Network Software

Network software encompasses a broad range of software used for design, implementation,
and operation and monitoring of computer networks. Traditional networks were hardware based
with software embedded. With the advent of Software – Defined Networking (SDN), software is
separated from the hardware thus making it more adaptable to the ever-changing nature of
the computer network.

Functions of Network Software

• Helps to set up and install computer networks
• Enables users to have access to network resources in a seamless manner
• Allows administrations to add or remove users from the network
• Helps to define locations of data storage and allows users to access that data
• Helps administrators and security system to protect the network from data breaches, unauthorized access and
attacks on a network
• Enables network virtualizations

What is Protocol?
A protocol is simply defined as a set of rules and regulations for data communication.
Rules are defined for every step and process at the time of communication among two
or more computers. Networks are needed to follow these protocols to transmit the data
successfully. All protocols might be implemented using hardware, software, or a
combination of both of them. There are three aspects of protocols given below :
• Syntax – It is used to explain the data format that is needed to be sent or received.
• Semantics – It is used to explain the exact meaning of each of the sections of bits
that are usually transferred.
• Timings – This is used to explain the exact time at which data is generally
transferred along with the speed at which it is transferred.
Protocol Hierarchies
Generally, Computer networks are comprised of or contain a large number of hardware
and software. For network design, various networks are organized and arranged as a
stack of layers of hardware and software, one on top of another. The number, name,
content, and function of each layer might vary and can be different from one network to
another. The main purpose of each layer is to provide services to higher layers that are
present. Every layer has some particular task or function. The networks are organized
and arranged as different layers or levels simply to reduce and minimize the
complexity of the design of network software.
 Protocol Hierarchy

Advantages of Protocol Hierarchy

• The layers generally reduce complexity of communication between networks
• It increases network lifetime.
• It also uses energy efficiently.
• It does not require overall knowledge and understanding of network.
Disadvantages of Protocol Hierarchy
• Protocol Hierarchy require a deep understanding of each layers of OSI model.
• Implementation of protocol hierarchy is very costly.
• Every layer in protocol hierarchy introduce overheading in terms of memory,
bandwidth and processing.
• Protocol Hierarchy is not scalable for complex networks.

Design Issues for the Layers

1. Reliability

Reliability is a cornerstone design issue in computer networks. Networks are composed of various
components, and some of these components may be inherently unreliable, leading to potential data
loss during transmission. Ensuring that data is transferred without distortion or corruption is
paramount. Robust error detection and correction mechanisms are essential for preserving data
integrity, especially in the face of unreliable communication channels.

2. Addressing

Addressing is a fundamental aspect of network layers. In a network, numerous processes run on

multiple machines, and each layer requires a mechanism to identify both senders and receivers
accurately. Effectively assigning and managing addresses helps facilitate efficient communication,
ensuring that data reaches its intended destination.
 Backward Skip 10sPlay VideoForward Skip 10s

3. Error Control

The inherent imperfections in physical communication circuits necessitate error control as a vital
design issue. To safeguard data integrity, error-detecting and error-correcting codes are employed.
However, it's imperative that both the sending and receiving ends reach a consensus on the specific
error detection and correction codes to be used, ensuring effective data packet protection.

4. Flow Control

Maintaining an equilibrium between data senders and receivers is essential to prevent data loss due to
speed mismatches. A fast sender transmitting data to a slower receiver necessitates the
implementation of a flow control mechanism. Several approaches are used, such as increasing buffer
sizes at receivers or slowing down the fast sender. Additionally, the network should handle
processes that cannot accommodate arbitrarily long messages by disassembling, transmitting, and
reassembling messages as required.

5. Multiplexing and De-multiplexing

Efficient data transmission on a network often involves transmitting data separately on the
transmission medium. Setting up separate connections for every pair of communicating processes is
neither practical nor cost-effective. To address this challenge, multiplexing is employed at the sender's
end, allowing data from multiple sources to be combined into a single transmission stream. De-
multiplexing is then performed at the receiver's end to separate and direct the data to the appropriate
recipients.

