Engineering Chemistry

CHM152S

1
Chemical Calculations

2
 Outline

• Define the mole concept.

• Determine the number of atoms, molecules or ions.
• Calculate the molecular and formula mass.
• Interconvert between moles and grams.
• Determine the percentage composition of a compound.
• Determine the empirical formula of a compound.

3
 Collection Terms

A collection term states a specific number of

items.
▪ 1 dozen donuts = 12 donuts
▪ 1 ream of paper = 500 sheets
▪ 1 case = 24 cans

4
 The Mole

• The mole (mol) is a unit of measure for an amount of a

chemical substance.
• A mole is Avogadro’s number of particles, that is 6.02 ×
1023 particles.
1 mol = Avogadro’s Number = 6.02 × 1023 units
• We can use the mole relationship to convert between the
number of particles and the mass of a substance.

5
 A Mole of Atoms
A mole is a collection that contains
▪ the same number of particles as there are carbon
atoms in 12.0 g of carbon 12C
▪ 6.02 x 1023 atoms of an element (Avogadro’s number)

1 mole of Element Number of Atoms

1 mole of C = 6.02 x 1023 C atoms
1 mole of Na = 6.02 x 1023 Na atoms
1 mole of Au = 6.02 x 1023 Au atoms

6
 A Mole of a Compound
A mole
▪ of a covalent compound has Avogadro’s number of
molecules
1 mole of CO2 = 6.02 x 1023 CO2 molecules
1 mole of H2O = 6.02 x 1023 H2O molecules

▪ of an ionic compound contains Avogadro’s number of

formula units
1 mole of NaCl = 6.02 x 1023 NaCl formula units
1 mole of K2SO4 = 6.02 x 1023 K2SO4 formula units

7
Particle in One-Mole Samples

8
 Using Avogadro’s Number
Avogadro’s number is used to convert
moles of a substance to particles.

How many Cu atoms are in 0.50 mole of

Cu?

0.50 mole Cu x 6.02 x 1023 Cu atoms

1 mole Cu

= 3.0 x 1023 Cu atoms

9
 Using Avogadro’s Number (continued)

Avogadro’s number is used to convert

particles of a substance to moles.

How many moles of CO2 are in

2.50 x 1024 molecules of CO2?

2.50 x 1024 molecules CO2 x 1 mole CO2

6.02 x 1023 molecules CO2

= 4.15 moles of CO2

10
 Subscripts and Moles
The subscripts in a formula give
▪ the relationship of atoms in the formula
▪ the moles of each element in 1 mole of a
compound

Glucose
C6H12O6

In 1 molecule: 6 atoms of C 12 atoms of H 6 atoms of O

In 1 mole: 6 moles of C 12 moles of H 6 moles of O

11
 Subscripts State Atoms and Moles

1 mole of C9H8O4 = 9 moles of C 8 moles of H 4 moles of O

12
 Mole Calculations
1. The number of atoms in 2.0 moles of Al is
A. 2.0 Al atoms
B. 3.0 x 1023 Al atoms
C. 1.2 x 1024 Al atoms

2. The number of moles of S in 1.8 x 1024 atoms of S

is
A. 1.0 mole of S atoms
B. 3.0 moles of S atoms
C. 1.1 x 1048 moles of S atoms
13
 Solution
1. The number of atoms in 2.0 moles of Al is
C. 1.2 x 1024 Al atoms
2.0 moles Al x 6.02 x 1023 Al atoms
1 mole Al

2. The number of moles of S in 1.8 x 1024 atoms of S

is
B. 3.0 moles of S atoms
1.8 x 1024 S atoms x 1 mole S
6.02 x 1023 S atoms

14
 Mole Calculations

• How many sodium atoms are in 0.120 mol Na?

✓ Step 1: we want atoms of Na
✓ Step 2: we have 0.120 mol Na
✓ Step 3: 1 mole Na = 6.02 × 1023 atoms Na

6.02 × 1023 atoms Na

0.120 mol Na × = 7.22 × 1022 atoms Na
1 mol Na

15
 Mole Calculations

• How many moles of potassium are in 1.25 × 1021 atoms

K?
✓ Step 1: we want moles K
✓ Step 2: we have 1.25 × 1021 atoms K
✓ Step 3: 1 mole K = 6.02 × 1023 atoms K

1 mol K
1.25 × 1021 atoms K × = 2.08 × 10-3 mol K
6.02 × 1023 atoms K

16
 Mole Calculations

• How many atoms are in 0.551 g of potassium (K)?

✓ Step 1: 1 mol K = 39.10 g K

✓ Step 2: 1 mol K = 6.022 x 1023 atoms K

1 mol K 6.022 x 1023 atoms K

0.551 g K x x
39.10 g K 1 mol K

= 8.49 x 1021 atoms K

17
 Mole Calculations
How many O atoms are in 0.150 mole of aspirin,
C9H8O4?

18
 Solution

How many O atoms are in 0.150 mole of aspirin, C9H8O4?

STEP Given: 0.150 mole of aspirin
STEP 2 Write a plan:
Moles of aspirin moles of O atoms of O
1 mole of C9H8O4 = 4 moles of O
1 mole of O = 6.02 x 1023 atoms of O

19
 Solution (continued)

Set up problem to calculate atoms of O:

0.150 mole C9H8O4 x 4 moles O x 6.02 x 1023 O atoms

1 mole C9H8O4 1 mole O
subscript Avogadro’s
factor number

= 3.61 x 1023 O atoms

20
Molar Mass

21
 Molar Mass
The molar mass is
▪ the mass of one mole of a
substance
▪ the atomic mass of an
element expressed in
grams

22
 Molar Mass

• The atomic mass of any substance expressed in grams is

the molar mass (MM) of that substance.

• The atomic mass of iron is 55.85 amu.

• Therefore, the molar mass of iron is 55.85 g/mol.

• Since oxygen occurs naturally as a diatomic, O2, the

molar mass of oxygen gas is 2 times 16.00 g or 32.00
g/mol.

23
 Molar Mass

• Molar mass of sodium (Na):

= mass of 1.000 mol of Na atoms
= 22.99 g/mol
= mass of 6.022  1023 Na atoms

• Molar mass of lead (Pb):

= mass of 1.000 mol of Pb atoms
= 207.2 g/mol
= mass of 6.022  1023 Pb atoms

24
 Learning Check
Give the molar mass to the nearest 0.1 g.
A. K = ________

B. Sn = ________

25
 Solution
Give the molar mass to the nearest 0.1 g.
A. K = 39.1 g

B. Sn = 118.7 g

26
 Molar Mass of CaCl2
▪ For a compound, the molar mass is the sum of the molar
masses of the elements in the formula. We calculate the
molar mass of CaCl2 to the nearest 0.1 g as follows.

