the final object to be made.
Page 177 of
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178
Metal Casting Tools and Equipment
Below are some common tools used in metal casting.

1. Hand riddle – a meshing device used to separate the sand from
impurities that may enter the mold such as dirt, branches and other
large foreign objects (Figure 7-5a).
2. Rammer – use to repair and arrange the molding sand that has been
lose from the mold (Figure 7-5b).
3. Sprue pin – a tapered rod used to produce vertical hole in sand
casting (Figure 7-5c).
4. Swabs - a brush used for moistening the edges of the sand mold
surface and the pattern. It is also used for coating the liquid blacking
on the mold faces in dry sand molds (Figure 7-5d).
5. Gaggers – a piece of wire or rods bent at one or both ends which are
used for reinforcing the downward projecting sand mass in the cope.
6. Bellows – used to blow away the loose or unwanted sand from the
surfaces of the mold cavity (Figure 7-5e).
7. Spirit level – used to check the flatness of the sand bed or molding
box (Figure 7-5f).
8. Casting molds – reusable molds made of ceramics, refractories or
metals.
9. Furnace – an equipment in metal casting that serves as the source of
heat in melting the raw metal.
Page 178 of
No.
a b
k k
d
c k
e f
k
k
Safety in the Foundry Area
Page 179 of
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180
The foundry area is a place that has many hazards since it deals with
molten metals that are obviously hot and would likely to cause skin burn or
fire. Through this, the worker that is assigned in this location should follow
safety measures in order to prevent the occurrence of accidents and to
reduce the level of injuries. Below are some of the safety practices that can
be applied.
1. Wear the desired Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) that is made
of heavy wool, heavy cotton, or leather that has higher heat resistance
index in order to protect the body from the heat of the molten metal.
Do not use polyester or nylon clothes.
2. Keep the foundry area clean and dry. This will lessen the risk of
accidents caused by debris littering on the floors and wet surfaces.
3. Clamp or weigh the flask properly since uncontrolled flow of metal
towards the mold is extremely hazardous.
4. Be sure that the raw material to be used is clean and dry; in other
words free from impurities. When these foreign objects were not
removed, it will become airborne during the melting process and may
cause hazard to the human respiratory system.
5. Preheat all metals and furnace tools in order to reduce the risk of
stream explosion generated from the moist being condense by the
tools and metals.
6. Move the melt slowly towards the mold in order to eliminate any
molten metal spills and splashes.
7. Inspect all the tools and equipment before starting the melting
operation in order to check whether each of them are still in good
working condition.
8. Apply fluxing on the metals such as Zinc and Magnesium in order to
prevent them from evaporating during the melting and pouring
process.
9. Do not pour any liquid such as water into the furnace or in the melting
pan since it will create an abrupt steam explosion.
10. Apply good ventilation system on the foundry area in order to prevent
the accumulation of dusts that will cause erratic explosion.
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No.
Laboratory Task
Task: The Sand molding process
Objective: To create a comprehensive procedure on the sand molding

process.
Material: Laboratory guide, pen
Instruction:
Write a complete step by step procedure on how to perform a
sand molding process. In each step, try to include some figures and
diagrams to make it more interactive and detailed. Lastly, include
some safety notes to the procedures as necessary. You can watch
this YouTube video for some tips:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2CIcvB72dmk.
Page 181 of
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Guide Questions:
1. What is the difference between the open-hearth furnace and the
Bessemer furnace?
2. Why does the molten metal shrinks after it hardens on the mold?
3. What are the factors that should be considered when performing the
metal casting process?
4. What are the factors that influence the quality of the metal casting?
5. What is the desired tool to be used when pouring a molten metal unto
the mold without getting any burns or injuries?
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No.

Exercise
1. for Task
and title, and the task name.
Page 183 of
No.
184
Videos:
1. Sand Casting:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pwaXCko_Tkw
2. Casting Process:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wHFXCKRyxPQ
3. Basics of Casting a Metal:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2CIcvB72dmk
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No.
References
K. e. al, "NPTEL Course on Manufacturing Processes".

