HONG KONG JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

香港社會科學學報

第一的第 61 期 (2023 春/夏) Vol. 61 Spring/Summer 2023

Open Access Article https://doi.org/10.55463/hkjss.issn.1021-3619.61.24

Salahuddin Al-Ayyubi Letters to the Abbasid Caliphate: A Creative

Reading
Fawzi Khalid Ali Al-Twahya
Associate Professor, Department of History, University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan

Received: March 7, 2023 ▪ Reviewed: April 10, 2023

▪ Accepted: May 12, 2023 ▪ Published: June 30, 2023

Abstract:
This article aims to analyze Saladin Ayyubi's letters to the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad through creative reading
to explore embedded ideas reflected within the lines and highlight fragmented ideas and hidden agendas the lexical
choices hold within. A historical and analytical approach was used to read, characterize and analyze the letters and
examine evidence to come to an understanding of the past. The results revealed that the most prominent historical
resources that recorded Saladin's life and letters rely primarily on Abū Shāma's The Book of the Two Gardens on
the History of the Two Reigns. Moreover, the ensuing impacts of Saladin's letters had contributed to the
establishment of Saladin's state and the expansion of the Abbasid Caliphate on the west side. Maintaining good
relations with the Abbasid Caliphate greatly benefited Saladin in his conflict with Muslim princes who opposed him
and vowed for power, including the Zengids. Saladin wanted his legitimacy claimed by the Abbasid Caliphate,
though he knew its weakness. Saladin's letters to the Caliphate are found scattered in Islamic Heritage books such as
Ibn Wasil's Mufarrij al-kurūb fī akhbār banī Ayyub and al-Qalqashandi's Subh al-A'sha by al-Qalqashandi. The
Arabic and Islamic worlds were at their cultural peak during the High Middle Ages, they exchanged information
and creations via Al-Andalus, Sicily, and the Crusader kingdoms in the Levant. A lot of literature has been
dedicated to study and analyzing Saladin Ayyubi. Such studies have provided information about the Abbasid Era in
general and the Ayyubi Era in particular. Nevertheless, no particular study was dedicated to the unique relations
between Salah al-Din Yusuf ibn Ayyubi, commonly known as Saladin, and the Abbasid Caliphate, significantly that
the relations had been consolidated through formal correspondences through al-Ḳāḍī al-Fāḍil, the Excellent Judge,
who was the vizier of Sultan Saladin.

Keywords: Saladin, Abbasid Caliphate, Al-Nāṣir Li-Dīn Allāh.

萨拉赫丁·阿尤比写给阿拔斯王朝哈里发的信：创造性阅读

摘要：
本文旨在通过创造性阅读来分析萨拉丁·阿尤比写给巴格达阿拔斯王朝哈里发的信件，探索字里行间所反

This article is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution License
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0)
 Al-Twahya. Salahuddin Al-Ayyubi Letters to the Abbasid Caliphate: A Creative Reading, Vol. 61 Spring/Summer 2023
284
映的内在思想，并突出词汇选择中蕴藏的支离破碎的思想和隐藏的议程。使用历史和分析方法来阅读、描
述和分析这些信件，并检查证据以了解过去。结果显示，记录萨拉丁生平和信件的最重要的历史资源主要
依赖于阿布·沙玛的《关于两个王朝历史的两个花园之书》。此外，萨拉丁信件的后续影响促进了萨拉丁
国家的建立和阿拔斯哈里发在西侧的扩张。与阿拔斯哈里发保持良好关系，使萨拉丁在与反对他并发誓要
获得权力的穆斯林王子（包括曾吉德王朝）的冲突中受益匪浅。萨拉丁希望阿拔斯哈里发国承认他的合法
性，尽管他知道它的弱点。萨拉丁写给哈里发的信散布在伊斯兰遗产书籍中，例如伊本·瓦西尔 (伊本瓦
西尔) 的穆法里吉·库鲁布·阿赫巴尔·巴尼·阿尤布和卡尔卡尚迪 (盖尔卡尚迪) 的苏卜·阿沙。阿拉
伯和伊斯兰世界在中世纪盛期处于文化顶峰，他们通过安达卢斯、西西里岛和黎凡特的十字军王国交换信
息和创作。许多文献致力于研究和分析萨拉丁·阿尤比。此类研究提供了有关阿拔斯时代的总体信息，特
别是阿尤比时代的信息。然而，没有专门研究萨拉丁·优素福·本·阿尤比（俗称萨拉丁）与阿拔斯哈里
发之间的独特关系，值得注意的是，这种关系是通过阿尔·哈迪·法蒂尔（法迪尔）的正式通信得到巩固
的。贾奇是苏丹萨拉丁的大臣。

关键词：萨拉丁，阿拔斯哈里发，阿拉纳西尔·利丁·阿拉。

1. Introduction together to al-Sham, Great Syria, where his father was

Considerable literature has been dedicated to study appointed Baalbek governor in the time of Atabeg
and analyzing Saladin Ayyubi. Such studies have Zenki. At that time, Saladin showed signs of
provided a wealth of information about the Abbasid Era outstanding qualities and aspects that made him
in general and the Ayyubi an Era in particular. supreme and unique among others that Alamliku al-
Nevertheless, no particular study has been dedicated to adilu (The Righteous Ruler) Nūr al-Dīn Maḥmūd Zengī
the unique relations between Salah al-Din Yusuf ibn favored Saladin and counted on him. He noticed him,
Ayyubi, commonly known as Saladin, and the Abbasid brought him closer, and singled him out. It seems like
Caliphate, significantly that the relations had been the more he progressed in age, the more it was evident
consolidated through formal correspondences through that he qualified for a higher position. He stayed there
al-Ḳāḍī al-Fāḍil, the Excellent Judge, who was the until his uncle Asad ad-Dīn Shīrkūh decided to move to
vizier of Sultan Saladin. This study, through creative Egypt in 1163 A.D. / 558 AH (Ibn Shadad, 1994; Ibn
reading, addresses and examines Saladin's letters sent to Khallikan, 1978; Al-Maqrīzī, 1956; Ibn Taghri Bardi,
the Abbasid Caliphate as the primary focus of the n.d.). Saladin, 26 years old at that time, accompanied
research, referring to Abū Shāma's The Book of the his uncle to Egypt, where the latter allied with the
Two Gardens on the History of the Two Reigns (1267 Egyptian vizier Abu Shuja ibn Mujeer Al-Saadi against
A.D./ 665 H) as the closest resource to the given period his enemy Dhirgham ibn Siwar, and helped him reclaim
among other resources. Saladin's letters to the Caliphate his Sultanate once again as the vizier was given the title
are found in a scattered way in Islamic Heritage books "Sultan" at that time. Later in the same year, they left
such as Ibn Wasil's Mufarrij al-kurūb fī akhbār banī Egypt for Al-sham (Ibn Shadad, 1994; Abo Abū Shām,
Ayyub (Mufarrij Al-kurub in the News of Ayubb's 1997; Maqrizi, n.d.)
Family) (1957) and al-Qalqashandi's Subh al-A'sha by The Egyptian vizier, Shawar, was aware of Asad ad-
al-Qalqashandi (1418). The researcher must go deeper Dīn Shīrkūh's desire to resume position in Egypt after
into the manuscripts and reread the letters to extract the the former had broken his promises to Nūr al-Dīn
truth, collect fragmented ideas, see Saladin's most Zengī, whom he had asked for assistance in reclaiming
outstanding values alongside the literary and prosaic the Sultanate from Dhirgham (Ibn Wasil, 1957). Shawar
features, and read hidden messages and descriptions of wrote to the crusaders, agreeing to let them enter his
events. It is important for readers to view about Arab country and completely empower them in exchange for
and Islamic history. The Arabic and Islamic worlds helping him push Asad ad-Dīn Shīrkūh's armies out of
were at their cultural peak during the High Middle Egypt (Al-Azdi, 1999; Al-Jazari, 1997; Ibn Shadad,
Ages, they exchanged information and creations via Al- 1994; Ibn Wasil, 1957). When Alamliku al-adilu Nūr
Andalus, Sicily, and the Crusader kingdoms in the al-Dīn and Asad ad-Dīn learned of Shawar's plan with
Levant. the crusaders, they were terrified for Egypt if the
unbelievers took it over. Asad ad-Dīn prepared for war,
and Nūr al-Dīn dispatched troops under his command
2. Literature Review and ordered Saladin to march to Egypt with his uncle in
562 AH/1167 A.D. Shawar conspired against both Asad
2.1. Saladin Ayyubi and the Succession of the ad-Din and the Egyptians with the crusaders. Many
Sultanate
wars and extreme events occurred. Both the crusaders
Salah al-Din was born in 532 H / 1138 A.D. in Tikrit
and Asad ad-Din eventually departed Egypt. Asad ad-
Castle in Iraq and lived with his father Najmuddin
Dīn’s decision to leave Egypt was prompted by military
Ayoub Ben Shathi in Tikrit city. He and his father
weakness after enduring hardship, terror, and war
moved to Mosul where he grew up. Then they moved
turmoil while fighting both the Crusaders and the
 285