6. Scalability

As networks expand in size and complexity, new challenges inevitably arise. Scalability is crucial to
ensuring that networks can continue to function effectively as they grow. The network's design should
accommodate increasing sizes, reducing the risk of congestion and compatibility issues when new
technologies are introduced. Scalability is a cornerstone for ensuring the network's long-term viability.

7. Routing

Routing is a critical function within the network layer. When multiple paths exist between a source and
destination, the network must select the most optimal route for data transmission. Various routing
algorithms are utilized to make this determination, with the aim of minimizing cost and time, thereby
ensuring efficient and reliable data transfer.

8. Confidentiality and Integrity

The security of a network is critical. Confidentiality methods are critical for protecting against risks like
eavesdropping and preventing unauthorized parties from accessing sensitive data. Data integrity is
also crucial since it protects against tampering and unauthorized changes to messages during
transmission.
9. Service Quality (QoS):

QoS refers to a network's ability to deliver varying levels of service to different types of traffic. Video
streaming, VoIP, and data transmission all have varying bandwidth, latency, and reliability needs. It is a
difficult challenge to ensure that the network can prioritize and distribute resources effectively to
satisfy these objectives.

10. Network management:

Network management includes monitoring and maintaining the health and performance of different
network components such as routers, switches, and servers. Device configuration, fault detection,
performance analysis, and security monitoring all need network management tools and protocols.
Effective network administration is critical for detecting and resolving problems in real time,
optimizing resource utilization, and maintaining a positive user experience.

11. Load Balancing:

In scenarios where a network has multiple servers or paths to handle incoming traffic, load balancing
becomes critical. The challenge is to distribute network traffic evenly across these resources to prevent
overloads and optimize resource utilization. Load balancing can be achieved through hardware or
software solutions, and it may require advanced algorithms to make intelligent decisions based on
factors like server health and current traffic loads.

12. Network Topology Design:

The choice of network topology can significantly impact the network's performance, scalability, and
fault tolerance. Designing the right topology for a given scenario involves considering factors such as
cost, reliability, ease of expansion, and fault tolerance. For example, a star topology might be suitable
for a small office network, while a mesh or hybrid topology could be preferred for a large-scale data
center.

13. Energy Efficiency:

With increasing concerns about energy consumption and its environmental impact, designing energy-
efficient networks is essential. This includes using energy-efficient hardware, optimizing network
protocols, and implementing strategies for turning off or reducing power to unused network
components during periods of low demand. Energy-efficient network design helps reduce operational
costs and minimizes the carbon footprint.

14. Interoperability:

It is a huge task to ensure that these components can function together seamlessly. Adherence to
industry standards and protocols, as well as testing and certification processes, are used to achieve
interoperability. It's crucial to ensure that data can flow smoothly between diverse network elements.

15. Virtualization and Network Function Virtualization (NFV):

Network virtualization involves creating virtual instances of network components and services, such as
virtual routers and firewalls. Managing these virtual networks, ensuring their security, and dynamically
scaling resources to meet changing demands is a complex task. Network Function Virtualization (NFV)
extends this concept by virtualizing network functions like firewalls and load balancers, enabling
flexible and cost-effective service delivery.

16. Mobile and Wireless Networks:

As the use of mobile devices and wireless connections continues to grow, designing networks that
provide seamless connectivity as users move between different access points is a challenge. This
involves implementing mobility management protocols, handover procedures, and efficient spectrum
management to prevent interference and optimize wireless performance.

17. Legacy Systems Integration:

Many existing networks include legacy systems and technologies that must be integrated with
modern networking solutions. This can be complex because older systems may not support the latest
standards and security protocols. Network designers must ensure compatibility while maintaining
security during the integration process.

18. Disaster Recovery and Redundancy:

Planning for network resilience in the face of disasters, equipment failures, or cyberattacks is critical.
Redundancy, failover mechanisms, and disaster recovery strategies must be in place to maintain
network continuity. This involves duplicating critical components, creating backup data centers, and
implementing data backup and recovery solutions.

19. IoT and Edge Computing:

With the proliferation of Internet of Things (IoT) devices and the adoption of edge computing,
networks must handle a massive number of connected devices and process data at the edge of the
network. This presents challenges related to device management, data processing, and ensuring
security and privacy for IoT devices.

20. Compliance and Regulatory Issues:

Networks often need to comply with specific regulations and industry-specific standards, such as data
privacy laws (e.g., GDPR) or compliance requirements for industries like healthcare or finance. Meeting
these requirements involves implementing security measures, data encryption, and auditing processes
to ensure network compliance while avoiding legal and financial penalties.

OSI Model
o OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that describes how
information from a software application in one computer moves through a physical medium
to the software application in another computer.
o OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network function.
o OSI model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1984,
and it is now considered as an architectural model for the inter-computer communications.
 o OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks. Each layer is
assigned a particular task.
o Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be performed
independently.

Characteristics of OSI Model:

o The OSI model is divided into two layers: upper layers and lower layers.
o The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals with the application related issues, and they
are implemented only in the software. The application layer is closest to the end user. Both
the end user and the application layer interact with the software applications. An upper layer
refers to the layer just above another layer.
o The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport issues. The data link layer and
the physical layer are implemented in hardware and software. The physical layer is the lowest
layer of the OSI model and is closest to the physical medium. The physical layer is mainly
responsible for placing the information on the physical medium.
7 Layers of OSI Model
There are the seven OSI layers. Each layer has different functions. A list of seven layers are given
below:

1. Physical Layer
2. Data-Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer
1) Physical layer

o The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual bits from one node to
another node.
o It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
o It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
o It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network interface specifications.

Functions of a Physical layer:

o Line Configuration: It defines the way how two or more devices can be connected physically.
o Data Transmission: It defines the transmission mode whether it is simplex, half-duplex or
full-duplex mode between the two devices on the network.
o Topology: It defines the way how network devices are arranged.
o Signals: It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the information.
2) Data-Link Layer

o This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames.

o It defines the format of the data on the network.
o It provides a reliable and efficient communication between two or more devices.
o It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each device that resides on a local
network.
o It contains two sub-layers:
o Logical Link Control Layer
o It is responsible for transferring the packets to the Network layer of the
receiver that is receiving.
o It identifies the address of the network layer protocol from the header.
o It also provides flow control.
o Media Access Control Layer
o A Media access control layer is a link between the Logical Link Control layer
and the network's physical layer.
o It is used for transferring the packets over the network.

Functions of the Data-link layer

o Framing: The data link layer translates the physical's raw bit stream into packets known as
Frames. The Data link layer adds the header and trailer to the frame. The header which is
added to the frame contains the hardware destination and source address.
 o Physical Addressing: The Data link layer adds a header to the frame that contains a
destination address. The frame is transmitted to the destination address mentioned in the
header.
o Flow Control: Flow control is the main functionality of the Data-link layer. It is the technique
through which the constant data rate is maintained on both the sides so that no data get
corrupted. It ensures that the transmitting station such as a server with higher processing
speed does not exceed the receiving station, with lower processing speed.
o Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding a calculated value CRC (Cyclic Redundancy
Check) that is placed to the Data link layer's trailer which is added to the message frame
before it is sent to the physical layer. If any error seems to occurr, then the receiver sends the
acknowledgment for the retransmission of the corrupted frames.
o Access Control: When two or more devices are connected to the same communication
channel, then the data link layer protocols are used to determine which device has control
over the link at a given time.

3) Network Layer

o It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, tracks the location of devices on the network.
o It determines the best path to move data from source to the destination based on the
network conditions, the priority of service, and other factors.
o The Data link layer is responsible for routing and forwarding the packets.
o Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are specified in this layer and used to provide the routing
services within an internetwork.
o The protocols used to route the network traffic are known as Network layer protocols.
Examples of protocols are IP and Ipv6.

Functions of Network Layer:

o Internetworking: An internetworking is the main responsibility of the network layer. It
provides a logical connection between different devices.
o Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination address to the header of the
frame. Addressing is used to identify the device on the internet.
 o Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it determines the best
optimal path out of the multiple paths from source to the destination.
o Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the packets from the upper layer and converts them
into packets. This process is known as Packetizing. It is achieved by internet protocol (IP).

4) Transport Layer

o The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are transmitted in the order in which
they are sent and there is no duplication of data.
o The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data completely.
o It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into smaller units known as
segments.
o This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a point-to-point connection
between source and destination to deliver the data reliably.

The two protocols used in this layer are:

o Transmission Control Protocol

o It is a standard protocol that allows the systems to communicate over the internet.
o It establishes and maintains a connection between hosts.
o When data is sent over the TCP connection, then the TCP protocol divides the data
into smaller units known as segments. Each segment travels over the internet using
multiple routes, and they arrive in different orders at the destination. The transmission
control protocol reorders the packets in the correct order at the receiving end.
o User Datagram Protocol
o User Datagram Protocol is a transport layer protocol.
o It is an unreliable transport protocol as in this case receiver does not send any
acknowledgment when the packet is received, the sender does not wait for any
acknowledgment. Therefore, this makes a protocol unreliable.
Functions of Transport Layer:
o Service-point addressing: Computers run several programs simultaneously due to this
reason, the transmission of data from source to the destination not only from one computer
to another computer but also from one process to another process. The transport layer adds
the header that contains the address known as a service-point address or port address. The
responsibility of the network layer is to transmit the data from one computer to another
computer and the responsibility of the transport layer is to transmit the message to the
correct process.
o Segmentation and reassembly: When the transport layer receives the message from the
upper layer, it divides the message into multiple segments, and each segment is assigned with
a sequence number that uniquely identifies each segment. When the message has arrived at
the destination, then the transport layer reassembles the message based on their sequence
numbers.
o Connection control: Transport layer provides two services Connection-oriented service and
connectionless service. A connectionless service treats each segment as an individual packet,
and they all travel in different routes to reach the destination. A connection-oriented service
makes a connection with the transport layer at the destination machine before delivering the
packets. In connection-oriented service, all the packets travel in the single route.
o Flow control: The transport layer also responsible for flow control but it is performed end-to-
end rather than across a single link.
o Error control: The transport layer is also responsible for Error control. Error control is
performed end-to-end rather than across the single link. The sender transport layer ensures
that message reach at the destination without any error.

5) Session Layer

o It is a layer 3 in the OSI model.

o The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and synchronizes the interaction between
communicating devices.
Functions of Session layer:
o Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog controller that creates a dialog between two
processes or we can say that it allows the communication between two processes which can
be either half-duplex or full-duplex.
o Synchronization: Session layer adds some checkpoints when transmitting the data in a
sequence. If some error occurs in the middle of the transmission of data, then the
transmission will take place again from the checkpoint. This process is known as
Synchronization and recovery.

6) Presentation Layer

o A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information
exchanged between the two systems.
o It acts as a data translator for a network.
o This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from one presentation
format to another format.
o The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.

Functions of Presentation layer:

o Translation: The processes in two systems exchange the information in the form of character
strings, numbers and so on. Different computers use different encoding methods, the
presentation layer handles the interoperability between the different encoding methods. It
converts the data from sender-dependent format into a common format and changes the
common format into receiver-dependent format at the receiving end.
o Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain privacy. Encryption is a process of converting
the sender-transmitted information into another form and sends the resulting message over
the network.
 o Compression: Data compression is a process of compressing the data, i.e., it reduces the
number of bits to be transmitted. Data compression is very important in multimedia such as
text, audio, video.

7) Application Layer

o An application layer serves as a window for users and application processes to access network
service.
o It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation, etc.
o An application layer is not an application, but it performs the application layer functions.
o This layer provides the network services to the end-users.

Functions of Application layer:

o File transfer, access, and management (FTAM): An application layer allows a user to access
the files in a remote computer, to retrieve the files from a computer and to manage the files in
a remote computer.
o Mail services: An application layer provides the facility for email forwarding and storage.
o Directory services: An application provides the distributed database sources and is used to
provide that global information about various objects.

TCP/IP model
o The TCP/IP model was developed prior to the OSI model.
o The TCP/IP model is not exactly similar to the OSI model.
o The TCP/IP model consists of five layers: the application layer, transport layer, network layer,
data link layer and physical layer.
o The first four layers provide physical standards, network interface, internetworking, and
transport functions that correspond to the first four layers of the OSI model and these four
layers are represented in TCP/IP model by a single layer called the application layer.
 o TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, and each of them provides
specific functionality.

Here, hierarchical means that each upper-layer protocol is supported by two or more lower-level
protocols.

Functions of TCP/IP layers:

Network Access Layer

o A network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model.
o A network layer is the combination of the Physical layer and Data Link layer defined in the OSI
reference model.
o It defines how the data should be sent physically through the network.
o This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data between two devices on the
same network.
o The functions carried out by this layer are encapsulating the IP datagram into frames
transmitted by the network and mapping of IP addresses into physical addresses.
o The protocols used by this layer are ethernet, token ring, FDDI, X.25, frame relay.

Internet Layer
o An internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model.
o An internet layer is also known as the network layer.
o The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets from any network, and they
arrive at the destination irrespective of the route they take.
Following are the protocols used in this layer are:

IP Protocol: IP protocol is used in this layer, and it is the most significant part of the entire TCP/IP
suite.

Following are the responsibilities of this protocol:

o IP Addressing: This protocol implements logical host addresses known as IP addresses. The
IP addresses are used by the internet and higher layers to identify the device and to provide
internetwork routing.
o Host-to-host communication: It determines the path through which the data is to be
transmitted.
o Data Encapsulation and Formatting: An IP protocol accepts the data from the transport
layer protocol. An IP protocol ensures that the data is sent and received securely, it
encapsulates the data into message known as IP datagram.
o Fragmentation and Reassembly: The limit imposed on the size of the IP datagram by data
link layer protocol is known as Maximum Transmission unit (MTU). If the size of IP datagram is
greater than the MTU unit, then the IP protocol splits the datagram into smaller units so that
they can travel over the local network. Fragmentation can be done by the sender or
intermediate router. At the receiver side, all the fragments are reassembled to form an original
message.
o Routing: When IP datagram is sent over the same local network such as LAN, MAN, WAN, it is
known as direct delivery. When source and destination are on the distant network, then the IP
datagram is sent indirectly. This can be accomplished by routing the IP datagram through
various devices such as routers.

ARP Protocol

o ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol.

o ARP is a network layer protocol which is used to find the physical address from the IP address.
o The two terms are mainly associated with the ARP Protocol:
o ARP request: When a sender wants to know the physical address of the device, it
broadcasts the ARP request to the network.
o ARP reply: Every device attached to the network will accept the ARP request and
process the request, but only recipient recognize the IP address and sends back its
physical address in the form of ARP reply. The recipient adds the physical address
both to its cache memory and to the datagram header

ICMP Protocol

o ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol.

o It is a mechanism used by the hosts or routers to send notifications regarding datagram
problems back to the sender.
 o A datagram travels from router-to-router until it reaches its destination. If a router is unable
to route the data because of some unusual conditions such as disabled links, a device is on
fire or network congestion, then the ICMP protocol is used to inform the sender that the
datagram is undeliverable.
o An ICMP protocol mainly uses two terms:
o ICMP Test: ICMP Test is used to test whether the destination is reachable or not.
o ICMP Reply: ICMP Reply is used to check whether the destination device is
responding or not.
o The core responsibility of the ICMP protocol is to report the problems, not correct them. The
responsibility of the correction lies with the sender.
o ICMP can send the messages only to the source, but not to the intermediate routers because
the IP datagram carries the addresses of the source and destination but not of the router that
it is passed to.

Transport Layer

The transport layer is responsible for the reliability, flow control, and correction of data which is being
sent over the network.

The two protocols used in the transport layer are User Datagram protocol and Transmission
control protocol.

o User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

o It provides connectionless service and end-to-end delivery of transmission.
o It is an unreliable protocol as it discovers the errors but not specify the error.
o User Datagram Protocol discovers the error, and ICMP protocol reports the error to
the sender that user datagram has been damaged.
o UDP consists of the following fields:
Source port address: The source port address is the address of the application
program that has created the message.
Destination port address: The destination port address is the address of the
application program that receives the message.
Total length: It defines the total number of bytes of the user datagram in bytes.
Checksum: The checksum is a 16-bit field used in error detection.
o UDP does not specify which packet is lost. UDP contains only checksum; it does not
contain any ID of a data segment.
 o Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
o It provides a full transport layer services to applications.
o It creates a virtual circuit between the sender and receiver, and it is active for the
duration of the transmission.
o TCP is a reliable protocol as it detects the error and retransmits the damaged frames.
Therefore, it ensures all the segments must be received and acknowledged before the
transmission is considered to be completed and a virtual circuit is discarded.
o At the sending end, TCP divides the whole message into smaller units known as
segment, and each segment contains a sequence number which is required for
reordering the frames to form an original message.
o At the receiving end, TCP collects all the segments and reorders them based on
sequence numbers.

Application Layer
o An application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model.
o It is responsible for handling high-level protocols, issues of representation.
o This layer allows the user to interact with the application.
o When one application layer protocol wants to communicate with another application layer, it
forwards its data to the transport layer.
o There is an ambiguity occurs in the application layer. Every application cannot be placed
inside the application layer except those who interact with the communication system. For
example: text editor cannot be considered in application layer while web browser
using HTTP protocol to interact with the network where HTTP protocol is an application layer
protocol.

Following are the main protocols used in the application layer:

o HTTP: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. This protocol allows us to access the data
over the world wide web. It transfers the data in the form of plain text, audio, video. It is
 known as a Hypertext transfer protocol as it has the efficiency to use in a hypertext
environment where there are rapid jumps from one document to another.
o SNMP: SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It is a framework used for
managing the devices on the internet by using the TCP/IP protocol suite.
o SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. The TCP/IP protocol that supports the
e-mail is known as a Simple mail transfer protocol. This protocol is used to send the data to
another e-mail address.
o DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System. An IP address is used to identify the connection
of a host to the internet uniquely. But, people prefer to use the names instead of addresses.
Therefore, the system that maps the name to the address is known as Domain Name System.
o TELNET: It is an abbreviation for Terminal Network. It establishes the connection between the
local computer and remote computer in such a way that the local terminal appears to be a
terminal at the remote system.
o FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. FTP is a standard internet protocol used for
transmitting the files from one computer to another computer.

Differences between OSI Model and TCP/IP Model

Parameters OSI Model TCP/IP Model

TCP/IP stands for

OSI stands for Open Systems
Full Form Transmission Control
Interconnection.
Protocol/Internet Protocol.

Layers It has 7 layers. It has 4 layers.

Usage It is low in usage. It is mostly used.

Approach It is vertically approached. It is horizontally approached.

Delivery of the package is Delivery of the package is not

Delivery
guaranteed in OSI Model. guaranteed in TCP/IP Model.

Replacement of tools and

Replacing the tools is not
Replacement changes can easily be done
easy as it is in OSI Model.
in this model.
 Parameters OSI Model TCP/IP Model

It is less reliable than TCP/IP It is more reliable than OSI

Reliability
Model. Model.

Types of Transmission Media

In data communication terminology, a transmission medium is a physical path between
the transmitter and the receiver i.e. it is the channel through which data is sent from
one place to another. Transmission Media is broadly classified into the following
types:

1. Guided Media: It is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media.

Signals being transmitted are directed and confined in a narrow pathway by using
physical links.
Features:
• High Speed
• Secure
• Used for comparatively shorter distances
There are 3 major types of Guided Media:
(i) Twisted Pair Cable –
It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires wound about each other.
Generally, several such pairs are bundled together in a protective sheath. They are the
most widely used Transmission Media. Twisted Pair is of two types:
• Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):
UTP consists of two insulated copper wires twisted around one another. This type of
cable has the ability to block interference and does not depend on a physical shield
for this purpose. It is used for telephonic applications.
Advantages:
⇢ Least expensive
⇢ Easy to install
⇢ High-speed capacity
Disadvantages:
⇢ Susceptible to external interference
⇢ Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP
⇢ Short distance transmission due to attenuation
Applications:
Used in telephone connections and LAN networks
• Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):
This type of cable consists of a special jacket (a copper braid covering or a foil
shield) to block external interference. It is used in fast-data-rate Ethernet and in
voice and data channels of telephone lines.

Advantages:
⇢ Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP
⇢ Eliminates crosstalk
⇢ Comparatively faster
Disadvantages:
⇢ Comparatively difficult to install and manufacture
⇢ More expensive
⇢ Bulky
Applications:
The shielded twisted pair type of cable is most frequently used in extremely cold
climates, where the additional layer of outer covering makes it perfect for withstanding
such temperatures or for shielding the interior components.
(ii) Coaxial Cable –
It has an outer plastic covering containing an insulation layer made of PVC or Teflon
and 2 parallel conductors each having a separate insulated protection cover. The
coaxial cable transmits information in two modes: Baseband mode(dedicated cable
bandwidth) and Broadband mode(cable bandwidth is split into separate ranges). Cable
TVs and analog television networks widely use Coaxial cables.

Advantages:
• High Bandwidth
• Better noise Immunity
• Easy to install and expand
• Inexpensive
Disadvantages:
• Single cable failure can disrupt the entire network
Applications:
Radio frequency signals are sent over coaxial wire. It can be used for cable television
signal distribution, digital audio (S/PDIF), computer network connections (like
Ethernet), and feedlines that connect radio transmitters and receivers to their
antennas.
(iii) Optical Fiber Cable –
It uses the concept of refraction of light through a core made up of glass or plastic. The
core is surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering called the cladding. It is
used for the transmission of large volumes of data.
The cable can be unidirectional or bidirectional. The WDM (Wavelength Division
Multiplexer) supports two modes, namely unidirectional and bidirectional mode.

Advantages:
• Increased capacity and bandwidth
• Lightweight
• Less signal attenuation
• Immunity to electromagnetic interference
• Resistance to corrosive materials
Disadvantages:
• Difficult to install and maintain
• High cost
• Fragile
Applications:
• Medical Purpose: Used in several types of medical instruments.
• Defence Purpose: Used in transmission of data in aerospace.
• For Communication: This is largely used in formation of internet cables.
• Industrial Purpose: Used for lighting purposes and safety measures in designing the
interior and exterior of automobiles.
2. Unguided Media:
It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded transmission media. No physical
medium is required for the transmission of electromagnetic signals.
Features:
• The signal is broadcasted through air
• Less Secure
• Used for larger distances
There are 3 types of Signals transmitted through unguided media:
(i) Radio waves –
These are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings. The sending and
receiving antennas need not be aligned. Frequency Range:3KHz – 1GHz. AM and FM
radios and cordless phones use Radio waves for transmission.

Further Categorized as (i) Terrestrial and (ii) Satellite.

(ii) Microwaves –
It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need to be
properly aligned with each other. The distance covered by the signal is directly
proportional to the height of the antenna. Frequency Range:1GHz – 300GHz. These
are majorly used for mobile phone communication and television distribution.

Microwave Transmission

(iii) Infrared –
Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication. They cannot penetrate
through obstacles. This prevents interference between systems. Frequency
Range:300GHz – 400THz. It is used in TV remotes, wireless mouse, keyboard, printer,
etc.
Electromagnetic spectrum
The electromagnetic spectrum is a range of frequencies, wavelengths and photon energies covering
frequencies from below 1 hertz to above 1025 Hz, corresponding to wavelengths which are a few
kilometres to a fraction of the size of an atomic nucleus in the spectrum of electromagnetic waves.
Generally, in a vacuum, electromagnetic waves tend to travel at speeds which is similar to that of
light. However, they do so at a wide range of wavelengths, frequencies and photon energies.

The electromagnetic spectrum consists of a span of all electromagnetic radiation which further
contains many subranges, which are commonly referred to as portions. These can be further
classified as infrared radiation, visible light or ultraviolet radiation.

Electromagnetic Waves in the Electromagnetic Spectrum

The entire range (electromagnetic spectrum) is given by radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation,
visible light, ultra-violet radiation, X-rays, gamma rays and cosmic rays in the increasing order of
frequency and decreasing order of wavelength. The type of radiation and their frequency and
wavelength ranges are as follows:
Type of Radiation Frequency Range (Hz) Wavelength Range

Gamma-rays 1020 – 1024 < 10-12 m

X-rays 1017 – 1020 1 nm – 1 pm

Ultraviolet 1015 – 1017 400 nm – 1 nm

Visible 4 x 1014 – 7.5 x 1014 750 nm – 400 nm

Near-infrared 1 x 1014 – 4 x1014 2.5 μm – 750 nm

Infrared 1013 – 1014 25 μm – 2.5 μm

Microwaves 3 x 1011 – 1013 1 mm – 25 μm

Radio waves < 3 x 1011 > 1 mm

The electromagnetic spectrum can be depicted as follows:

Let us look into the uses of electromagnetic waves in our daily life.

Radio: A radio basically captures radio waves that are transmitted by radio stations. Radio waves can
also be emitted by gases and stars in space. Radio waves are mainly used for TV/mobile
communication.

Microwave: This type of radiation is found in microwaves and helps in cooking at home/office. It is
also used by astronomers to determine and understand the structure of nearby galaxies and stars.

Infrared: It is used widely in night vision goggles. These devices can read and capture the infrared
light emitted by our skin and objects with heat. In space, infrared light helps to map interstellar dust.

X-ray: X-rays can be used in many instances. For example, a doctor can use an X-ray machine to
take an image of our bones or teeth. Airport security personnel use it to see through and check bags.
X-rays are also given out by hot gases in the universe.

Gamma-ray: It has a wide application in the medical field. Gamma-ray imaging is used to see inside
our bodies. Interestingly, the universe is the biggest gamma-ray generator of all.

Ultraviolet: The Sun is the main source of ultraviolet radiation. It causes skin tanning and burns. Hot
materials that are in space also emit UV radiation.

Visible: Visible light can be detected by our eyes. Light bulbs, stars, etc., emit visible light.
Spectroscopy: Spectroscopy is used to study the way different electromagnetic waves interact with
matter.

We can learn about a substance by analysing the EM spectrum given by it. When light scatters or
passes through matter, it tends to interact with molecules and atoms. Since atoms and molecules
have resonance frequencies, they directly interact with those light waves having the exact
frequencies. When collisions occur in an excited state, the atoms and molecules emit light with a
certain set of characteristic frequencies. This further results in a line spectrum. Here, only light with
detached wavelengths is produced. The spectrum is also not continuous, but it consists of a set of
emission lines.

In cases where light with continuous wavelengths passes through a low-density material, the atoms
and molecules of the material will absorb light waves with the same set of characteristic frequencies.
This results in the production of the absorption spectrum, which is a nearly continuous spectrum with
missing lines.

Significance of the Electromagnetic Spectrum

The electromagnetic waves in these different bands have different characteristics depending upon
how they are produced, how they interact with matter and their practical applications. Maxwell’s
equations predicted the existence of an infinite number of frequencies of electromagnetic waves, all
travelling with the speed of light. This is the first indication of the existence of the entire
electromagnetic spectrum.

Nonetheless, the main significance of the electromagnetic spectrum is that it can be used to classify
electromagnetic waves and arrange them according to their different frequencies or wavelengths.

Practical Applications of Electromagnetic Waves

● The radio waves and microwaves discovered by Hertz paved the way for wireless television, radio
and mobile communication.

● The visible light portion of the electromagnetic spectrum is the reason for all visual aids in daily life.
This is the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that helps us to see all objects, including colours.

● The X-rays discovered by Roentgen proved to be useful in medicine for detecting many ailments or
deformities in bones.

● The high ultraviolet radiation has energies to ionise the atoms causing chemical reactions.

● The gamma rays discovered by Paul Villard are useful for ionisation purposes and nuclear
medicine.