UNIT – 1

EXTRA NOTES

INTRODUCTION AND PHYSICAL LAYER

INTRODUCTION:

In today’s world, the communication is deciding the all facts of the growth. Effective, easiest, understandable, timely
communications are creating the world’s better growth.

The growth of the internet, telecommunication field, communication devices make the people interactive, happily and
wealthy. An event happens in place can be communicated to any place in the world.

For example, a live sports event happened in Calcutta can be viewed by the people sitting in any place in the world.

The network allows people to communicate information to any people in the world by means of one-to-one, one-to-
many or all.

In this chapter, we are going to study about the introduction of networks, network hardware, network software and
network architecture.

NEED FOR COMPUTER COMMUNICATION OVER DISTANCES:

Computer communication has become essential for the following reasons:

A. Computers can send data at a very fast speed over long distances using satellite and microwave links.
Therefore, the cost of transfer of documents using computers is cheaper than Other conventional means like
telegrams.
B. Computers can have fax system integrated with them. This allows them to send pictures along with the text.
Thus, the newspaper reports can be prepared and sent all over the world at a very high speed by composing
and publishing them from different centers.
C. The time taken to transmit the messages is very small. Hence different computers can be connected together
and the users can work together as a group. Software packages have been developed for group working in
Data Base Management (DBMS) and graphic works.
D. Different departments of an organization may be separated physically being at distant places but their data
could be stored on a central computer. This data is accessed by computers located in different departments.
The data at the central computer may be updated from time to time and accessed by all users. This prevents
any bottlenecks in the smooth functioning of the organization. The latest data (say for inventory) will be easily
available at all times to all the users.
E. Fluctuations of prices in foreign exchange and shares/equities can be communicated instantaneously using the
medium of computer communications only. The transfer can be accelerated and verified at any instant of time.

DATA COMMUNICATION:

 Data:

The word ‘data’ refers that representation of information in an understandable form by the two parties who are
creating and using it. The Webster dictionary defined data as “information in digital form that can be
transmitted or processed”. The data may be in any form such as text, symbols, images, videos, signals and so
on.

 Communication:

Communication is a referred as exchanging information from one entity to another entity in a meaningful
way. The entities may be referred as human being, machines, animals, birds, etc. The communication could be
done between the two entities/parties. The meaningful way refers that the meaning of the communication must
be understandable between the two entities.

 Data Communication:
 Data communication is process of exchanging data between two devices through a communication medium in
a meaningful way. The devices must be part of the communication system.

The communication system is made up of the both hardware equipment and software. To provide the effective
communication system, the following four fundamental characteristics must be followed:

1. Delivery : The data to be communicated must be delivered to the correct destination.

2. Accuracy : The data should be delivered accurately as it is without any alteration.
3. Timeliness : The communication system must deliver the data without any delay.
4. Jitter : In network the data are split into smaller groups (packets) and send them separately.
The variation of the arrival between two packets is referred as jitter.

1.2 COMPONENTS:

The following five components are the essential part of the communication system and the below figure shows the
representation of the components placement in the communication system.

Components of Data Communication

1. Message: It is the primary part of the communication system. The information is communicated between the
source and destination is called data/message.
2. Sender: The sender is a device which generates and sends the data to the destination.
3. Receiver: It is a device that receives the data.
4. Medium: It acts as carrier to carry the data from the source to the destination. The carrier provides the path
through wire or wireless.
5. Protocol: It is set of rules that govern the data communication in a correct manner.

The sender and receiver may be computer, mobile phones, workstations, servers, video cameras and so on. The
protocol provides the effective communication. This provides the methodology how to interact with each other
without any loss or interference.

1.3 DATA REPRESENTATION:

Information comes in different forms such as text, numbers, images, audio and video.