Egyptians. Asad ad-Din did not leave Egypt until the attained the position of Caliph when Saladin came to
crusaders and him agreed that they should all evacuate. power. he was inaugurated Caliph On Friday, the 7th of
He returned to Al-Sham for the remainder of the year. Rabīʿ al-ʾĀkhir – the Private pledge of allegiance, when
Apart from his desire to rule Egypt, Asad ad-Din was he was 29 years, 8 months, and 8 days old, and the
concerned about the crusaders' threats to the country. public pledge of allegiance ceremony was held a day
He was aware that the crusaders navigated the territory later. Advocated for Adud Al-Din to be selected for the
in the same way that he did and that they knew the land position of vizier (Ibn Wasil, 1957), to which the Caliph
in the same way that he did. He remained in al-Sham agreed. Forbearance, patience, leniency, and charity
with only a modicum of commitment, and fate kept were all traits that were associated with the Caliph Al-
pulling him toward something that was destined for Mustadi. Egypt's Fatimid State collapsed under his rule.
somebody else without his knowledge. (Al-Jazari, Official support for the Abbasid Caliph came to be
1997; Ibn Shadad, 1994; Abū Shāma, 1997; Al- announced, and benefits have arrived since then.
Maqrizi, 1956; Al-Maqrizi, n.d.). Minarets and mosque domes were erected. Allegiance
In 564 AH / 1169 A.D., Saladin and his uncle to him in Yemen and Burqa was declared. A vizier was
returned to Egypt at Shawar's request, who feared the chosen for the Caliph, and several monarchs swore
return of the crusader to Egypt. Egypt was important to allegiance to him. Sunnism prevailed. Safety spread
Asad ad-Din. They all unanimously decided to arrest across the country (Dhahabī, 1985).
Shawar, whose removal as Sultan was entrusted to Asad Saladin freed a charitable property to convert it into
ad-Din. Saladin was in charge of the proceedings, a school for the Shafi sect of Sunni Islam. Earlier there
serving as both the executor and the leader (Al-Jazari, were no facilities for teaching Shafi or any other
1997; Ibn Shadad, 1994; Abū Shāma, 1997; Al- teachings in the country as the Isma'ili system
Nuwayrī, 2004; Washa, 2020). The same year saw the controlled, and they had no interest in these doctrines.
passing of Asad ad-Din, who succumbed to a fatal Subsequently, he established "Dar Al-Ghazal" as a
illness. The Sultan was given complete control over place to educate people on the Maliki doctrine. The
everything. There were then established norms and Isma'ili doctrine was eradicated and never recognized
rules, circumstances were created to the greatest extent again after he appointed Sadr al-Din' Abd al-Malik ibn
possible, and money was generously spent. The Sultan Darbas Al-Shafi as the chief judge. Sadr al-Din' Abd al-
was surrounded by men renounced the world, and still Malik ibn Darbas Al-Shafi, in turn, appointed Shafi
was successful in every way. Not only was he in charge judges to serve under his administration. As a result, the
of the affairs of the people, but as a "Wazir" (The Shafi doctrine flourished (Al-Jazari, 1997; Ibn Wasil,
Sultan), he was also tasked with the responsibility of 1957; Al-Maqrizi, 1956).
enforcing Sunnism and raising the level of scientific On Muharram of the second year of the reign of the
literacy, Fiqh (jurisprudence), Sufism, and faith across new Abbasid Caliph, Al-Mustadi, Āḍid li-Dīn Allāh's
the country. All across the place, people are flocking to name was dropped from Friday sermons and prayers in
him. In this respect, he does not fail to provide (Al- favor of the name of the new Abbasid Caliph (Al-Jazari,
Jazari, 1997; Ibn Shadad, 1994; Al-Maqrizi, 1956). The 1997; Ibn Wasil, 1957). In 575 AH / 1180 A.D., Al-
Sultan maintained his authority up to al-ʿĀḍid li-Dīn Mustadi, the Caliph, fell ill and struggled through his
Allāh’s death (on Monday 10th of Moharram, 1172 A.D. illness. As a direct consequence of this, the Vizier
/ 567 AH), at which point all concerns about Egypt Dhahir al-Din ibn al-Attar announced disobedience,
came to an end. Sultan Saladin later ascended to the took up arms, and shut Caliph's office. He demonstrated
throne. In the last days of al-id li-Din Alla's reign, rebellion and shocking behavior. On Friday, the 12th of
Sultan Saladin gave a speech in which he began by Shawwal, the ailing Caliph decreed that a pledge of
honoring the Bani Abbas (Abbasid Dynasty), most allegiance be held for his son and heir, al-Nāṣir li-Dīn
specifically al-Mustadi. The rules remained unchanged Allāh (Abū al-ʿAbbās Aḥmad ibn al-Hasan al-Mustaḍī)
throughout. Whenever he comes into possession of a (Al-Jazari, 1997; Ibn Wasil, 1957).
treasury, he gives it all away, leaving nothing for Al-Mustadi ruled for nine years. He became ill in
himself. The Sultan began to prepare to confront the Shawwal in 575 AH / 1180 A.D., his wife tried but
invaders, prepared to march into enemy territory and failed to conceal his illness and the country suffered
institute martial law. (Asfhani, 2002; Ibn Shadad, 1994; greatly as a result. Following the news of the sick
Al-Maqrizi, 1956). Sultan Saladin passed away in 589 Caliph, there was looting and theft of property in
AH / 1193 A.D. (Asfahani, 2002; Asfahani, 2004; Al- Baghdad. After that, sermons were given to inaugurate
Jazari, 1997; Shakeel, 1993). the name of the heir, the next Caliph, al-Nāṣir li-Dīn
Allāh Abū al-ʿAbbās. It was a momentous occasion,
2.2. The Abbasid Caliphate in Saladin Ayyubi’s Time and to mark it, the preachers, imams, and members of
Following his father's death in 566 AH / 1171, the the congregation were showered with gold. Al-Mustadi
Abbasid Caliph Al-Mustadi bi Amrillah Abu died of fever the same year at the age of 39 and was
Muhammad Hasan ibn Yusuf al-Mustanjid ibn al- buried in "Dar al-Nasr" as he stated in his will. He had
Muqtafi ibn al-Mustazhir Ahmad ibn al-Muqtadi Al- two sons, the heir al-Nāṣir li-Dīn Allāh Abū al-ʿAbbās,
Hashmi Alabbasi ascended to the position of Muslim and Abo Mansour Hashim (Ibn Katheer, n.d.).