Element Number Atomic Mass Total Mass

of Moles
Ca 1 40.1 g/mole 40.1 g
Cl 2 35.5 g/mole 71.0 g
CaCl2 1 111.1 g

27
 Molar Mass of K3PO4
Determine the molar mass of K3PO4 to 0.1 g.

Element Number Atomic Mass Total Mass in

of Moles K3PO4

K 3 39.1 g/mole 117.3 g

P 1 31.0 g/mole 31.0 g
O 4 16.0 g/mole 64.0 g
K3PO4 1 212.3 g

28
 Learning Check

• Determine the molar mass of:

✓ Boron
✓ Calcium
✓ Flourine
✓ Nitrogen
✓ Zinc.

29
 Learning Check

• Determine the molar mass of:

✓ Boron = 10.81 g/mol
✓ Calcium = 40.08 g/mol
✓ Flourine = 2(18.998) = 37.996 g/mol
✓ Nitrogen = 2(14.01) = 28.02 g/mol
✓ Zinc = 65.39 g/mol

30
 Calculating Molar Mass
• The molar mass of a substance / compound is the sum of
the molar masses of each element in the compound.

• Example:
✓ What is the molar mass of magnesium nitrate,
Mg(NO3)2?
✓ The sum of the atomic masses is:
= 24.31 + 2(14.01) + 6(16.00) amu
= 24.31 + 28.02 + 96 amu
= 148.33 amu
• The molar mass for Mg(NO3)2 is 148.33 g/mol.
31
 Learning Check

• Calculate the molar mass of:

✓ Hydrochloric acid, HCl

✓ Calcium carbonate, CaCO3

✓ Potassium permanganate, KMnO4

32
 Learning Check

• Calculate the molar mass of:

✓ Hydrochloric acid, HCl
= 1.01 + 35.45 = 36.46 g/mol

✓ Calciumcarbonate, CaCO3
= 40.08 + 12.01 + 3(16.00) = 100.09 g/mol

✓ Potassium permanganate, KMnO4

= 39.09 + 54.94 + 4(16.00) = 158.03 g/mol

33
 Learning Check
Calculate the molar mass for Al(OH)3 to the nearest
0.1g.

1) 44.0 g/mole
2) 75.0 g/mole
3) 78.0 g/mole

34
 Solution
STEP 1 Obtain the molar mass of each element.
Al 27.0 g/mole O 16.0 g/mole
H 1.0 g/mole
STEP 2 Multiply each by the subscript in the formula.
1 mole Al x 27.0 g Al = 27.0 g
1 mole Al
3 moles O x 16.0 g O = 48.0 g
1 mole O
3 moles H x 1.0 g H = 3.0 g
1 mole H
STEP 3 Total: 1 mole of Al(OH)3 = 78.0 g (3)

35
 Learning Check
Prozac, C17H18F3NO, is an antidepressant that inhibits the
uptake of serotonin by the brain. What is the molar mass of
Prozac?

1) 40.0 g/mole
2) 262 g/mole
3) 309 g/mole

36
 Solution
3) 309 g/mole

STEP 1 Obtain the molar mass of each element.

C 12.0 g/mole H 1.0 g/mole
F 19.0 g/mole N 14.0 g/mole O 16.0 g/mole

STEP 2 Multiply each by the subscript in the formula.

17 moles C x 12.0 g C = 204 g
1 mole C
18 moles H x 1.0 g H = 18 g
1 mole H

37
 Solution (continued)
STEP 2 (continued)
3 moles F x 19.0 g F = 57.0 g
1 mole F
1 mole N x 14.0 g N = 14.0 g
1 mole N

1 mole O x 16.0 g O = 16.0 g

1 mole O
STEP 3 Total: 1 mole of C17H18F3NO = 309 g

38
 Mole Calculations II

• Now we will use the molar mass of a compound to

convert between grams of a substance and moles or
particles of a substance.
6.02 × 1023 particles = 1 mol = molar mass
• If we want to convert particles to mass, we must first
convert particles to moles and than we can convert moles
to mass.

39
 Mass-Mole Calculations

• What is the mass of 1.33 moles of titanium, Ti?

✓ We want grams,
✓ we have 1.33 moles of titanium,
✓ Use the molar mass of Ti:
✓ 1 mol Ti = 47.88 g Ti

47.88 g Ti
1.33 mole Ti × = 63.7 g Ti
1 mole Ti

40
 Mass-Mole Calculations
• What is the mass of 2.55 × 1023 atoms of lead?
✓ We want grams,
✓ we have atoms of lead,
✓ Use Avogadro’s number,
✓ and the molar mass of Pb

1 mol Pb 207.2 g Pb
2.55 × 1023 atoms Pb × ×
23
6.02×10 atoms Pb 1 mole Pb

= 87.8 g Pb
41
 Mass-Mole Calculations
• How many O2 molecules are present in 0.470 g of oxygen
gas?
✓ We want molecules O2,
✓ we have grams O2,
✓ Use Avogadro’s number,
✓ and the molar mass of O2
1 mol O2 6.02×1023 molecules O2
0.470 g O2 × ×
32.00 g O2 1 mole O2

8.84 × 1021 molecules O2

42
 Calculating Grams from Moles
Aluminum is often used for the structure of lightweight
bicycle frames. How many grams of Al are in 3.00 moles
of Al?

3.00 moles Al x 27.0 g Al = 81.0 g of Al

1 mole Al
mole factor for Al

43
 Learning Check
The artificial sweetener aspartame (NutraSweet), C14H18N2O5 ,
is used to sweeten diet foods, coffee, and soft drinks. How
many moles of aspartame are present in 225 g of aspartame?

44
 Solution
STEP 1 Given: 225 g of aspartame, C14H18N2O5
STEP 2 Plan: g of aspartame moles of aspartame
STEP 3 Determine molar mass of aspartame:
14(12.0) + 18(1.0) + 2(14.0) + 5(16.0)
= 294 g/mole
STEP 4 Set up problem to calculate the moles of aspartame:
225 g aspartame x 1 mole aspartame
294 g aspartame
mole factor (inverted)
= 0.765 mole of aspartame

45
 Formula Weight

• A formula weight (FW) is the sum of the atomic weights

for the atoms in a chemical formula.

• So, the formula weight of calcium chloride, CaCl2, would

be:
Ca: 1(40.08 amu)
+ Cl: 2(35.453 amu)
110.99 amu

• Formula weights are generally reported for ionic

compounds.

46
 Molecular Weight

• A molecular weight (MW) is the sum of the atomic

weights of the atoms in a molecule.

• For the molecule ethane, C2H6, the molecular weight

would be:

C: 2(12.011 amu)
+ H: 6(1.00794 amu)
30.070 amu

47
 Learning Check

• Calculate the formula weight of:

✓ (a) sucrose, C12H22O11 (table sugar);
✓ (b) calcium nitrate, Ca(NO3)2.

48
 Learning Check

• Calculate the formula weight of:

✓ (a) sucrose, C12H22O11 (table sugar);
✓ (b) calcium nitrate, Ca(NO3)2.

• Answers
✓ Sucrose:
o FW = 12 X C amu + 22 X H amu + 11 X O amu
o FW = 12(12.01) + 22(1.008) + 11(16.00) amu
o FW = 144.12 + 22.176 + 176 amu
o FW = 342.296 amu

49
 Learning Check

• Calculate the formula weight of:

✓ (a) sucrose, C12H22O11 (table sugar);
✓ (b) calcium nitrate, Ca(NO3)2.

• Answers
✓ Calcium nitrate:
o FW = 1 X Ca amu + 2 X N amu + 6 X O amu
o FW = 1(40.08) + 2(14.01) + 6(16.00) amu
o FW = 40.08 + 28.02 + 96 amu
o FW = 164.1 amu

50
 Learning Check

• Calculate the formula weight of:

✓ (a) Al(OH)3 and;
✓ (b) CH3OH.

51
 Learning Check

• Calculate the formula weight of:

✓ (a) Al(OH)3 and;
✓ (b) CH3OH.

• Answers
✓ Aluminium hydroxide, Al(OH)3:
o FW = 1 X Al amu + 3 X H amu + 3 X O amu
o FW = 1(26.98) + 3(1.008) + 3(16.00) amu
o FW = 26.98 + 3.024 + 48 amu
o FW = 78.004 amu

52
 Learning Check

• Calculate the formula weight of:

✓ (a) Al(OH)3 and;
✓ (b) CH3OH.

• Answers
✓ Methanol, CH3OH:
o FW = 1 X C amu + 4 X H amu + 1 X O amu
o FW = 1(12.01) + 4(1.008) + 1(16.00) amu
o FW = 12.01 + 4.032 + 16 amu
o FW = 32.042 amu

53
Chemical Formula

54
 Chemical Formula

• A particle composed of two or more nonmetal atoms is a

molecule.

• A chemical formula expresses

the number and types of atoms in
a molecule.
• The chemical formula of sulfuric acid
is H2SO4.

55
 Writing Chemical Formulas

• The number of each type of atom in a molecule is

indicated with a subscript in a chemical formula.
• If there is only one atom of a certain type, no ‘1’ is used.
• A molecule of the vitamin, niacin:
✓ has 6 carbon atoms,
✓ 6 hydrogen atoms,
✓ 2 nitrogen atoms,
✓ and 1 oxygen atom.
✓ The chemical formula, would this be:
C6H6N2O
56
 Interpreting Chemical Formulas

• Some chemical formulas use parenthesis to clarify atomic

composition.
• Antifreeze has chemical formula C2H4(OH)2.
• There are 2 carbon atoms, 4 hydrogen atoms, and 2 OH
units, giving a total of 6 hydrogen atoms and 2 oxygen
atoms.
• Antifreeze has a total of 10 atoms.

57
 Interpreting Chemical Formulas

• The formula for lactic acid, an ingredient of sour milk, is

C3H6O3.
✓ It contains:
✓ 3 C-atoms; 6 H-atoms; 3 O-atoms.

• The formula for fructose, a sugar, is C6H12O6.

✓ It contains:
✓ 6 C-atoms; 12 H-atoms; 6 O-atoms.

• C14H10O4, is the formula for benzoyl peroxide.

✓ It contains:
✓ 14 C-atoms; 10 H-atoms; 4 O-atoms.

58
 Interpreting Chemical Formulas

• Dimethylglyoxime, used a metal ion

chelating agent, has the following
chemical structure.
• The formula will be:
✓ C4H8O2N2

• C8H10N2O2, is the structure for caffeine.

✓ It contains:
✓ 8 C-atoms; 10 H-atoms; 2 N-atoms; 2 O-atoms.
• C10H20O, is the structure for menthol.
✓ It contains:
✓ 10 C-atoms; 20 H-atoms; 1 O-atom.

59
Percent Composition

60
 Percent Composition

• One can find the percentage of the mass of a compound

that comes from each of the elements in the compound
by using this equation:

(number of atoms)(atomic mass)

% Element = x 100
(FW of the compound)

• The percent composition of a compound will lists the

mass percent of each element in that compound.

61
 Percent Composition

• There are a few steps to calculating the percent

composition of a compound.
• Example: H2O
✓ Assume you have 1 mole of the compound.
✓ One mol of H2O contains 2 mol of hydrogen and 1 mol
of oxygen.
✓ 2(1.01 g H) + 1(16.00 g O) = molar mass H2O
✓ 2.02 + 16.00 amu = 18.02 amu H2O

62
 Percent Composition

• Next, find the percent composition of water by comparing

the masses of hydrogen and oxygen in water to the molar
mass of water:

2.02 amu H
× 100% = 11.2% H
18.02 amu H2O

16.00 amu O
× 100% = 88.79% O
18.02 amu H2O

63
 Percent Composition

• Calculate the percentage of composition of ethane, C2H6.

• FW (C2H6) = 2(12.01) + 6(1.008) amu = 30.070 amu

%C = (2)(12.011 amu)x 100 = 79.887%

(30.070 amu)
(6)(1.008 amu) x 100 = 20.113%
%H =
(30.070 amu)

64
 Percent Composition

• Calculate the percentage of carbon, hydrogen, and

oxygen (by mass) in C12H22O11.
• FW (C12H22O11) = 12(12.01) + 22(1.008) + 11(16.00) = 342.0 amu

65
 Learning Check

• The formula for lactic acid, an ingredient of sour milk, is

C3H6O3.

✓ Calculate the percentage composition of lactic acid.

✓ Calculate the number of grams of carbon in 25 mg of

lactic acid.

66
 Learning Check

• Lactic acid, chemical formula is C3H6O3.

• FW (C3H6O3) = 3(12.01) + 6(1.008) + 3(16.00) = 90.078 amu

%C = (3)(12.01 amu) x 100 = 39.999%

(90.078 amu)
(6)(1.008 amu) x 100 = 6.714%
%H =
(90.078 amu)
(3)(16.00 amu) x 100 = 53.287%
%O =
(90.078 amu)

67
 Learning Check

• Lactic acid, chemical formula is C3H6O3.

• Calculate the number of grams of carbon in 25 mg of
lactic acid.

✓ 25 mg = 0.025 g of lactic acid

✓ %C = 39.999% = 40%

✓ 40% C of 0.025 g = 0.4 x 0.025 g

✓ = 0.01 g

68
 Learning Check

• Calculate the percentage composition of aspirin, C9H8O4.

• Determine the mass (in grams) of carbon in a pain tablet
that contains 320 mg of aspirin.
• Now determine the actual number of carbon atoms in a
tablet containing 320 mg of aspirin.
• [Assume the tablet contains no other carbon compounds.]

69
 Learning Check

• Aspirin, chemical formula is C9H8O4.

• FW (C9H8O4) = 9(12.01) + 8(1.008) + 4(16.00) = 180.154 amu

%C = (9)(12.01 amu) x 100 = 59.99%

(180.154 amu)
(8)(1.008 amu) x 100 = 4.48%
%H =
(180.154 amu)
(4)(16.00 amu) x 100 = 35.53%
%O =
(180.154 amu)

70
 Learning Check

• Mass (in grams) of carbon in a pain tablet that contains

320 mg of aspirin

✓ 320 mg = 0.320 g of aspirin

✓ %C = 59.99% = 60%

✓ 60% C of 0.320 g = 0.6 x 0.320 g

✓ = 0.192 g

• Determine the actual number of carbon atoms in a tablet

containing 320 mg of aspirin.

71
 Learning Check

• Determine the actual number of carbon atoms in a tablet

containing 320 mg of aspirin.

✓ Mass of C = 0.192 g
✓ Determine the number of moles m
✓ Use the equation: n= =
mass
MM molar mass

mass 0.192 g
✓ n = molar mass = 12 g/mol
= 0.016 mol

✓ no. of C atoms = no. of moles x NA

= 0.016  6  1023 atoms
= 9.6  1021 carbon atoms
72
 Learning Check

• Calculate the amount (moles) represented by each of

the following:
(a) 127.08 g of Cu
(b) 5.0 mg of sodium
(c) 0.012 g of lithium
(d) 6.75 g of Al

73
 Learning Check

• Calculate the amount (moles) represented by each of

the following:
(a) 127.08 g of Cu
✓ n = m/MM = 127.08 g/63.55 g/mol = 1.99 mol

(b) 5.0 mg of sodium

✓ n = m/MM = 0.005 g/22.99 g/mol = 2.17 x 10-4 mol

(c) 0.012 g of lithium

✓ n = m/MM = 0.012 g/6.94 g/mol = 1.73 x 10-3 mol

(d) 6.75 g of Al
✓ n = m/MM = 6.75 g/26.98 g/mol = 0.25 mol
74
Empirical Formula

75
 Empirical Formula

• The empirical formula of a compound is the simplest

whole number ratio of ions in a formula unit or atoms of
each element in a molecule.

• The molecular formula of benzene is C6H6

✓ The empirical formula of benzene is CH.

• The molecular formula of octane is C8H18

✓ The empirical formula of octane is C4H9.

76
 Calculating Empirical Formulas

• We can calculate the empirical formula of a compound

from its composition data.

• Steps:
✓ Begin by assuming you have 100 g of the substance & calculate
the mass (g) of each element.
✓ Convert the mass (g) to moles. Using atomic mass.
✓ Calculate mole ratios: divide all by the smallest number of
moles.
✓ Convert to formula ratios.
✓ You may need to multiply by small whole numbers to get
to whole number ratios.

77
 Calculating Empirical Formulas
Example:
A pure hydrocarbon (consisting mainly of C & H) is 85.7% C. Calculate
the empirical formula of the compound.

• %C = 85.7%;
• %H = 100 – 85.7% = 14.3%
• Assume 100.00 g of compound, then % becomes the mass in g.

C: 85.7 g x 1 mol = 7.14 mol C

12.01 g
H: 14.3 g x 1 mol = 14.19 mol H
1.008 g

• Divide the moles by the smallest number obtained = 7.14

Thus; C = 7.14/7.14 mol = 1 mol
H = 14.19/7.14 mol = 1.98 mol = 2 mol
78
 Calculating Empirical Formulas

• Divide the moles by the smallest number obtained = 7.14

• Thus; C = 7.14/7.14 mol = 1 mol
• H = 14.19/7.14 mol = 1.98 mol = 2 mol

Empirical formula = C1H2 = CH2

Molecular formula:
• The actual molecular formula is some multiple of the
empirical formula, (CH)n.
• Find n to find the molecular formula.

79
 Calculating Empirical Formulas
• Benzene is 92.2% carbon and 7.83% hydrogen, what is
the empirical formula.
• Benzene has a molar mass of 78 g/mol. Find n to find the
molecular formula.

• %C = 92.2%;
• %H = 7.83%
• Assume 100.00 g of compound, then % becomes the mass in g.
1 mol
C: 92.2 g x = 7.68 mol C
12.01 g
H: 7.83 g x 1 mol = 7.77 mol H
1.008 g
• Divide the moles by the smallest number obtained = 7.68
• Thus; C = 7.68/7.68 mol = 1 mol
• H = 7.77/7.68 mol = 1.01 mol  1 mol
80
 Calculating Empirical Formulas

• The empirical formula for benzene is CH. This represents

the ratio of C to H atoms of benzene.
• The actual molecular formula is some multiple of the
empirical formula, (CH)n.
• Benzene has a molar mass of 78 g/mol. Find n to find the
molecular formula.

(CH)n 78 g/mol
=
CH 13 g/mol
n = 6 and the molecular
formula is C6H6.
81
 Learning Check
The percentage composition of fructose is 40.00% C,
6.72% H and 53.28% O. Calculate the empirical formula for
fructose.
• Assume 100 g of sample; The each % becomes the mass

1 mol
C: 40.0 g x = 3.33 mol C
12.01 g
H: 6.72 g x 1 mol = 6.67 mol H
1.008 g
O: 53.28 g x 1 mol = 3.33 mol H
16.00 g
• Ratio = C:H:O = 3.33 : 6.67 : 3.33; divide by smallest number = 3.33
• Ratio = C:H:O = 1:2:1

• Therefore, the empirical formula = CH2O

82
 Learning Check
• The percentage composition of fructose is 40.00% C,
6.72% H and 53.28% O.
✓ Calculate the empirical formula for fructose.
✓ The experimental molar mass of fructose is 180.2 g.
Calculate the molecular formula of fructose.

✓ The empirical formula = CH2O

✓ FW (CH2O) = 12.01 + 2(1.008) + 16.00 amu = 30.026 amu

(CHO)n 180.2 g
= =6
CH2O 30.026 g
✓ Therefore, the molecular formula = C6H12O6

83
Chemical Equations

84
 Chemical Equations

Chemical equations are concise

representations of chemical reactions.

85
 What Is in a Chemical Equation?
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)

Reactants appear on the Products appear on the right

left side of the equation. side of the equation.

86
 What Is in a Chemical Equation?

CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)

The states of the reactants and products are written in

parentheses to the right of each compound.
Phase labels: Other labels:
(g) = gas;  = heat;
(l) = liquid; hv = light energy is required
(s) = solid;
(aq) = in aqueous solution

87
 Chemical Equations

• Balancing of chemical equations

✓ Hydrogen + oxygen → water
✓ H2 + O2 → H2O

• Reactants on left → products

• Balanced equation is required:

✓ No of moles, left → no of moles, right

✓ 2 H2 + O2 → 2 H2O

88
 Balancing chemical Equations

• SF4 + H2O → SO2 + HF

• NH3 + O2 → NO + H2O
• BF3 + H2O → HF + H3BO3

• AgNO3 + KI → AgI + KNO3

• Ba(OH)2 + HNO3 → Ba(NO3)2 + H2O
• Na3PO4 + Ni(NO3)2 → Ni3(PO4)2 + NaNO3

89
 Balancing chemical Equations

• SF4 + H2O → SO2 + HF

✓ SF4 + 2 H2O → SO2 + 4 HF
• NH3 + O2 → NO + H2O
✓ 4 NH3 + 5 O2 → 4 NO + 6 H2O
• BF3 + H2O → HF + H3BO3
✓ BF3 + 3 H2O → 3 HF + H3BO3

• AgNO3 + KI → AgI + KNO3

✓ AgNO3 + KI → AgI + KNO3
• Ba(OH)2 + HNO3 → Ba(NO3)2 + H2O
✓ Ba(OH)2 + 2 HNO3 → Ba(NO3)2 + 2 H2O
• Na3PO4 + Ni(NO3)2 → Ni3(PO4)2 + NaNO3
✓ 2 Na3PO4 + 3 Ni(NO3)2 → Ni3(PO4)2 + 6 NaNO3
90
 Balancing chemical Equations

• Complete and balance the following equations:

✓ NiCO3 + H2SO4 →
✓ Co(OH)2 + HBr →
✓ AgCH3CO2 + NaCl →
✓ NiO + CO →

✓ NiCO3 + H2SO4 → NiSO4 + CO2 + H2O

✓ Co(OH)2 + 2 HBr → CoBr2 + 2 H2O
✓ AgCH3CO2 + NaCl → NaCH3CO2 + AgCl
✓ NiO + CO → Ni + CO2

91
 Learning Check

Check the balance of atoms in the following:

Fe3O4(s) + 4H2(g) 3Fe(s) + 4H2O(l)
A. number of H atoms in products
1) 2 2) 4 3) 8
B. number of O atoms in reactants
1) 2 2) 4 3) 8
C. number of Fe atoms in reactants
1) 1 2) 3 3) 4

92
 Solution

Fe3O4(s) + 4H2(g) 3Fe(s) + 4H2O(l)

A. number of H atoms in products
3) 8 (4H2O)
B. number of O atoms in reactants
2) 4 (Fe3O4)
C. number of Fe atoms in reactants
2) 3 (Fe3O4)

93
 Learning Check

Balance each equation and list the coefficients in the

balanced equation going from reactants to products.

A. __Mg(s) + __N2(g) __Mg3N2(s)

1) 1, 3, 2 2) 3, 1, 2 3) 3, 1, 1

B. __Al(s) + __Cl2(g) __AlCl3(s)

1) 3, 3, 2 2) 1, 3, 1 3) 2, 3, 2

94
 Solution

Balance each equation and list the coefficients in the

balanced equation going from reactants to products.
A. 3) 3, 1, 1
3Mg(s) + 1N2(g) 1Mg3N2(s)

B. 3) 2, 3, 2
2Al(s) + 3Cl2(g) 2AlCl3(s)

95
Equations with Polyatomic Ions

96
 Balancing with Polyatomic Ions
STEP 1 Write the equation with the correct formulas.
Na3PO4(aq) + MgCl2(aq) NaCl(aq) + Mg3(PO4)2(s)

STEP 2 Determine if the equation is balanced.

No, not all atoms are balanced.
3Na+ 1Na+
1PO43− 2PO43 −
1Mg2+ 3Mg2+
2Cl− 1Cl−

STEP 3 Balance with coefficients in front of formulas.

Balance PO43− as a unit.
2Na3PO4(aq) Mg3(PO4)2(s)
97
Balancing with Polyatomic Ions (continued)

STEP 3 (continued)
Balance Mg
3MgCl2(aq) Mg3(PO4)2(s)
Balance Na and Cl
3MgCl2(aq) + 2Na3PO4(aq) 6NaCl(aq) + Mg3(PO4)2(s)

STEP 4 Check that atoms of each element are equal in

reactants and products.
2PO43– = 2PO43–
3Mg2+ = 3Mg2+
6Na+ = 6Na+
6Cl− = 6Cl−
98
 Learning Check
Balance and list the coefficients from reactants to products:
A. __Fe2O3(s) + __C(s) __Fe(s) + __CO2(g)
1) 2, 3, 2,3 2) 2, 3, 4, 3 3) 1, 1, 2, 3

B. __Al(s) + __FeO(s) __Fe(s) + __Al2O3(s)

1) 2, 3, 3, 1 2) 2, 1, 1, 1 3) 3, 3, 3, 1

C. __Al(s) + __H2SO4(aq) __Al2(SO4)3(aq) + __H2(g)

1) 3, 2, 1, 2 2) 2, 3, 1, 3 3) 2, 3, 2, 3

99
 Solution
A. 2) 2, 3, 4, 3
2Fe2O3(s) + 3C(s) 4Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)

B. 1) 2, 3, 3, 1
2Al(s) + 3FeO(s) 3Fe(s) + 1Al2O3(s)

C. 2) 2, 3, 1, 3
2Al(s) + 3H2SO4(aq) 1Al2(SO4)3(aq) + 3H2(g)

100
 Types of Chemical Reactions

• Combination
• Involves two substances that combine to form a third
compound.

• Examples:
✓ 2 Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2 NaCl(aq)
✓ 2Mg(s) + O2(g) ⎯⎯→ 2MgO(s)

101
 Types of Chemical Reactions

• Decomposition
• One compound reacts to give two or more substances
(heat usually required).

• Examples:
✓ 2 HgO(s) → 2 Hg(l) + O2(g)
✓ 2NaN3(s) ⎯⎯→ 2Na(s) + 3N2(g)
o Sodium azide is used
in air-bags of cars.

102
 Types of Chemical Reactions

• Displacement
• An element reacts with a compound, displacing another
element from it.

• Examples:
✓ Cu(s) + 2 AgNO3(aq) → 2 Ag(s) + Cu(NO3)2(aq)
✓ Zn(s) + 2 HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)

103
 Types of Chemical Reactions

• Metathesis
• Involves the exchange of parts of the reactants.

• Examples:
✓ 2 Kl(aq) + Pb(NO3)2 → 2 KNO3(aq) + PbI2(s)
✓ HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → H2O(l) + NaCl(aq)

104
 Types of Chemical Reactions

• Combustion
• Involves the oxidation of a substance with oxygen, usually
with a rapid release of heat to produce a flame.

• Examples:
✓ 4 Fe(s) + 3 O2(g) → 2 Fe2O3(s)
✓ 2 C4H10(g) + 13 O2(g) → 8 CO2(g) + 10 H2O(l)

105
 Learning Check
• Classify the following type of reactions:

• 2 C2H5SH(l) + 9 O2(g) → 4 CO2(g) + 6 H2O(g) + 2

SO2(g)
• 2 KBr(aq) + Cl2(g) → 2 KCl(aq) + Br2(g)
• CuCl2(aq) + Na2S(aq) → CuS(s) + 2 NaCl(aq)
• 2 Al(s) + 3 Br2(l) → Al2Br6(aq)
• 2 Cu(NO3)2(s) → 2 CuO(s) + 4 NO2(g) + O2(g)

106
 Learning Check
• Classify the following type of reactions:

• 2 C2H5SH(l) + 9 O2(g) → 4 CO2(g) + 6 H2O(g) + 2

SO2(g)
✓ Combustion
• 2 KBr(aq) + Cl2(g) → 2 KCl(aq) + Br2(g)
✓ Combination
• CuCl2(aq) + Na2S(aq) → CuS(s) + 2 NaCl(aq)
✓ Displacement
• 2 Al(s) + 3 Br2(l) → Al2Br6(aq)
✓ Combination
• 2 Cu(NO3)2(s) → 2 CuO(s) + 4 NO2(g) + O2(g)
✓ Decomposition
107
 Learning Check

• Complete and balance the following reaction equations:

✓ The formation of ammonia from hydrogen gas and nitrogen gas.

✓ PbS(s) + HNO3(aq) →
[Hint: metathesis, gas formation]

✓ Calcium metal reacts with hydrochloric acid solution to form

calcium chloride solution and hydrogen gas.

✓ How would you classify the above reaction?

✓ Give a reason for your answer.

108
 Learning Check

• Complete and balance the following reaction equations:

✓ The formation of ammonia from hydrogen gas and nitrogen gas.
3 N2(g) + H2(g) → 2 NH3(g)
✓ PbS(s) + HNO3(aq) →
PbS(s) + HNO3(aq) → PbSO4(s) + NO(g) + H2O (l)
✓ Calcium metal reacts with hydrochloric acid solution to form
calcium chloride solution and hydrogen gas.
Ca(s) + 2 HCl(aq) → CaCl2(s) + H2(g)
✓ How would you classify the above reaction?
Displacement
✓ Give a reason for your answer.
It is observed that an element reacts with a compound,
displacing another element from it.

109
Mole Relationships in Chemical
Equations

110
 Law of Conservation of Mass
The Law of Conservation of Mass indicates
that in an ordinary chemical reaction,
▪ matter cannot be created or destroyed
▪ no change in total mass occurs in a reaction
▪ mass of products is equal to mass of
reactants

111
 Conservation of Mass

Reactants Products
2 moles of Ag + 1 mole of S = 1 mole Ag2S
2 (107.9 g) + 1(32.1 g) = 1 (247.9 g)
247.9 = 247.9 g
112
 Reading Equations with Moles
Consider the following equation:
4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) 2Fe2O3(s)

An equation can be read in “moles” by placing the

words “moles of” between each coefficient and
formula.

4 moles of Fe + 3 moles of O2 2 moles of Fe2O3

113
 Learning Check
How many moles of Fe are needed for the
reaction of 12.0 moles of O2?

4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) 2Fe2O3(s)

1) 3.00 moles of Fe
2) 9.00 moles of Fe
3) 16.0 moles of Fe
114
 Solution

3) 16.0 moles of Fe
STEP 1 Given: 12 moles of O2
4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) 2Fe2O3(s)
Need: moles of Fe
STEP 2 Plan: moles of O2 moles of Fe

STEP 3 Write mole–mole factors from coefficients:

4 moles of Fe = 3 moles of O2

115
 Solution (continued)
STEP 4 Set up problem to cancel moles of O2:

12.0 moles O2 x 4 moles Fe = 16.0 moles of Fe

3 moles O2

116
Mass Calculations for Reactions

117
Guide to Calculating the Masses of
Reactants and Products

118
Example of Converting Moles to Grams

Suppose we want to determine the mass (g) of NH3

that can form from 2.50 moles of N2.
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)

STEP 1 Given: 2.50 moles of N2

Need: mass (g) of NH3

STEP 2 Plan:
moles of N2 moles of NH3 grams of NH3

119
 Moles to Grams
STEP 3 Write conversions factors:
1 mole of N2 = 2 moles of NH3

1 mole of NH3 = 17.0 g of NH3

STEP 4 Setup to calculate g of NH3:

2.50 moles N2 x 2 moles NH3 x 17.0 g NH3
1 mole N2 1 mole NH3
= 85.0 g of NH3
120
 Learning Check
How many grams of O2 are needed to produce
0.400 mole of Fe2O3 in the following reaction?

4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) 2Fe2O3(s)

1) 38.4 g of O2
2) 19.2 g of O2
3) 1.90 g of O2
121
 Solution
2) 19.2 g of O2
STEP 1 Given: 0.400 moles of Fe2O3
Need: mass (g) of O2
STEP 2 Write a plan to calculate grams of O2:
moles of Fe2O3 moles of O2 grams of O2

STEP 3 Write conversion factors:

3 moles of O2 = 2 moles of Fe2O3

122
 Solution (continued)

STEP 3 (continued)
1 mole of O2 = 32.0 g of O2
1 mole O2 and 32.0 g O2
32.0 g O2 1 mole O2

STEP 4 The setup to calculate g of O2 is

0.400 mole Fe2O3 x 3 moles O2 x 32.0 g O2 = 19.2 g of O2
2 moles Fe2O3 1 mole O2
mole-mole factor molar mass

123
 Learning Check
Acetylene gas, C2H2, burns in the oxyacetylene
torch for welding. How many grams of C2H2 are
burned if the reaction produces 75.0 g of CO2?

2C2H2(g) + 5O2(g) 4CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)

1) 88.6 g of C2H2
2) 44.3 g of C2H2
3) 22.2 g of C2H2

124
 Solution
3) 22.2 g of C2H2
STEP 1 Given: 75.0 g of CO2
Need: mass (g) of C2H2

STEP 2 Write a plan to calculate grams of C2H2:

g of CO2 moles of moles of g of C2H2
CO2 C2H2
STEP 3 Write conversion factors:
1 mole of CO2 = 44.0 g of CO2

125
 Solution (continued)
STEP 3 Write conversion factors (continued):
4 moles of CO2 = 2 moles of C2H2

1 mole of C2H2 = 26.0 g of C2H2

STEP 4 Setup to calculate g of O2:

75.0 g CO2 x 1 mole CO2 x 2 moles C2H2 x 26.0 g C2H2
44.0 g CO2 4 moles CO2 1 mole C2H2
= 22.2 g C2H2 (3)
126
 Learning Check
How many grams H2O are produced when 35.8 g
of C3H8 react by the following equation?

C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(g)

1. 14.6 g of H2O
2. 58.4 g of H2O
3. 117 g of H2O

127
 Solution
2) 58.4 g H2O
STEP 1 Given: 38.5 g of C3H8
Need: mass (g) of H2O
STEP 2 Write a plan to calculate grams of H2 O:
g of C3H8 moles of moles of g of H2O
C3H8 H2O

STEP 3 Write conversion factors:

1 mole of C3H8 = 4 moles of H2O

128
 Solution (continued)
STEP 3 Write conversion factors (continued):
1 mole of C3H8 = 44.1 g of C3H8

1 mole of C2H2 = 26.0 g of C2H2

STEP 4 Setup to calculate g of H2O:

35.8 g C3H8 x 1 mole C3H8 x 4 moles H2O x 18.0 g H2O
44.1 g C3H8 1 mole C3H8 1 mole H2O
= 58.4 g of H2O (2)

129
Percent Yield and Limiting Reactants

130
 Theoretical, Actual, and Percent Yield
Theoretical yield:
▪ the maximum amount of product, which is calculated
using the balanced equation.
Actual yield:
▪ the amount of product obtained when the reaction
takes place
Percent yield:
▪ the ratio of actual yield to theoretical yield
Percent yield = actual yield (g) x 100
theoretical yield (g)

131
Guide to Calculations for
Percent Yield

132
 Calculating Percent Yield

Suppose you have prepared cookie dough to make 5

dozen cookies. The phone rings and you answer. While
you talk, a sheet of 12 cookies burns, and you have to
throw them out. The rest of the cookies you make are
okay. What is the percent yield of edible cookies?

Theoretical yield: 60 cookies possible

Actual yield: 48 cookies to eat
Percent yield: 48 cookies x 100% = 80.% yield
60 cookies

133
 Learning Check

With a limited amount of oxygen, the reaction

of carbon and oxygen produces carbon
monoxide.
2C(g) + O2(g) 2CO(g)

What is the percent yield if 40.0 g of CO are

produced when 30.0 g of O2 are used?
1) 25.0%
2) 75.0%
3) 76.2%

134
 Solution

3) 76.2% yield
STEP 1 Given: 40.0 g of CO produced (actual)
30.0 g of O2 used
Need: percent yield of CO
STEP 2 Write a plan to calculate % yield of CO:
g of O2 moles of moles of g of CO
O2 CO (theoretical)

Percent yield of CO = g of CO (actual) x 100%

g of CO (theoretical)

135
 Solution (continued)
STEP 3 Write conversion factors:
1 mole of O2 = 32.0 g of O2
1 mole O2 and 32.0 g O2
32.0 g O2 1 mole O2

1 mole of O2 = 2 moles of CO
1 mole O2 and 2 moles CO
2 moles CO 1 mole O2

1 mole of CO = 28.0 g of CO
1 mole CO and 28.0 g CO
28.0 g CO 1 mole CO

136
 Solution (continued)

STEP 4 Setup to calculate theoretical yield in g of O2:

30.0 g O2 x 1 mole O2 x 2 moles CO x 28.0 g CO

32.0 g O2 1 mole O2 1 mole CO
= 52.5 g of CO (theoretical)

Setup to calculate percent yield:

40.0 g CO (actual) x 100 = 76.2% yield (3)
52.5 g CO (theoretical)

137
 Learning Check

When N2 and 5.00 g of H2 are mixed, the reaction

produces 16.0 g of NH3. What is the percent
yield for the reaction?

N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)

1) 31.3% of NH3
2) 56.9% of NH3
3) 80.0% of NH3

138
 Solution

2) 56.9%
STEP 1 Given: 16.0 g of NH3 produced (actual)
5.00 g of H2 used
Need: percent yield of NH3
STEP 2 Write a plan to calculate % yield of NH3:
g of H2 moles of moles of g of NH3
H2 NH3 (theoretical)

Percent yield of NH3 = g of NH3 (actual) x 100%

g of NH3 (theoretical)

139
 Solution (continued)

STEP 3 Write conversion factors:

1 mole of H2 = 2.02 g of H2
1 mole H2 and 2.02 g H2
2.02 g H2 1 mole H2

1 mole of H2 = 2 moles of NH3

1 mole H2 and 2 moles NH3
2 moles NH3 1 mole H2
1 mole of NH3 = 17.0 g of NH3
1 mole NH3 and 17.0 g NH3
17.0 g NH3 1 mole NH3
140
 Solution (continued)
STEP 4 Setup to calculate theoretical yield of g of NH3:

5.00 g H2 x 1 mole H2 x 2 moles NH3 x 17.0 g NH3

2.02 g H2 3 moles H2 1 mole NH3
= 28.1 g of NH3 (theoretical)

Setup to calculate percent yield:

Percent yield = 16.0 g NH3 x 100 = 56.9% yield (2)
28.1 g NH3

141
 Limiting Reactant

A limiting reactant in a chemical reaction is the

substance that

▪ is used up

▪ limits the amount of product that can form and stops

the reaction

142
 Reacting Amounts

In a table setting, there is 1plate,

1 fork, 1 knife, and 1 spoon.

How many table settings are

possible from 5 plates, 6 forks,
4 spoons, and 7 knives?

What is the limiting item?

143
 Reacting Amounts (continued)

Only 4 place settings are possible.

Initially Used Left over

Plates 5 4 1
Forks 6 4 2
Spoons 4 4 0
Knives 7 4 3

The limiting item is the spoon.

144
Example 1 of an Everyday Limiting Reactant

How many peanut butter sandwiches could be made

from 8 slices of bread and 1 jar of peanut butter?
With 8 slices of bread, only 4 sandwiches could be
made.
The bread is the limiting item.

145
 Example 2 of an Everyday Limiting Reactant

How many peanut butter sandwiches could be made

from 8 slices bread and 1 tablespoon of peanut butter?

With 1 tablespoon of peanut butter, only 1 sandwich

could be made. The peanut butter is the limiting item.

146
 Limiting Reagent in chemical reaction

• When reactants react, it does not mean that all of it will

react exactly with one another.
• Consider the reaction below:
✓ 3 Br2 (l) + 2 Al (s) → 1 Al2Br6 (s)

147
 Limiting Reagent
• In some cases, one of the reactants is usually used up
before the one.
• This means that there is a limiting reagent involved.

• The limiting reagent in a chemical reaction is the first

reagent that will be entirely consumed (used up) in the
reaction.

148
 Limiting Reagent
• How to determine the limiting reagent.

1. Balance the reaction.

2. Convert reactant masses to moles [g ÷(g/mol)-1= mol]
3. Normalize the moles of each reactant by its
stoichiometric coefficient.
4. Find the smallest normalized number of moles
5. Use the ratio of stoichiometric coefficients to find the
moles of product.
6. Convert to mass (if necessary).

149
 Limiting Reagent

• Example 1:

• A mixture of 10.0 g of iron and 10.0 g of sulphur is heated

to form iron(III)sulphide.
✓ Determine the limiting reagent.
✓ What mass of the sulphide is formed?

150
 Limiting Reagent
Example 1:

Equation: 2 Fe + 3 S → Fe2S3
2 mol Fe, reacts with 3 mol S OR
2(56) g = 112 g of Fe, reacts with 3(32) = 96 g of S

Moles of Fe = 10.00 g X ( 1 mol Fe / 56 g Fe) = 0.179 mol Fe

Moles of S = 10.00 g X (1 mol S / 32 g S) = 0.313 mol S

If we normalise the moles:

Moles of Fe / 2 = 0.179 / 2 mol Fe = 0.089 mol Fe

Moles of S / 3 = 0.313 / 3 mol S = 0.104 mol S

Thus, the limiting reagent is Fe

MW (Fe2S3) = 112 + 96 g = 208 g/mol
Fe2S3: m = n X MM = 0.089 mol X 208 g/mol = 18.5 g of Fe2S3

151
 Limiting Reagent
• Example 2:
• Suppose that 1.00 g of sodium and 1.00 g of chlorine react to form
sodium chloride (NaCl). Which of these is limiting.
• Equation: 2 Na + Cl2 → 2 NaCl
• Moles of Na: nNa = 1.00 g × (1 mol Na / 23.0 g Na) = 0.0435 mol Na
• Moles of Cl: nCl2 = 1.00 g × (1 mol / 70.9 g Cl2) = 0.0141 mol Cl2
• If we normalise the no. of moles:

✓ nNa / 2 = 0.022 (normalized) nCl2 / 1 = 0.0141 (normalized)

• Cl2 is the limiting reagent

152
153
 Hydrated Compounds
• If ionic compounds are prepared in water solution and then isolated
as solids, the crystals often have molecules of water trapped in the
lattice.
• Compounds in which molecules of water are associated with the ions
of the compound are called hydrated compounds.

K2Cr2O7 CoCl2.6H2O
NiCl2.6H2O

CuSO4.5H2O NaCl

154
 Hydrated Compounds
• Example:
• In the laboratory, you weigh out 1.023 g of hydrated
copper(II)sulphate, CuSO4 . xH2O (blue). After heating in
a porcelain crucible you are left with 0.654 g of anhydrous
copper(II)sulphate, CuSO4 (white). What is the value of x
in CuSO4 . xH2O ?

155
 Hydrated Compounds

• Write out an equation to describe the reaction and assign values to

known quantities and identify unknown quantities.
✓ CuSO4 . xH2O + heat → CuSO4 + xH2O
✓ 1.023 g → 0.654 g + x g

• Find out the mass of water removed by heating.

✓ (mass of hydrated compound) - (mass of anhydrous compound)
✓ = mass of water
✓ (1.023 g - 0.654 g) = 0.369 g H2O

• You want to know how many moles of H2O is associated with each
mole of CuSO4; the ratio!
• Simply convert the masses you have to moles!

156
 Hydrated Compounds
 1 mol H 2 O 
0.369 g H 2 O   = 2.05 x 10-2 mol H2O
 18.05 g H 2 O 
 1 mol CuSO 4 
0.654 g H 2 O   = 4.10 x 10-3 mol CuSO4
 159.6 g CuSO 4 

• The ratio of moles of H2O to moles of CuSO4 is x.

 moles H 2 O   2.05 x 10-2 mol H 2 O 

   -3

 moles CuSO 4   4.10 x 10 mol CuSO 4 
 5.00 mol H 2 O 
  CuSO4 . 5H2O
 1 mol CuSO 4 
The formula for hydrated copper (II) sulfate is
157
158
 Ions in Aqueous Solution
• When ions dissolve in a solution, it can form an electrolyte or
non-electrolyte.

• Electrolyte: dissolves in water to give an electrically conducting

solution, e.g. NaCl.

• Non-Electrolyte: dissolves in water to give non-conducting or

very poorly conducting solutions, e.g. Sugar.

• Strong electrolyte: exists in solution almost entirely as ions.

• Weak electrolyte: dissolves in water to give an equilibrium

between a molecular substance and limited ions.

159
 Ions in Aqueous Solution

• Strong electrolyte:
✓ NaCl(aq) → Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) : dissociation
✓ HCl(aq) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq) : ionisation

• Weak electrolyte:
✓ NH3(aq) + H2O(l) → NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)

160
 Molecular and Ionic Equations

• Molecular form of a chemical reaction is:

✓ Ca(OH)2(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) → CaCO3(s) + 2 NaOH(aq)

• The above reaction can also be written in ionic form:

✓ Ca2+(aq) + 2 OH-(aq) + 2 Na+(aq) + CO32-(aq) →
✓ CaCO3(s) + 2 Na+ (aq) + 2 OH-(aq)

• Some ions don’t take part in the reaction:

✓ OH-(aq) and Na+(aq),
✓ Called spectator ions.

• Net ionic equation:

• Ca2+(aq) + CO32-(aq) → CaCO3(s)
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 Molecular and Ionic Equations

• Steps in writing a net ionic equation

✓ Write the balanced molecular equation.
✓ Predict products by exchanging cations and anions in
reactants.
✓ Separate strong electrolytes into ions.
✓ Cancel spectator ions.

• Use the remaining species to write the net ionic equation.

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 Molecular and Ionic Equations
Molecular equation:

Ionic equation:

• Net Ionic equation: shows only the reacting species in the

chemical equation
✓ Eliminates spectator ions

Net ionic equation:

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 Molecular and Ionic Equations

• Example:
• Aqueous solutions of silver nitrate and sodium sulphate
are mixed. Write the net ionic reaction.

• Step 1:
✓ 2AgNO3(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) → 2 NaNO3(?) + Ag2SO4(?)

• Step 2: decide which precipitate forms

✓ 2Ag+(aq) + 2NO3−(aq) + 2Na+(aq) + SO42−(aq)

→ 2Na+(aq) + 2NO3−(aq) + Ag2SO4(s)

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 Molecular and Ionic Equations

• Step 3: Cancel spectator ions

✓ 2Ag+(aq) + 2NO3−(aq) + 2Na+(aq) + SO42−(aq)

→ 2Na+(aq) + 2NO3−(aq) + Ag2SO4(s)

• Step 4: Write the net ionic reaction

2 Ag+(aq) + SO42−(aq) → Ag2SO4(s)

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 Learning Check

• Use the rule “all metal halide salts are soluble, except those of Ag
and Pb” to answer the following questions:
✓ Complete and balance the metathesis reaction (include the
phase labels):
MgCℓ2(aq) + AgNO3(aq) →

• Complete the ionic and net ionic equations to show how the
precipitate was formed in the reaction shown above.

• What collective name is given to those ions that do not appear in the
net ionic equation?

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 Learning Check
• Balanced reaction:
✓ MgCℓ2(aq) + 2 AgNO3(aq) → Mg(NO3)2(aq) + 2 AgCl(s)

• Complete the ionic reaction:

✓ Mg2+(aq) + 2 Cℓ-(aq) + 2 Ag+(aq) + 2 NO3-(aq) →
✓ Mg2+(aq) + 2 NO3-(aq) + 2 Ag+(aq) + 2 Cl-(aq)

• Net ionic reaction:

✓ 2 Ag+(aq) + 2 Cl-(aq) → 2 AgCl(s)

• Spectator ions

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 References

• http://davis.k12.ut.us
• http://faculty.sgsc.edu/
• http://chem_lecture_Richmond-Hall.edu
• http://www.Cabrillo.edu/
• http://www.teachnlearnchem.com
• Spies, A. (2015). ECP1 Lecture. [CPUT]
• Adonis, S. (2016). ECP1 Lecture. [CPUT]
• Kotz, J.C., Treichel, P.M. and Townsend, J.R. (2012).
Chemistry & Chemical Reactivity. 8th Edition.
Brookes/Cole, Cengage Learning. China.

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