(1) Text: Text is represented as a bit pattern, The number of bits in a pattern depends on the number of symbols
in the language. Different sets of bit patterns have been designed to represent text symbols. Each set is called
a code. The process of representing the symbols is called coding.
(2) ASCII: The American National Standards Institute developed a code called the American Standard code for
Information Interchange. This code uses 7 bits for each symbol.
(3) Extended ASCII: To make the size of each pattern 1 byte (8 bits), the ASCII bit patterns are augmented with
an extra 0 at the left.
(4) Unicode: To represent symbols belonging to languages other than English, a code with much greater capacity
is needed. Unicode uses 16 bits and can represent up to 65,536 symbols.
(5) ISO: The international organization for standardization known as ISO has designed a code using a 32 – bit
pattern. This code can represent up to 4,294,967,296 symbols.
 (6) Numbers: Numbers are also represented by using bit patterns. ASCII is not used to represent numbers. The
number is directly converted to a binary number.
(7) Images: Images are also represented by bit patterns. An image is divided into a matrix of pixels, where each
pixel is a small dot. Each pixel is assigned a bit pattern. The size and value of the pattern depends on the
image. The size of the pixel depends on what is called the resolution.
(8) Audio: Audio is a representation of sound. Audio is by nature different from text, numbers or images. It is
continuous not discrete.
(9) Video: Video can be produced either a continuous entity or it can be a combination of images.

1.4 MODE OF DATA FLOW:

The data flow defines the flow direction of the data between source and destination. The data flow may be either
simplex or half-duplex or full duplex. The below figure shows the three modes of the data flow.

Mode of Data Flow

 Simplex: In simplex mode, the direction of the data flow is unidirectional. One of the device can transmit the
data and another device can receive at all time. The example is the CPU sends the data to the monitor at all the
time.
 Half-Duplex: In half-duplex mode, the data can be transmitted on both directions but not at the same time
(device 1 to device 2 or device 2 to device 1). One device can send and another one can receive at a time. The
example is walkie-talkie. The entire medium is used for the one-way transmission.
 Full-Duplex: In full-duplex mode, the data can be transmitted on both directions (device 1 to device 2 and
device 2 to device 1) at the same time. One device can send and another one can receive at a time. The
example is telephone communication. In this, the entire medium is divided for the two-way transmission.

NETWORKS:

A network is set of interconnected devices (sometime referred as nodes) which are used to transmit data between them
with agreed protocols. The networks are used to connect the people, machines, devices to share the data anywhere in
the world. The devices can be computers, printers, mobile phones, servers which are capable of sending and receiving
data. The data can be generated by a device.

There is considerable confusion in the literature between a computer network and a distributed system. The key
distinction is that in a distributed system, a collection of independent computers appears to its users as a single
coherent system. Usually, it has a single model or paradigm that it presents to the users. Often a layer of software on
top of the operating system, called middleware, is responsible for implementing this model. A well-known example of
a distributed system is the World Wide Web, in which everything looks like a document (Web page).

HISTORY OF NETWORK:

The history of computer networks is vast, so we will discuss different generations of computer networks according to
their timeline.

 In his paper "Information Flow in Large Communication Nets", Leonard Kleinrock introduced the notion
of ARPANET (one of the early computer networks) in 1961. The telephone network was the most powerful
network on the planet at the time. The telephone network transmits data from a sender to a receiver
using circuit switching, which is a suitable choice given that voice is transferred at a consistent pace between
sender and receiver.
 Leonard Kleinrock published the first work on packet switching methods. Kleinrock's work neatly
illustrated the efficiency of the packet-switching strategy employing queuing theory for busy traffic sources.
At the same time, Paul Baran began researching the use of packet switching for secure voice-over military
networks at the Rand Institute.
 In 1969, the first packet-switched computer network and a direct ancestor of today's public internet
ARPANET was first used. It was the first to use the TCP/IP protocol suite, which later evolved into the
internet. The Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), a US Department of Defence division,
developed ARPANET. ARPANET initially had four nodes, i.e., the University of California at Los Angeles
(UCLA), Stanford Research Institute (SRI), University of California at Santa Barbara (UCSB), and the
University of Utah. The first communication between UCLA and SRI took place on October 29, 1969.

Roy Tomlinson invented email after UCLA was connected to Bolt Beranek and Newman, Inc. (BBN) in 1972.

 A test VoIP connection was made in 1973 to officially introduce VoIP (Voice over Internet
Protocol) technology and its capabilities. In 1995, the first software allowed consumers to make such a call.
 The first routers were deployed at Xerox in 1974, although they were not real IP routers. The breakthrough in
computer networking was made possible by gateway devices and the Interface Message Processor employed
in the ARPANET. Bill Yeager, a Stanford University researcher, invented the multiprotocol router in
the 1980s. Stanford IT personnel Leonard Bosack and Sandy Lerner recognized the business possibilities of
this router technology. Leonard and Sandy built an updated version of Yeager's router, which led to the
establishment of Cisco Systems in 1984.