Engineering Product Design, "Metal Casting," 2017-2019. [Online].
Available: https://engineeringproductdesign.com/knowledge-
base/metal-casting/. [Accessed 14 February 2021].
Student Lesson (Platform for technical and vocational students,
"Different types of casting tools and equipment," 27 July 2019. [Online].
Available: https://studentlesson.com/types-of-sand-casting-tools/.
[Accessed 14 February 2021].
Bezalel2000, "15 Hot Work Safety rulse (Foundry),"
homemodeleninemachinist, 26 July 2011. [Online]. Available:
Page 185 of
No.
186
https://www.homemodelenginemachinist.com/threads/15-hot-work-
safety-rules-foundry.14397/. [Accessed 14 February 2021].
Digital Pictures:
1. Figure 7-1
a) www.additivemanufacturing.media
b) www.wikihow.com
c) https://pmcsupplies.com/
2. Figure 7-2
a) www.turbosquid.com
b) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tFQ7UPQlNUc
c) www.britannica.com
d) https://dozr.com/
e) https://me401metalcasting.files.wordpress.com/
f) www.britannica.com
3. Figure 7-3
a) https://wynndanzur.com/
b) www.haizolglobal.com
c)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?app=desktop&v=hCiqoF
BhDA
d) www.indimart.com
e) https://studentlesson.com/
f) www.substech.com
g) www.kubota.com
4. Figure 7-4
https://techminy.com/
5. Figure 7-5
a) www.screwfix.com
b) www.instructables.com
c) www.foundrysupply.com
d) https://mechanicalinfo.wordpress.com/
e) www.eccstm.com
f) https://tolsen.com.ph/
Page 186 of
No.
DEPARTMENT OF
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
College of Engineering and Technology
For inquiries, contact:
JUNDY R. CASTIL
[email protected] • [email protected]
+63 912 4147540
Use this code when referring to this material:

TP-IMD-04 v0 07-15-20 • No. _________
Visca, Baybay City, Leyte

Philippines 6521
[email protected]
+63 53 565 0600
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MTec 121

Workshop Theory and Practice

Engr. Jundy R. Castil

A globally competitive university for science, technology, and

Development of a highly competitive human resource,

The Visayas State University (VSU) is a higher education institution created by

MTec 121: Workshop

Phasellus malesuada tempus mauris, id consequat turpis mollis eu.

About the Authors

Completed his Bachelor of Science in

Had his first teaching experience as

Currently appointed as Head of the

Mark Anthony S. Arcayan

Completed his Bachelor of Science in

Currently appointed as college Instructor I

Exercise No.1: Workshop Safety 1

Layout and Measuring Tool 12

Hand Tools and Processes 40

Sheet Metal Works 88

Exercise No. 5 117

Exercise No. 6 137

Soldering and Brazing 137

5. Resistance soldering 139

Exercise No. 7 150

Foundry and Metal Casting 150

1 Table 3-1 TPI for each type of Material 47

5 Figure 3- 1 (a) Ripsaw, (b) Crosscut saw, (c) Toolbox Saw,

socket roughing reamer, (g2) Morse taper socket finishing

32 Figure 4-1 The principles of (a) shearing and, (b) blanking 90

50 Figure 5-1 the nomenclature of the weldment 118

52 Figure 5-3 shows a diagram of an arc welding 120

63 Figure 6- 1 the soldering process on electric circuit board

Exercise No.1: Workshop

Workplace hazards and injuries

A workplace hazard is anything at work that can harm a person – physically

Figure 1- 1 Worker falling from a vehicle

Shown in Figure 1-1 is an illustration of a physical hazard where a

Figure 1- 2 Hazard expose due to chemicals

Illustration of a worker exposed to a chemical hazard is shown in

Figure 1- 3 Worker expose to a dust

Shown in Figure 1-3 is a worker exposed to a dusty work. Exposure to

causing it to be stored within the lungs. Prolonged exposure to this

Figure 1- 4 Ergonomic hazard in a workshop

Common Workplace Injuries and its Source

Types of Personal Protective Equipment and its Use

PPE is deﬁned as all equipment which is intended to be worn or held to

Figure 1- 5 Head protection PPEs

b. Head Protection - Includes industrial safety helmets to protect against

Figure 1- 6 Foot protection PPEs

d. Hand Protection - Gloves of various design provide protection against

Figure 1- 7 Hand Protection PPEs

e. Protective Clothing - Types of clothing used for body protection

Figure 1- 8 Hand Protection PPEs

f. Ear protection – These are used to reduce exposure to noise. The

Figure 1- 9 Ear Protection PPEs

Safety Signs and Colors; Its Meaning and Use

Safety color Meaning Example of use

Red (white Stop

Figure 1- 10 Stop Sign

Red (white symbols Fire equipment