caliph in Baghdad. Caliph Al-Mustadi had already
 Al-Twahya. Salahuddin Al-Ayyubi Letters to the Abbasid Caliphate: A Creative Reading, Vol. 61 Spring/Summer 2023
286
2.3. Caliph Al-Nāṣir Li-Dīn Allāh Ibn Al-Mustadi and elsewhere throughout the region. The Caliph al-
Al-Nāṣir li-Dīn Allāh Abū al-ʿAbbās Ibn al-Mustadi Nasir died in 622 AH/1225 A.D. (Ibn Taqtaqi, 1997).
Ibn al-Muqtafi was announced a Caliph in 575
AH/1180 A.D. He was born during his father's 2.4. The Book of the Two Gardens on the History of
grandfather, Al- Muqtafi's, reign. He was 23 years and the Two Reigns
one month old at the time. A sermon was delivered in It is a book in history that was written by Abu
his honor as the New Caliph. Money was lavishly spent Shama al-Maqdisi, a jurist (Faqih) and a historian, who
on sermons. He was lauded by one of Iraq's most chronicled an era of approximately half a century (from
influential poets at the time, Amin Ad-dawlah, Abo al- 540 AH/1146 A.D. to 589 AH/1193 A.D.) during which
Alfath ibn Obaidellah. During his reign, he won two states reigned: the Nuriyya State (Zengids’ state)
numerous conquests and increased the Abbasid ruled by Nūr al-Dīn Zenki (511 AH/1117 A.D. to 569
presence in regions such as Khuzestan province, al- AH / 1174 A.D.) and Salahiyya state established by
Jabal, and vast lands of Persia. The Abbasid kingdom Saladin Ayyubi until his death (589 AH/1193 A.D.).
had a privileged position that no other state had held for Using official records and war poetry that he collected
centuries (Al-Jazari, 1997; Ibn Wasil, 1957). and meticulously catalogued, Abu Shama traces back
Saladin relayed the news of his victory over the all of Nur ad-Din and Saladin's achievements, such as
Crusaders in the Battle of Hittin in 583 AH / 1187 AD the state and conflicts, including army movements,
via a young man from Baghdad named al-Rashid weaponry features, battles, forts, warships, and military
Boshangi, who had fled to al-Sham and was infamous confrontations. The approach that the author took to
there for his cowardice (Abū Shāma, 1997; Ibn Wasil, quote and collect material is one of the sources of the
1957; Ibn Katheer, n.d.). The Caliph was insulted by book's value; the book has many transcripts that were
Saladin's choice of messengers, and he condemned obtained from other works, such as those written by Ibn
Saladin's action as a result. This, in turn, provided the Asakir, Imad Asfahani, Ibn Atheer, Ibn Shadad, and al-
opportunity for Saladin's adversaries at Caliph's court to Qadi al-Fadil (the excellent Judge).
turn on Saladin for his diplomatic gaffe. Saladin The book focuses mostly on two notable figures:
embarked on defaming him at the court: “It was Sultan Nur ad-Din Zenki and Sultan Saladin (al-malik
impolite of him to continue to attach his name to al- al-Nasir). The author exerted great effort to describe
Nasir (even more so when he attached his name to the their duties and states, depending on his predecessors
most privileged name, "Al-imam al-Nasir"), revealing who had meticulously recorded the news concerning
his intention to incite against the Caliph and shift his these two Sultans. The researcher used the verified
allegiance, as he did previously in Egypt, now that he is version of the book, which was published by Resalah
surrounded by armies and owns vast lands. “They made Publishing House in Beirut. There are five parts to this
further derogatory statements against Saladin, which edition: the first covers the years up to and including
infuriated the judge (Abū Shāma, 1997; Ibn Wasil, 560 AH/1165 AD, the second covers the years 561
1957). AH/1166 AD through 573 AH/1178 AD, the third
Al-Imad al-Katib’s brother delivered Saladin covers the years 574 AH/1179 AD through 584
Caliph's severe reply to his previous letter. The letter AH/1187 AD, and the fourth covers the years 584
contained numerous references to Saladin's infamous AH/1188 AD through 597 AH/1201 AD.
messenger, pursuing the conflicts between doctrines,
Saladin's brother's attempt to revive the occult of the 3. Methodology
degenerate Qarmatians in Yemen, and his A historical and analytical approach was used to
communication with the disloyal Turkmens and Kurds, read, characterize and analyze the letters. Historical
threatening to revoke the legitimacy the Caliph had analysis is a method of the examination of evidence in
previously granted him (Abū Shāma, 1997; Ibn Wasil, coming to an understanding of the past. It is particularly
1957). As for Saladin's usage of the regnal title (Laqb), applied to evidence contained in documents, although it
al-Nasir, he said that it was not a recent one because he can be applied to all artifacts (Thorpe & Holt, 2008).
had been using it since the days of al-Mustadi, the
Muslim Caliph; this was something that he took great
honor in. He further mentioned that the objectives of his
4. Results and Discussion
Saladin was affiliated with the Abbasid Caliphate
battles were to finish off the Caliph's conquests and
due to his ties with the Zengids, whose leader was Nur
exterminate the non-believers (Abū Shāma, 1997; Ibn
ad-Din Zenki, who respected and supported the Abbasid
Wasil, 1957; Ibn Katheer, n.d.). Al-Nir's reign of li-Din
Caliph al-Mustadi, who reciprocated Nur ad-Din’s
Allah, the Caliph, lasted so long. He desired to
attitudes by maintaining protocols and honors in their
personally resolve people's issues and was dedicated to
correspondences and urging his provinces to ally with
his rule. At night, he would wander the streets and
Zenki against the crusaders. Saladin's relations with the
alleyways of Baghdad to become familiar with the
Abbasid Caliphate were never bad, or at least never
concerns of his subjects and the dynamics between
became so hostile. It may have subsided for a while, but
them. People in high positions would fear the Caliph as
it was never hostile (Hashmi, 2006).
if he were watching them from within their homes. His
In 567 AH/1172 A.D., Saladin first established ties
spies and messengers were many at governors' quarters
 287