In 1973, in a Xerox research center in Palo Alto, California, Robert Metcalfe and David Boggs created the first
Ethernet prototype, which carried data at 2.94 Mbps.

 In 1973, Following further research, Xerox patented Ethernet in 1975. In 1979, the IEEE established a
standards committee with the goal of pushing technology for widespread use. In the late 1980s and early
1990s, the notion of a virtual LAN, or VLAN, was developed to address the problem of rising broadcast
traffic on LANs with a significant number of connected devices. The IEEE 802.1Q standard was created to
standardize VLANs and multi-VLAN trunking over network uplinks.
 In 1974, Telenet was the first commercial ARPANET adaption. This concept of an Internet Service
Provider (ISP) was also introduced. An ISP's primary goal is to provide its clients with a reliable internet
 connection at a reasonable cost.
 As the internet became increasingly commercialized, more networks sprang up worldwide. For
communicating over the network, each network uses a separate protocol. This made it impossible to join many
networks in a seamless manner. Tim Berners-Lee led a team of computer scientists at CERN in Switzerland in
the 1980s to establish the World Wide Web(WWW), a seamless network of various networks.

Timeline of Computer Networks:

 In 1957, Advanced Research Project Agency was formed by the US.

 In 1961, the idea of ARPANET was proposed by Leonard Kleinrock.
 In 1965, the term packet was used by Donald Davies.
 In 1969, ARPANET became functional, and the internet was officially born, with the first data transmission
sent between UCLA and SRI on October 29, 1969, at 10:30 p.m.
 In 1971, Ray Tomlinson sent the first email, and the foundation for Wi-Fi was laid with the use of
ALOHAnet.
 In 1973, Robert Metcalfe developed Ethernet at Xerox PARC, and the first experimental VoIP call was made.
 In 1976, the first true IP router was developed by Ginny Strazisar.
 In 1978, Bob Kahn invented the TCP/IP protocol for networks developed.
 In 1981, Internet Protocol version 4, or IPv4, was officially defined in RFC 791 in 1981.
 In 1983, DNS was introduced by Paul Mockapetris.
 In 1988, details about network firewall technology were first published 1988.
 In 1996, IPv6 was introduced.
 In 1997, the first version of the 802.11 standards for Wi-Fi was introduced in June 1997, providing
transmission speeds up to 2 Mbps.
 In 2002-2004, Web 2.0 was introduced.

Modern Computer Networks:

From the first computer network, Arpanet, to the latest Web 3.0, the computer network has evolved
in speed, reliability, and user experience. In today's world, everything is Speed, and to increase the network's Speed.
We are currently replacing copper coaxial cables with optical fiber cables. Some things that make the network better
and better with time are described as follows.

Optical Fiber Cables:

An optical fiber is a thin strand of pure glass that works as a long-distance waveguide for light. It works on the
principle of total internal reflection. The core, which carries the actual light signal, and the cladding, a sheet of glass
around the core, are the two layers of glass that make up the device. The refractive index of the cladding is lower than
that of the core, and this results in TIR within the core. Two significant service providers that provide optical fiber-
based internet are Reliance JIO and Indian Airtel Xstream Fiber. Both service providers claim to provide a speed of 1
GBPS, which is enormous.

LI-FI Technology:

Li-Fi is light-based bi-directional, fully networked, wireless communication technology where the light source is used
to transmit the data wirelessly. This is achieved by turning the LED ON and OFF very rapidly (Million times per
second) so that the flicker is not observable by the human eye. In this way, the data is transferred between the two
devices wirelessly. Features provided by the Li-Fi are:

 Speed: Li-Fi can provide speeds up to 100 Gbps.

 Security: Light cannot cross the walls, so data cannot be hacked by outsiders, providing one more layer of
security.
 Safety: Unlike radio waves, light exposure is safer for humans.
 Congestion-free: The bandwidth of the light spectrum is 1000 times more than the radio spectrum; hence, it is
congestion-free and free of electromagnetic interference.
 Efficiency: It uses LED for transmission, which minimizes the overall energy consumption.

Blockchain Technology:

A blockchain is a database that holds encrypted data blocks and links them together to build a chronological single
source of truth for the information. Blockchains are well known for their critical function in keeping
a secure and decentralized record of transactions in cryptocurrency systems like Bitcoin. The blockchain's novelty is
that it ensures the accuracy and security of a data record while also generating trust without the requirement for a
trusted third party.
Web 3.0:

The third generation of web technologies is known as Web 3.0 (Web3). Web 3.0 is still evolving and being defined,
and as such, there isn't a canonical, universally accepted definition. But one thing is certain: Web 3.0 will significantly
emphasize decentralized applications and make considerable use of blockchain-based technologies. Machine
Learning and Artificial Intelligence (AI) will be used in Web 3.0 to help empower more intelligent and adaptive
applications.

Firewall:

A firewall is a network security hardware or software application that monitors and filters incoming and outgoing
network traffic according to a set of security rules. It serves as a firewall between internal private networks and public
networks (such as the public internet). To route web traffic, firewalls generate 'choke points,' which are then examined
against predefined parameters and acted upon accordingly. Some firewalls also keep track of traffic and connections
in audit logs to see what is allowed and prohibited.

CRITERIA OF NETWORK:

A network must have the following important criteria for effective communication.

 Performance: The performance of a network is measured by many factors such as transit time, response time.
The transit time is amount of time required to travel a message from source to destination. The response time
is amount of time required for inquiry and response.
 Throughput and Delay: The throughput of the network is measures as amount of data transferred for
specified period of time. The high transmission within the specified period of time is called as high throughput
network. The delay is measured as time difference between the transit time and actual time taken to transmit.
A good network maintains high through and low delay.
 Reliability: The reliability of a network is referred as data delivery should be accurate, less frequency of
break in medium, fast recovery of the physical and logical (data) errors.
 Security: The security of a network is referred as protecting the data from damages and alteration,
unauthorized access of medium, devices and data, providing mechanisms for losses and intrusions.

Types of connection:

As we have already known that a network is a two or more devices interconnected through a communication medium.
The medium provides the physical pathway between two devices. The connectivity between the devices is classified
into point-to-point and multipoint.

 Point-to-point: It provides a direct and dedicated link between two devices (normally source and destination).
The entire transmission capacity of the link is shared for these two devices only. For example, link between
monitor and computer.
 Multipoint: A link is shared by many devices and the transmission capacity is shared by all devices
connected. For example, a cable TV network or client-server network.
 Type of connectivity
PHYSICAL TOPOLOGY:

Physical Topology refers to the way in which network is laid out physically. Two or more links form a topology. The
topology of a network is the geometric representation of the relationship of all the links and the linking devices to one
another.

The basic topologies are as follows:

(a) Mesh Topology:

In a mesh topology, every device is connected to another device via a particular channel. In Mesh Topology, the
protocols used are AHCP (Ad Hoc Configuration Protocols), DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol), etc.

Mesh Topology

 Suppose, the N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh topology, the total number of ports
that are required by each device is N-1. In Figure 1, there are 5 devices connected to each other, hence the
total number of ports required by each device is 4. The total number of ports required = N * (N-1).
 Suppose, N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh topology, then the total number of
dedicated links required to connect them is NC2 i.e. N(N-1)/2. In Figure 1, there are 5 devices connected to
each other, hence the total number of links required is 5*4/2 = 10.

Advantages of Mesh Topology:

 Communication is very fast between the nodes.

 Mesh Topology is robust.
 The fault is diagnosed easily. Data is reliable because data is transferred among the devices through dedicated
 channels or links.
 Provides security and privacy.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology:

 Installation and configuration are difficult.

 The cost of cables is high as bulk wiring is required, hence suitable for a smaller number of devices.
 The cost of maintenance is high.

A common example of mesh topology is the internet backbone, where various internet service providers are connected
to each other via dedicated channels. This topology is also used in military communication systems and aircraft
navigation systems.

(b) Star Topology:

In Star Topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub is the central node and all
other nodes are connected to the central node. The hub can be passive in nature i.e., not an intelligent hub such as
broadcasting devices, at the same time the hub can be intelligent known as an active hub. Active hubs have repeaters
in them. Coaxial cables or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers. In Star Topology, many
popular Ethernet LAN protocols are used as CD(Collision Detection), CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access), etc.