to the Abbasid Caliphate while serving as the Fitimid 1418).

Caliph’s vizier. When Saladin interrupted a sermon 3. Another tribute was written by al-Fadil in which
praising the Fatimid Caliph al-Adid in order to praise he mentioned Saladin’s roles and contributions (Abu
the Abbasid Dynasty and proclaim his commitment to Shama, 1997).
the Abbasid Caliph, the relationship between the two 4. Another tribute written by al-Fadil in which he
parties began to improve (al-Maqrizi, 1956; al-Hashimi, mentioned Saladin deliverance of a sermon praising the
2006; al-Jadbah 2016). The relations were Abbasid Caliphate for the second time (Abu Shama,
consummated through correspondences between the 1997) in 570 H / 1272 A.D.
Caliphate in Baghdad and Saladin Ayyubi in Egypt. 5. Another tribute (Abu Shama, 1997) in 570 AH /
These correspondences were included in earlier 1272 A.D.; it was a short letter that included thanks and
resources written in Saladin’s era. Abu Shama, for praises to Allah.
instance, included several such letters in his book the 6. Another tribute (Abu Shama, 1997) in 570 AH /
Two Gardens in the News of Two Reign, which is the 1272 A.D., in which Sultan Saladin's efforts to combat
main reference in this research. against the Franks under the reign of Nur ad-Din were
The correspondences that were exchanged between acknowledged.
the Caliphate in Baghdad and Saladin Ayyubi in Egypt 7. Saladin’s letter to the vizier of Baghdad, written
were how the contacts were conducted. This in al-Fadil’s style (Abu Shama, 1997) in 570 AH / 1272
correspondence was compiled and included in the A.D., made an intercession for a prince.
earlier resources that were created during Saladin's 8. A lengthy letter written by Al-Fadil and delivered
time. For example, Abu Shama included several letters to Baghdad on behalf of the Sultan in 570 AH / 1272
like this in his book The Two Gardens in the News of A.D., discussing the people of Aleppo and Mosul (Abu
Two Kings, which serves as the primary resource for Shama, 1997).
this investigation. 9. A letter written by al-Fadil to Baghdad describing
As mentioned earlier, the most important reference a fort (Abu Shama, 1997) in 573 AH describing the
is Abu Shama's book (1997), which included the letters status of the unbelievers’ troops following battles in al-
in a dispersed manner in between the pages. The letters Sham and Hamah.
in their entirety were not compiled under a single title; 10. Another letter written by al-Fadil (Abu Shama,
rather, portions of the letters were included in the form 1997,3: 42; Ibn Wasil, 1957) in 575 AH, describing
of a paragraph within the context of a specific event. “Bait al-Ahzan” fort.
The author used the letters as examples of the events 11. Another letter written by al-Fadil (Abu Shama,
that he was relating to in his narrative. It was unusual 1997,3: 43; Ibn Wasil, 1957) in 575 AH, describing
for a letter to arrive in its complete form. The “Bait al-Ahzan” fort.
investigator may be able to find some of these letters in 12. Another letter was written by Al-Fadil and
other late resources, such as those written by delivered to the vizier of Baghdad on behalf of the
Qalqashandi (1418) in his books titled Subh al-Asha. Sultan (Abu Shama, 199744) in 575 AH, describing the
The researcher chose Abu Shama's book as a source battle of “Bait al-Ahzan Fort.”
because it is historically closer and more relevant to the 13. A letter to describe the situations in Baghdad
targeted period. The research intended to survey and using Imadi’s style (Abu Shama, 1997) in 557 AH.
investigate all letters contained in all available 14. Another letter was written by Al-Fadil (Abu
resources; however, it proved to be beyond the scope of Shama, 1997) in 557 AH, describing the situation in
the research paper and would be more appropriate for a Baghdad.
dissertation. Finally, the researcher decided to 15. Another letter (Abu Shama, 1997) in 557 AH,
investigate only the letters included in Ab Shama's describing the situation in Baghdad.
book, with the hope of investigating the remaining 16. Another letter (Abu Shama, 1997) in 557 AH,
letters in a future research paper. Saladin wrote describing the situation in Baghdad.
approximately 43 letters to the Abbasid Caliph. The 17. Another letter (Abu Shama, 1997) in 557 AH,
following are the specifics for each letter: describing the situation in Baghdad.
1. A tribute from Sultan Saladin to the Vizier of 18. Another letter (Abu Shama, 1997) in 557 AH,
Baghdad, written by Shams al-Din Ibn Abi Mada in 567 describing the situation in Baghdad.
AH / 1269 CE (Abu Shama, 1997). Saladin details his 19. A letter in al-Fadil’s style to the Court (Abu
service to the Abbasid Caliphate in this letter and Shama, 1997107) in 578 AH depicting the fight against
concludes by requesting legitimacy. the Franks in al-Sham.
2. In a letter that Sultan Shams al-Din Ibn Abi Mada 20. Another sophisticated letter, written in al-Fadil’s
sent to the noble court, Al-Qadi al-Fadil (the Excellent style, from the Sultan to the Court after crossing the
Judge) detailed Saladin's role in fighting against the Euphrates River (Abu Shama, 1997) in 578 AH,
Franks during Nur ad-Din’s reign, as well as his detailed the fighting circumstances and Sultan Saladin's
conquests in Egypt and Yemen and vast land in the efforts to serve the Caliphate.
Moroccan Frontiers, and how he delivered a sermon 21. Another letter to Baghdad (Abu Shama, 1997) in
honoring the Abbasid Caliphate in 568 H / 1270 A.D. 578 AH, describing the conditions Muslim fleet in
(Abu Shama, 1997; Ibn Wasil, 1957; Al-Qalqashandi, pushing back the belligerent ships targeting the Hijazi
 Al-Twahya. Salahuddin Al-Ayyubi Letters to the Abbasid Caliphate: A Creative Reading, Vol. 61 Spring/Summer 2023
288
and Yemeni ships. quoting rather than counting because the scope of the
20. Another book to Baghdad (Abu Shama, 1997) in study does not permit incorporating all the letters.
578 AH, in which he describes the events of a battle After reviewing the previous letters sent from
with Frank’s fleets coming to Akka. Saladin to the Abbasid Court, the scholar notes that
21. Another letter, written by al-Fadil on behalf of Saladin has many good attributes that other kings did
the Sultan to the court in Baghdad (Abu Shama, 1997) not have. He was strong and held all the cards. The
in 579 AH, in which he mentions receiving the Caliph’s Abbasid Caliphate compromised and agreed with him.
letters. Therefore, the researcher opts to survey all letters
22. Another letter, written by al-Fadil on behalf of collectively, not on a case-by-case basis to avoid
the Sultan to the Vizier of Baghdad (Abu Shama; Ibn identifying the same themes more than once. Some
Wasil, 1957) in 579, depicts the conditions and common threads and facts can be seen throughout all of
preparations for the battle. Saladin's correspondence.
23. Another letter (Abu Shama, 1997) in 579, in 1. Saladin's constant references to himself as a
which the Sultan expressed his gratitude for a victory he "servant" and a "Mameluke" (i.e., the slave) in his
made in a city. communication with the Abbasid Caliph demonstrate
24. A letter written by al-Fadil (Abu Shama, 1997) his unwavering devotion and subjection to the Caliph's
in 579 AH, in which he explained the events of “Tal religious authority. A letter from Saladin to the Vizier
Khalid” Battle. of Baghdad, for example, begins with the words "The
25. Another letter by Sultan Saladin, in which he servant has written this..." (Abu Shama, 1997; Ibn
told the news about victory in Aleppo and Harem. Wasil, 1957; Qalqashandi, 1418).
26. A letter issued from “Naseebin” to Baghdad in While repeating his service to the Caliphate by
578 AH (Abu Shama, 1997), in which he listed his restoring the Caliph's authority in Egypt, Yemen, and
efforts and services for the Caliphate. Morocco, Saladin writes to the court in Baghdad,
27. Another letter (Abu Shama, 1997) in 579 m in "Allah's great will is manifested through the great deeds
which he explained his intention to proceed and his of His slave "Mamluke", who burdened the surrounding
plans. Kingdoms with his might." (Abu Shama, 1997), and he
28. Another letter written by al-Fadil to Baghdad continued using the word again: “ Unless he wanted to
(Abu Shama, 1997) in 579 AH, in which he describes keep his word to Nur ad-Din, may he rest in peace, the
events in fighting the unbelievers. Mamluke (slave) would not have left his home to battle
29. Another letter was sent to the Vizier of Baghdad the foes in Egypt and al-Sham; the Mamluke (i.e.
(Abu Shama, 1997) in 579 AH, describing the Saladin) protects the land and water, while Nur ad-Din
circumstances in a battle. watches over the plains and terrains of al-Sham (Abu
30. A letter from the Sultan to the Court (Abu Shama, 1997). Saladin, when he was in al-Sham, sent
Shama, 1997) in 581 AH, explaining the state with another letter to the Caliph in Baghdad to tell him that
Tikrit’s ruler. his navy had defeated the Franks in the Mediterranean
31. Another letter (Abu Shama, 1997) in 581 AH and that his army had won some battles in Morocco. He
about a poem. continues, "The Servant has his troops in Morocco, and
32. A letter written by al-Fadil to Baghdad after their victories have reached the edges of Africa" (Abu
conquering Akka and Hattin’s seizure (Abu Shama, Shama, 1997; Ibn Wasil, 1957).
1997) in 583 AH. The word "servant" appears numerous times in
33. Another letter to the noble Court in Baghdad Saladin's letters to the Caliphate, including his address
(Abu Shama, 1997) in 583, bringing the good news of to Baghdad describing the events of the Hittin Battle:
conquering Jerusalem. "The servant came in the morning... the servant set a
34. Another letter by al-Fadil about some battles fire... the servant slaughtered... the servant issued" (Ibn
(Abu Shama, 199785) in 585 AH. Wasil, 1957). There are many other instances in which
35. A letter to the Court (Abu Shama, 1997) in 585 Saladin used the words "slave" or "servant" in his letters
AH, depicting the state after entering Jerusalem. to the Caliphate. Saladin frequently referred to himself
36. A letter by the Sultan (Kitab Sultani) (Abu in his correspondence with the Caliphate as a "slave" or
Shama, 1997) in 586 AH explaining the enemy’s "servant." To prevent the repetition, the researcher will
movements and his state. not provide further instances beyond those already
37. A letter by al-Fadil to Baghdad (Abu Shama, provided.
1997140) in 586 AHm explaining the Franks’ 2. Saladin frequently used the unadorned word
circumstances in Akka. "loyal" to stress his undying allegiance to the Caliphate.
38. A letter to Baghdad (Abu Shama, 1997) in 586 Saladin used the term directly in a letter he sent to the
AH, depicting the enemy’s state. Vizier of Baghdad in which he detailed his efforts and
39. A letter by al-Fadil to the Court (Abu Shama, victories: “The servant (i.e. Saladin) wrote this from his
1997) in 587 AH, depicting the state among battles. lodging, declaring loyalty (“al-walaa” i.e. the
In this context, the researcher emphasizes that expression of brotherhood, kindness, and compassion
quotations from letters to support the themes extracted Muslims ought to have for one another) (Abu Shama,
from the creative reading will be limited to a few for 1997; Ibn Wasil, 1957). In another letter, Saladin wrote:
 289

“The servant has been blessed in his obedience, which and the unchanging constitution of human life. Miracles
the good ones adopted and by which the foes were of language abound in it. For Muslims, reciting
defeated (Abu Shama, 1997). passages from the Quran is an act of worship and a last
3. The people who wrote the letters made excessive resort. Saladin's use of Quranic verses in his letters may
use of prayers in general throughout the letters, have been an act of worship; doing so gave them an air
regardless of the subjects or goals of the letters. Their of eternity and permanence. Saladin cited verses from
prayers can deepen the significance of homage and the Quran to make his vocabulary even clearer and
respect by imploring Allah to sustain and bless the more profound, thus establishing that he had a correct
prince, increase the abundance of Allah's gifts to him, knowledge of the Quranic text and its applicability to
and ensure that the prince's life continues to be filled the events that were occurring at the time. In a letter
with good fortune and joy throughout the ages. This that included the Sultan’s services to the Caliphs,
phenomenon clearly exists in all types of letters. Saladin quotes:” for every term appointed, there is a
Saladin always praises the Caliph, reminding him of his record (or decree) that keeps it” and “They are but as
relation to the divine message of Prophet Mohammad. the cattle” (Abu Shama, 1997) in another letter.
Saladin, cognizant of Caliph's inherent superiority, B. In another letter, the following verse was quoted:
expresses a yearning for Caliph's graces and “Let not the free disposal (and affluence) of the
empowerment. In a letter written by al-Qadi al-Fadil disbelievers throughout the land deceive you” (Abu
“the Excellent Judge” and sent by Sultan Saladin to the Shama, 1997). He often opened his letters with Quranic
Caliph telling him the good news of his conquest in verses; in a letter sent to the court, it reads: “Allah hath
Aleppo and Harem: “May Allah continue to bestow his promised such of you as believe and do good works that
blessings on the esteemed Court and ensure that the He will surely make them to succeed (the present
homes of the kingdom remain the subject of regard and rulers) in the earth even as He caused those who were
grace. May Allah bring about the unification of the before them to succeed others); and that He will surely
realm under Caliph's rule” (Abu Shama, 1997; Ibn establish for them their religion which He hath
Wasil, 1957; Qalqshandi, n.d.). approved for them, a will give them in exchange safety
In another letter, the following was written: "All after their fear.” (Abu Shama, 1997346). B. Poetry:
praise be to Allah, Who has fulfilled His promise to His writers have been used to including some poetic verses
good worshipers by making them the rulers and using into their prosaic writings, and this was not exclusive to
them to conquer the unbelievers and the transgressors. Saladin’s letters; it was a common practice followed by
Praise be to Allah, who distinguishes the Honorable his predecessors. Saladin used poetry to prove his
Court's Sultan by selecting him to be the Caliph, viewpoints. In his letter, carried by prince Shams al-Din
empowering his faith, replacing fear with security, and al-Khatib to the Abbasid Caliph al-Nasir, Saladin,
granting the high conquest and the happy victory by the highlighting his efforts in freeing the Islamic lands after
hands of a servant who is full of pride and loyalty (Abu suffering the unbelievers’ injustice and oppression, says
Shama, 1997). (In Arabic): ‫عهى‬ٚ ‫ األرض نى‬ٙ‫ز غزائب … ف‬ٛ‫"ٔيٍ انغزائب أٌ حظ‬
4. Intertextuality: and the term “text” implies the ‫كٌٕ نٓا انظًّا … ٔانًاء فٕق ظٕٓرْا‬ٚ ‫ض أقخم يا‬ٛ‫بٓا انًؤيٕل كانع‬
meaning of “highlighting” or “making prominent”. As "‫( يحًٕل‬Being an outsider in the middle of a desolate
for intertextuality, it involves uniting one piece of region is a peculiar experience. Similar to how white
literature with a prior text or the presence of one text in camels, which are the most noble of all camel species,
another, for instance, quoting a saying, a verse, or any will succumb to thirst even when they are carrying
other text. water on their backs) (Abu Shama, 1997)
"Involving a text structure borrowed from other C. Saladin’s viewpoint in freeing the lands was not
texts, thereby establishing a connection in which the targeted at removing the Fatimids; instead, he had a
borrowed texts are incorporated into the generated strategic long-term vision- that is, to demolish the
text," is another way to put this definition. Or, a franks and all of the Muslim enemies and unify the
collection of texts that can be "squeezed" into one regions under the Abbasid rule. He had excellent
larger text, either in the mind of the writer, the mind of knowledge of the region, as clearly shown in his letters.
the reader, or the mind of the book itself (Hadid, 2011). In a letter he sent to the Vizier of Baghdad, in which he
Saladin's letters were exemplary displays of cleverness talked about his victories and accomplishments and his
because of the way he skillfully braided his lines confrontations with the Shiite, he confirmed his long-
together using sophisticated vocabulary to bring out term vision in fighting the Franks: “The sword will
meaning, summoning passages from the Quran, Hadith, always be unsheathed, and nights will not be slept to
poetry, and Arabic proverbs. This was not new in remove the Franks” (Abu Shama, 1997; Ibn Wasil,
Arabic literature. The fact that the successor was 1957). In some letters in which he recounted his
inspired by the predecessor, either lexically or ceaseless efforts to serve the Abbasid Caliphate, Saladin
thematically, is proof of the openness and connection says: “It is no secret that the Franks freaked out after
linking literary genres together was not new in Arabic knowing our plan and rushed to help the Christian
literature. The following are some examples of lands. They marched with their cross, accompanied by
intertextuality in Saladin’s letters: their allies, reminding their tyrannical rulers of the
A. The Holy Quran is the supreme ideal of rhetoric resurrection. They also sent letters and saints’ pictures
 Al-Twahya. Salahuddin Al-Ayyubi Letters to the Abbasid Caliphate: A Creative Reading, Vol. 61 Spring/Summer 2023
290
to the prelates and ecclesiastics, alerting them of the overstatement vary. Depending on the letter’s topic, the
irreparable disaster that could not happen if they did not letter length depends on the letters topic.
act. The rulers of Constantinople, Sicily, Germany, the Understatement refers to words lacking to convey the
lands beyond the sea, Venice, Peshaniya, Genoa and truth. As for overstatement, it means to show and
others have prepared their fleets and legions. Islam faith convey, which is achieved only by concentration and
is the best advocate as they, the franks and their allies, persuasion. Understatement involves containing a lot of
advocated for falsehood, while Islam led by the prince meaning in few words that convey the intended
of believers (Amir almo’mineen) advocates the truth. he meaning very well. Overstatement involves using a lot
worships Allah, and they worship a human” (Abu of words to convey, intensify and emphasize the
Shama, 1997; Ibn Wasil, 1957). intended meaning (al-Hashimi, n.d.). These two stylistic
D. Saladin’s writings reveal Saladin’s wide features in Saladin’s letters are Abu Shama’s letters.
knowledge in religious sciences, lowering the value of The most representative examples of overstatement in
the Shiite dogmas and deeming them wrong. He Abu Shama’s book were included in the second letter
improved Abbasid’s image as they had ties with the sent to the noble court, Al-Qadi al-Fadil (the Excellent
prophet’s divine message, deeming them right. In a Judge) detailed Saladin's role in fighting against the
letter in which he mentioned his victories and Franks during Nur ad-Din’s reign, as well as his
conquests, Saladin declared: “It is now one religion, not conquests in Egypt and Yemen and vast land in the
many as it was before. When the wrongdoers are Moroccan Frontiers, and how he delivered a sermon
reminded of the Caliphate, they fall upon it deaf and honoring the Abbasid Caliphate in 568 AH / 1173 A.D.
blind. Heresies are stagnant. The Shiites are humiliated (Abu Shama, 1997).
as they took humans as their gods and Allah’s enemies Examples of understatement are abundant in the
as their loyal friends, split up, and dispersed the Muslim fourth letter in which Sultan Saladin mentions
nation after it was unified” (Abu Shama, 1997; Ibn establishing the Abbasid power in Egypt. In this letter,
Wasil, 1957). In a letter he sent to remind the Court of Saladin says: “Until he came to the world to get things
his victories and conquests in Egypt, Morrocco, and done and to embitter Allah’s enemies, brighten the
Yemen, Saladin says: “Our messengers in Egypt sent us faces and unburden chest of the black-cloaked, take
news that revealed the bad conditions and their revenge others forgot to take, inform the beguiled
mismanagement the country suffered. The inferior with the truth, hoping for a (sure) trade gain that will
dominated the superior. The system was corrupted. never perish (Abu Shama, 1997). A few words are used
Islam weakened. The Franks gave them huge amounts in the previous lines, which are enough to explain
of money. Sunni’s voice though it was there, yet it was everything.
oppressed. Islam’s rules and laws existed in name only. G. There are some prominent rhythmic features in
Heresies prevailed and overpowered. Their dogma Saladin’s letters, such as assonance, which has a role in
became an integral part of people’s lives. They erected lending the letters a different timbre that attracts the
shrines for worship. Allah is raised far above those. reader’s attention, urging them to continue reading.
Woe to him who were deceived by the [uninhibited] Assonance means the repetition of a similar sound in
movement of the disbelievers throughout the land.” two or more words in proximity to each other in prose.
(Abu Shama, 1997; Ibn Wasil, 1957; Qalqashandi, Assonance plays a vital role in producing a musical
1418). timber that attracts the listeners’ attention and ignites
E. Saladin asked the Abbasid Caliphate to give him their minds. Assonance had been prevalent in the
legitimacy, protocols, grants, and appreciation as these writings of the Islamic era and became a prominent
are in the first place benefits for the Abbasid Caliphate feature in the letters and other genres of the Abbasid
more than for him. In a letter he sent to the Abbasid era. Assonance in prose is parallel to rhyme in poetry.
Caliph, Saladin said: “ He needs to be thanked for the The music is produced by the repetition of similar
admonition he gives, to be given the lands he conquers, sounds in two or more words. Assonance is one of the
to accomplish what he plans, to claim his rights with no most rhetorical devices that prevailed in the listed
reduction, to feel home in any place he moves to, to be letters.
honored by the noble protocols, to be provided with There are many representative examples of
huge supplies and reinforcements, to be supported with assonance in Saladin’s letters as:
his plans and battles, to be spared all obstacles and ‫ض‬ٚ‫ش َٔ ََل سَانَج يَُا ِسل َي ًْهَ َكخّ يَُا ِسل انخَّ ْق ِذ‬ٚ‫ َٕاٌ ا ْن َع ِش‬ِّٚ‫َّاو انذ‬َٚ‫"أداو هللا أ‬
hardships, and to be facilitated with all I need. As these ‫ز‬ٚ‫ى َٔانخَّ ْق ِذ‬ٚ‫ز َٔا ْن ُٕقُٕف بؤقصٗ انًطارح يٍ أبٕابّ ُيٕجبا نهخقذ‬ٛٓ‫ٔانخط‬
all are for the benefit of the nation, which he ‫ ا ْن َخا ِدو‬،‫ز‬ٛ‫ظال َيت ََل جًع انخكظ‬ َّ ‫َٔ ْاأليت َي ْ ًُٕ َو ة انشًم بإيايخّ جًع ان‬
jeopardizes his life to protect and unleashes his sword ‫ظ ُكٌٕ انخغًذ أَٔ بحزكت َيا‬ ُ ِ َّ ِ ًّ‫خظه‬ٚٔ ‫فخخحّ يٍ ا ْنبِ َالد‬ٚ ٘‫ أٌَ انَّ ِذ‬ِٙٓ ُْ ُٚ
‫ب‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ي‬‫إ‬
to make the nation above all. He (i.e. Saladin) entered ‫حظبّ جُاحا‬ٚٔ ‫قا إِنَٗ اَلطخُفار إِنَٗ بِ َالد انكفار‬ٚ‫عذِ طَ ِز‬ٚ ‫ األغًاد إََِّ ًَا‬ِٙ‫ف‬
َ َّ ْ
the proper doors and asked for help from the "‫البظّ ا ْنكفَّار يٍ األقطار‬ٚ ‫ًُكُُّ بِ ِّ انًطار إِنَٗ َيا‬ٚ
abundance. He trusted the good reply. He is pleased to Which translates into: “May Allah bless the days of
convey his wishes and to receive what he deserved” the noble Court, whose kingdom’s houses are still
(Abu Shama, 1997; Ibn Wasil, 1957). sacred and purified. The nation is unified under the
F. Understatement and overstatement: the writing Caliph’s good ruling. The servant finishes his speech
style of letters in terms of understatement and saying that conquering the lands by protecting the lands
 291

or fighting is just to pave the way to travel the lands The number of similes used varies according to letter
where the unbelievers rule. Assonance appears in words types. Examples of similes in Saladin’s letters are
.‫ األقطار‬،‫ الكفار‬،‫ المطار‬،‫ االستنفار‬and ‫ التكسيز‬،‫ التقديز‬،‫التطهيز‬like included in the letter No. 15, when he says: “ ‫ُا‬ٛ‫"ٔنَكَُّا قذ به‬
Alliteration contributes to producing rhythm and " َ ‫( ”بِقٕو كانفزاع أَٔ أخف عقَٕل ٔكاألَعاو أَٔ أض ّم‬Abu
‫ال‬ِٛ‫طب‬
acoustic harmony, arising from musical compatibility Shama, 1997(, in which people are likened to “flies”
among words. It means two words similar to due to their “simple cognitive abilities”, which is an
pronunciation but different in meaning. It gives a example of “detailed simile”. As for the “metaphor”, it
musical consistency and compatibility between words is one of the most prominent rhetorical devices and a
that are saturated in terms of weight and sound. This pillar for expressing feelings. It contributes to
musical device appeared in letters as a literary genre, visualizing the intended meaning and proof of the
and it involves combining the thing and its opposite and writer’s craftmanship. It is also an integral component
two similar words (two words, nouns, or verbs) that are that any poet or prose writer needs. Metonymy is a
totally opposite in meaning. Saladin’s letters abound rhetorical aspect that cannot be comprehended except
with examples of assonance (complete and incomplete by those who have sensitive attitudes, as metonymy
types of assonance). In the first letter (Abu Shama, presents the truth in a new way and has an important
1997), Saladin says: ‫( ا ْن ُ ًُ َعت َجا ِي َعت‬which translates into: impact on readers. Metonymy uncovers the writer’s
Friday’s (prayer) unifies), which is an example of ingenuity and his/her ability to manipulate the language
incomplete assonance as the word (‫ )جًعت‬refers to as he/she intends. Examples of metaphors are
“Friday’s prayer”, and the word”‫ ”جايعت‬means “that mentioned in the fourth letter (Abu Shama, 1997), in
which unifies people”. In the same letter, Saladin says:” which Saladin says: " ‫َ"أدْرك نَ ُٓى بثؤ ٍر ََا َيجْ عَُُّ انًٓى‬, in
،" ‫ ”" َََٔثَزث أَ ْق َالو انظبٗ ُح ُزٔف رإٔطٓى َثز األقالو نهحزٔف‬where which the word “‫( ”الهمم‬which means “spirits”) are
the first “‫ ”أقالم‬means “tools of combat”, which comes imaged as a sleeping person to mean that “spirits”
as a simile; while the second “‫ ”أقالم‬means “pencils used became weak and fragile that cannot be strong. As for
in writing”. Moreover, the first word “‫ ”حزوف‬means metonymy, it – like metaphors and similes – adds to the
“the tip”, and the second word means “letters used to eloquence of the letters. The most representative
form words”. In Saladin letters, he mentioned “ ‫التشزيفات‬ examples of metonymy are those mentioned in the
‫”الشزيفة‬, which means “special equipment”, while the fourth letter (Abu Shama, 1997) in ٍ‫ا اب‬َٛ‫"حجٖ أحٗ انذ‬
word “‫ ” شزيفة‬means “noble"; and this makes a "‫ب ذحٓا‬, which is a metonymy that refers to “erudition”;
representative example of incomplete assonance. In a thus, he means “ I am knowledgeable, and the pronoun
letter, Saladin says: ‫"ٔاطخفخح بهباص انظ َٕاد ْاألَ ْعظَى انَّ ِذ٘ جًع هللا‬ “‫ ”ه‬in “‫ ”بجدتها‬refers to “the world” (al-Maydani, n.d.).
،" ‫ ِّ انظ َٕاد ْاألَ ْعظَى‬ْٛ َ‫ َعه‬, in which he refers to the black color Finally, Saladin refers to his good relation to the
in the first “‫”السىاد‬, while he means “common people” in Abbasid Caliphate when he mentions the conflicts with
the second “‫”السىاد االعظم‬. other Muslim princes who defied him and aspired to
In a letter, Saladin mentions: “ ٕ٘‫ط‬ٚ ‫ ِّ بِ ًَا‬ْٛ َ‫عٕد إِن‬ٚ" overpower him, especially the Zengids. He always kept
" ّ‫ عقب‬ِٙ‫خهذ انشّزف ف‬ٚٔ ّ‫ان َّز َجاء فضم عقب‬, in which the first the Abbasid Court updated on his accomplishments and
“‫ ”عقبو‬relate to the “time” and the second “‫ ”عقبو‬refers to victories, justifying his passion to protect and serve the
“the son”; and ،) ‫ ِعقب‬،‫ (عَقب‬are good examples of Abbasid Caliphate and that he wanted to get legitimacy
complete assonance. and approval from the Caliph, though he knew the
weakness of the Abbasid Caliphate at those times in al-
4.1. Counterpoint Mustadi’ reign. Undoubtedly, the Abbasid Caliphate
Saladin’s letters included several examples of had achieved a great victory as it annexed Egypt to the
counterpoint, which adds to the subtlety and beauty of Sunni Islamic Front, thus making Egypt one of the
the style. The most representative examples of pillars supporting the Abbasid Caliphate and a center
counterpoint are mentioned in the first letter such as: from which other Islamic emirates could be unified
،" ‫ًُا ً ٔشآيا‬ٚٔ", which is an example of positive under the Abbasid Caliphate Control. One of the most
counterpoint that occurs between the word and its significant factors that added to the Abbasid Caliphate’s
opposite. This is similar to " ،" ‫" َٔفزقُٕا أَيز ْاأليت َٔ َكاٌَ ي خًعا‬, power in the region was its wide knowledge of the
where counterpoint is represented in the pair ،‫(فزقىا‬ ongoing events and all military actions and transitions
)‫مجتم عا‬, a verb and a noun. Moreover, ‫خالفَت ٔح ّم‬ َ ‫"ش ّذ عقذ‬ Saladin made at that time. Saladin would always send
" ‫( عقذ خالف َٔقَا َو بذٔنت َٔقعذ‬Abu Shama, 1997), where the the court information about his military actions, gaining
pairs) ‫(قام وقعد‬ ‫ وكذلك‬،ّ‫ ش ّد وحل‬are examples of approval and legitimacy from the Caliphate. When
counterpoint. Saladin became a Sultan in Egypt, he started taking
H. In the field of “imagistic features”, Saladin’s deliberate steps to unite the Islamic world with the
letters abound with imagistic devices such as similes, support and blessing of the Abbasid Caliphate. He
metaphors, and metonyms. A simile is a rhetorical and expanded his power in North Africa. He had asked for
stylistic device, which relates to imagination, the beauty permission from Nur ad-Din Zenki, who immediately
of visualization, and the writer’s ingenuity. Simile sent his approval, culminating in the Abbasid
intensifies the meaning and contributes to its clarity. Caliphate’s blessing.
The writers during that era used simile significantly as The Caliph al-Nasir sent “Shaikh al-Shuyoukh” in
it highlights, explains, and emphasizes the meaning. charge to grant the approval and legitimacy to Saladin
 Al-Twahya. Salahuddin Al-Ayyubi Letters to the Abbasid Caliphate: A Creative Reading, Vol. 61 Spring/Summer 2023
292
and gave him some Sunni titles such as: “Almaliku al- approval, admission, and authorization, which all added
ajjal” (the most reverent King), Nasir al-Islam (the to Saladin’s caliber and value in front of other princes
Islam advocate), Imad Addawlah (the state pillar), as well as the crusaders, which were frightened by
Fakhr al-millah (the millet’s pride), Saffy al-khilafa Saladin’s success. Saladin’s rejection to accept the
(The Caliphate chosen one), Taj al-molook wa al- Caliphate’s gifts relates to fears of being fully
salateen (the crown of kings and sultans), Qahir al- controlled. It was enough for Saladin to get emotional
khawarij (the conqueror of the unbelievers. Shaikh al- and spiritual support and resort to the Caliphate during
Shuyoukh, on the Caliph’s behalf, commanded Saladin crises to resolve fights. Saladin realized that resorting to
to fear Allah, be committed to collective prayers, avoid the Abbasid army might lead the army to interfere in his
sacrilege and taboos, well-treat the subjects, quest for state’s affairs, which might disturb the relationship.
justice, protect the borders, fight the unbelievers, refer
to the religious and virtuous for consultations, and show 5.1. Limitations and Further Study
gratitude to the Caliphate for its generous acts. The This study was limited to Saladin's letters sent to the
Abbasid Caliphate did not grant any of the princes or Abbasid Caliphate, referring to Abū Shāma's The Book
any in the inner circle, who were under Saladin’s of the Two Gardens on the History of the Two Reigns
authority, permission to wear black turbans and gowns (1267 A.D./ 665 H). It is good to enrich the
to show Saladin respect and to distinguish him from understanding of the biography of Saladin and his
others. The Caliph wanted to maintain good relations contribution, especially with the Abbasid caliphate, by
with Saladin. However, the Caliph, who granted studying the memorial texts engraved on several of his
Saladin titles and legitimacy, sent Saladin a letter buildings of exceptional importance. It gives us the
reproaching him for some acts that the Caliph deplored. opportunity, by analyzing it, to form an idea of his
policies and kingship, such as the inscription installed
5. Conclusion above the entrance to the amphitheater in the Citadel of
This is one of the first studies to address the unique Cairo, which was constructed by Saladin himself.
relations between Salah al-Din Yusuf ibn Ayyubi,
commonly known as Saladin, and the Abbasid Acknowledgments
Caliphate, in that the relations had been consolidated I would like to express my gratitude to the
through formal correspondences through al-Ḳāḍī al- Translation Center at the University of Jordan for their
Fāḍil, the Excellent Judge, who was the vizier of Sultan help with translating this manuscript from Arabic into
Saladin. English.
Saladin’s letters revolve around several themes or
topics. Some of these letters have a unifying role, References
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