Star Topology

Advantages of Star Topology:

 If N devices are connected to each other in a star topology, then the number of cables required to connect
them is N. So, it is easy to set up.
 Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub, therefore the total number of ports required is N.
 It is Robust. If one link fails only that link will affect and no other than that.
 Easy to fault identification and fault isolation.
 Star topology is cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.

Disadvantages of Star Topology:

 If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails, the whole system will crash down.
 The cost of installation is high.
 Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. hub.

A common example of star topology is a local area network (LAN) in an office where all computers are connected to
a central hub.

This topology is also used in wireless networks where all devices are connected to a wireless access point.

(c) Bus Topology:

Bus Topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to a single cable. It is bi-
directional. It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust topology because if the backbone fails the topology
crashes.

In Bus Topology, various MAC (Media Access Control) protocols are followed by LAN ethernet connections
like TDMA, Pure Aloha, CDMA, Slotted Aloha, etc.

Bus Topology
Advantages of Bus Topology:

 If N devices are connected to each other in a bus topology, then the number of cables required to connect them
is 1, known as backbone cable, and N drop lines are required.
 Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based networks that support up to 10 Mbps.
 The cost of the cable is less compared to other topologies, but it is used to build small networks.
 Bus topology is familiar technology as installation and troubleshooting techniques are well known.
 CSMA is the most common method for this type of topology.

Disadvantages of Bus Topology:

 A bus topology is quite simpler, but still, it requires a lot of cabling.

 If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.
 If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network. To avoid this, various protocols are used
in the MAC layer known as Pure Aloha, Slotted Aloha, CSMA/CD, etc.
 Adding new devices to the network would slow down networks.
 Security is very low.

A common example of bus topology is the Ethernet LAN, where all devices are connected to a single coaxial cable or
twisted pair cable. This topology is also used in cable television networks.

(d) Ring Topology:

In a Ring Topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with exactly two neighbouring devices. A number of repeaters
are used for Ring topology with a large number of nodes, because if someone wants to send some data to the last node
in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the data will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence
to prevent data loss repeaters are used in the network.

The data flows in one direction, i.e. it is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2 connections
between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology. In-Ring Topology, the Token Ring Passing protocol is
used by the workstations to transmit the data.
 Ring Topology

The most common access method of ring topology is token passing.

 Token passing: It is a network access method in which a token is passed from one node to another node.
 Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.

Operations of Ring Topology:

1. One station is known as a monitor station which takes all the responsibility for performing the operations.
2. To transmit the data, the station has to hold the token. After the transmission is done, the token is to be
released for other stations to use.
3. When no station is transmitting the data, then the token will circulate in the ring.
4. There are two types of token release techniques: Early token release releases the token just after transmitting
the data and Delayed token release releases the token after the acknowledgment is received from the receiver.

Advantages of Ring Topology:

 The data transmission is high-speed.

 The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.
 Cheap to install and expand.
 It is less costly than a star topology.

Disadvantages of Ring Topology:

 The failure of a single node in the network can cause the entire network to fail.
 Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.
 The addition of stations in between or the removal of stations can disturb the whole topology.
 Less secure.

(e) Tree Topology:

This topology is the variation of the Star topology. This topology has a hierarchical flow of data. In Tree Topology,
protocols like DHCP and SAC (Standard Automatic Configuration ) are used.
 Tree Topology

Advantages of Tree Topology:

 It allows more devices to be attached to a single central hub thus it decreases the distance that is traveled by
the signal to come to the devices.
 It allows the network to get isolated and also prioritize from different computers.
 We can add new devices to the existing network.
 Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology:

 If the central hub gets fails the entire system fails.

 The cost is high because of the cabling.
 If new devices are added, it becomes difficult to reconfigure.

A common example of a tree topology is the hierarchy in a large organization. At the top of the tree is the CEO, who
is connected to the different departments or divisions (child nodes) of the company.

Each department has its own hierarchy, with managers overseeing different teams (grandchild nodes). The team
members (leaf nodes) are at the bottom of the hierarchy, connected to their respective managers and departments.

Hybrid Topology:

This topological technology is the combination of all the various types of topologies we have studied above. Hybrid
Topology is used when the nodes are free to take any form. It means these can be individuals such as Ring or Star
topology or can be a combination of various types of topologies seen above. Each individual topology uses the
protocol that has been discussed earlier.
 Hybrid Topology

Advantages of Hybrid Topology:

 This topology is very flexible.

 The size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices.

Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology:

 It is challenging to design the architecture of the Hybrid Network.

 Hubs used in this topology are very expensive.
 The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires a lot of cabling and network devices.

A common example of a hybrid topology is a university campus network. The network may have a backbone of a star
topology, with each building connected to the backbone through a switch or router. Within each building, there may
be a bus or ring topology connecting the different rooms and offices. The wireless access points also create a mesh
topology for wireless devices. This hybrid topology allows for efficient communication between different buildings
while providing flexibility and redundancy within each building.

In conclusion, network topologies play a crucial role in determining the efficiency and reliability of a computer
network. Each topology, whether it’s bus, star, ring, mesh, or tree, offers unique benefits and potential drawbacks. By
understanding these different arrangements, network designers can choose the most appropriate topology to meet the
specific needs of their systems, ensuring optimal performance and connectivity.
PROTOCOLS:

A protocol is a set of rules that governs data communication. It defines what is communicated, how it is
communicated, and when it is communicated. The key elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics and timing.

Syntax: It refers to the structure or format of the data. This refers the order in which the data are presented.

Example:
(i) The first 8 bits of data to be the address of the sender.
(ii) The second 8 bits to be the address of the receiver.
(iii) The rest of the stream may be the message itself.

Semantics: It refers to the meaning of each section of bits. How a particular pattern to be interpreted? What action is
to be taken based on that interpretation?

Example:
(i) An address specifies the route to be taken or the final destination of the message.

Timing: It refers to two characteristics. When data should be sent and how fast they can be sent.

Example:
(i) If a sender produces data at 100 Mbps and the receiver process data at only 1 Mbps, it will overload the
receiver and data will be lost.

STANDARDS:

Why do we need standards?

 To create and maintain an open and competitive market for equipment manufacturers.
 To guarantee national and international interoperability of data, telecommunication technology and process.
 To give a fixed quality and product to the customer.
 To allow the same product to be re used again elsewhere.
 To aid the design and implementation of ideas.
 To provide guidelines to manufacturers, vendors, government agencies and other service providers to ensure
kind of interconnectivity.

Data communication standards are divided into two categories:

De facto (from the fact): Standards that have not been approved by an organized body. It has been adopted as
standards through widespread use. This is often established originally by manufacturers to define the functionality of a
new product or technology.
De jure (by law): Those that have been legislated by an officially recognized body.

STANDARDS ORGANIZATIONS:

Standards are developed through the cooperation of standards creation committees, forums, and government
regulatory agencies.

STANDARDS CREATION COMMITTEES:

 ITU - International Telecommunications Union formerly the (CCITT): It a standard for

telecommunication in general and data systems in particular.
 ISO - International Standards Organization: It is active in developing cooperation in the realms of
scientific, technological and economic activity.
 ANSI - American National Standards Institute: It is a private nonprofit corporation and affiliated with the
U.S federal government.
 IEEE - Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers: It aims to advance theory, creativity, and product
quality in the fields of electrical engineering, electronics radio and in all related branches of Engineering. It
oversees the development and adoption of international standards for computing and communications.
 EIA - Electronic Industries Association: It is a nonprofit organization devoted to the promotion of
electronics manufacturing concerns. Its activities include public awareness education and lobbying efforts in
addition to standards development. It also made significant contributions by defining physical connection
interfaces and electronic signaling specifications for data communication.
 Forums: It works with universities and users to test, evaluate, and standardize new technologies. The forums
are able to speed acceptance and use of those technologies in the telecommunications community. It presents
their conclusions to standard bodies.
 Regulatory Agencies: Its purpose is to protect the public interest by regulating radio, television and wire
cable communications. It has authority over interstate and international commerce as it relates to
communication.
 Internet Standards: It is a thoroughly tested specification that is useful to and adhered to by those who work
with the internet. It is a formalized regulation that must be followed. A specification begins as an internet draft
and attains Internet standard status. An Internet draft is a working document and it may be published as
 Request for Comment (RFC). RFC is edited, assigned a number, and made available to all interested parties.

SUMMARY OF THE OSI LAYERS: