Maya Civilization

Characteristics
Geography and  The Maya civilization flourished in the tropical rainforests and rugged terrain of
Environment Mesoamerica, primarily in the Yucatán Peninsula and surrounding regions.
 The Maya adapted to their environment by developing sophisticated agricultural
techniques, such as raised field systems and terraced farming, which allowed them
to cultivate crops like maize, beans, and squash despite the challenging landscape.

Society and  The Maya society was highly stratified, with a clear hierarchy. At the top were the
Social Structure divine kings, who had absolute power, followed by nobles, priests, and warriors.
 The common people, including farmers, artisans, and laborers, made up the
majority of the population.

Political  The Maya civilization was composed of independent city-states, each with its own
Organization ruling dynasty and political structure.
 The concept of divine kingship was central to the Maya political system, where the
ruler was believed to have a direct connection with the gods and was responsible for
performing rituals, leading military campaigns, and overseeing monumental
architecture.

Arts and Culture  The Maya were renowned for their artistic achievements, including intricate stone
sculptures, elaborate pottery, and vibrant mural paintings.
 Jade played a significant role in Maya culture, used for ornaments, ceremonial
objects, and as a symbol of status and power.

Religion and  The Maya had a complex system of beliefs, including the worship of numerous gods
Mythology and goddesses, as well as creation myths and rituals that were integral to their
culture.
 These religious practices were often performed at major temples and pyramids,
which served as centers of religious and political power.

Trade and  The Maya engaged in extensive trade networks, exchanging goods such as obsidian,
Economy cacao, and luxury items.
 Agriculture, particularly the cultivation of maize, was the foundation of the Maya
economy, supported by advanced farming techniques.

Achievements  The Maya developed a sophisticated calendar system, made significant

and Legacy advancements in mathematics and astronomy, and created a hieroglyphic writing
system, one of the most advanced in the ancient world.
 These intellectual achievements have left a lasting legacy and continue to fascinate
scholars.

Decline  - The collapse of the Maya civilization is still a subject of ongoing debate, with
theories ranging from environmental degradation, warfare, and social upheaval to
the disruption of trade networks and prolonged drought.
 The exact causes of the Maya's decline remain a topic of active research and
discussion among scholars.
Aztec Civilization
Characteristics
Geography and  The Aztec region was located in central Mexico, dominated by the Valley of Mexico
Environment and the surrounding highlands. The Valley was a highly fertile area with numerous
lakes, rivers, and volcanic activity that shaped the landscape.
 The environment provided the Aztecs with abundant natural resources and allowed
for extensive agricultural practices. The presence of lakes and canals facilitated
transportation and trade networks throughout the region.

Society and  The Aztec social structure was highly stratified, with a ruling class of nobility, a
Social Structure priestly class, warriors, and a large population of commoners and slaves.

Political  The Aztec political system was centered around the Triple Alliance, a federation of
Organization three city-states - Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan.
 Tenochtitlan, located on an island in Lake Texcoco, was the capital and largest city,
serving as the administrative and religious center of the empire.

Arts and Culture  The Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan was an impressive urban center, with a grid-like
layout, grand temples, and extensive water management systems, including
aqueducts and canals. The city was connected to the mainland by causeways and
featured a large central marketplace.

Religion and  The Aztec had a complex polytheistic religion, with a pantheon of gods and
Mythology goddesses, including Huitzilopochtli (the sun god), Tlaloc (the god of rain and
fertility), and Quetzalcoatl (the feathered serpent deity).
 Human sacrifice played a central role in Aztec religious practices, as it was believed
to be essential for maintaining cosmic balance and pleasing the gods.

Trade and  The Aztec economy was based on a complex system of tribute, trade, and the use of
Economy cacao beans as a form of currency.
 Agriculture was the foundation of the Aztec economy, with the cultivation of crops
like maize, beans, and squash. Cacao beans, which were used as a form of
currency, played a crucial role in the Aztec economy.

Achievements  The Aztec developed a sophisticated calendar system, which included a 365-day
and Legacy solar calendar and a 260-day sacred calendar, and made significant advancements
in architecture, engineering, and mathematics.
 The chinampas (floating gardens) were an innovative agricultural technique that
allowed the Aztec to cultivate crops on the shallow lake beds of the Valley of Mexico,
dramatically increasing food production in the densely populated region.

Decline  The Aztec Empire was ultimately conquered by the Spanish conquistador Hernán
Cortés and his indigenous allies in the early 16th century.
 Factors contributing to the fall of the Aztec Empire include the introduction of
European diseases, such as smallpox, to which the indigenous population had no
immunity; internal political and social unrest, including rebellions within the empire;
and the superior military technology and tactics of the Spanish, including the use of
horses, guns, and steel weapons.
Inca Civilization
Characteristics
Geography and  The Inca civilization flourished in the Andes Mountains of western South America,
Environment spanning modern-day Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina.
 The rugged mountainous terrain and diverse climate (from tropical rainforests to
high-altitude deserts) shaped Inca architecture, agriculture, and transportation. The
Andes provided abundant natural resources like precious metals, but also
presented logistical challenges.

Society and  Highly stratified society with the Sapa Inca (emperor) at the top, followed by the
Social Structure nobility, priests, and then commoners.
 Commoners were organized into ayllus, which were extended family communities
that collectively managed land and resources. This communal system helped
ensure food security and social stability.

Political  The Inca government had a highly centralized and e icient administrative structure,
Organization allowing them to e ectively govern the sprawling empire. Provincial governors
collected tribute, enforced laws, and mobilized labor for state projects.

Arts and Culture  Inca art was renowned for its intricate textiles, pottery, metalwork, and architectural
feats like the famous Machu Picchu. Inca artisans produced exquisite works using
gold, silver, and precious stones.

Religion and  The Inca worshipped a pantheon of gods and goddesses, with Inti (the sun god)
Mythology being the most important. The Inca believed the emperor was a living incarnation of
Inti, further cementing his divine right to rule.
 Rituals, festivals, and ceremonies were central to Inca religious and cultural
practices, often involving music, dance, and human sacrifice.

Trade and  The Inca Empire had an extensive trade network facilitated by the extensive road
Economy system and a complex bartering system. Goods were exchanged between regions,
and tribute was collected from conquered territories.

Achievements  The Inca developed a unique system of recording information called the quipu, using
and Legacy knotted strings. This allowed them to track census data, taxes, and other
administrative information across the vast empire.
 The Inca Empire had a lasting influence on subsequent Andean cultures, particularly
in the areas of architecture, agriculture, and administration. Many Inca innovations,
such as terraced farming and road construction, were adopted by later civilizations.

Decline  The Inca Empire was conquered by the Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro in
the 1530s, leading to the collapse of the Inca political and social structure.
 Factors contributing to the fall of the Inca Empire include the introduction of
European diseases (to which the Inca had no immunity), internal political turmoil,
and the technological and military superiority of the Spanish, who had firearms,
cavalry, and ships.
Chavin, Moche (Mochica), and Nazca Civilizations
Chavin
Architecture and  The Chavín de Huántar Complex was a major religious and ceremonial center that
Religious featured impressive architecture, including plazas, platforms, and underground
Significance galleries. The complex showcased advanced engineering and construction techniques.

Religious Beliefs  The Chavin were heavily influenced by shamanism and spiritual practices. Their
and Cosmology iconography, such as the Lanzón statue, suggest they worshipped deities or
supernatural entities that were associated with natural phenomena like jaguars and
serpents.

Art and  Chavin pottery and sculptures featured distinctive iconographic designs, often
Iconography depicting hybrid creatures and abstract symbolic motifs. They were also skilled textile
artists, producing elaborately patterned fabrics.

Moche (Mochica)
Ceramics and  The Moche were renowned for their exquisite pottery, including detailed figurines and
Artistic vessels decorated with intricate iconography. They were also accomplished
Achievements metalworkers, creating jewelry, ritual items, and elaborate ceremonial objects.

Religion and  Religion was deeply intertwined with all aspects of Moche society, from daily life to their
Ritual Practices elaborate rituals and ceremonies. Their religious beliefs and practices are evident in
their iconography, architecture, and burial practices.

Architecture and  The Moche built impressive adobe pyramids and other large-scale structures, often
Urban Planning used for religious and administrative purposes. They also developed advanced irrigation
systems that supported their thriving agricultural economy.

Nazca
Nazca Lines  The Nazca lines are massive geoglyphs, or ground drawings, located in the Peruvian
coastal desert. These intricate designs, which include geometric shapes, animals, and
anthropomorphic figures, are one of the most enigmatic and mysterious archaeological
features of the Nazca culture. The purpose and method of their creation remain the
subject of much debate among scholars.

Irrigation and  Despite the arid climate of the Nazca region, the people developed sophisticated
Agricultural irrigation systems that allowed them to sustain a thriving agricultural economy. This
Practices included the construction of underground aqueducts and canals to transport water
from the nearby Andes mountains.

Religion and  The Nazca had complex religious beliefs, as evidenced by their elaborate burial
Burial Practices practices and rituals. They interred their dead in above-ground tombs and included a
variety of grave goods, such as pottery, textiles, and other artifacts, to accompany the
deceased.
Olmec, Toltec and Zapotec – Comparative Chart
Characteristics
Geography  The Olmec lived in the tropical lowlands along the Gulf Coast.
and  The Toltec inhabited the central highlands.
Environment  The Zapotec occupied the central valleys of Oaxaca.

Society and  The Olmec were organized into chiefdoms and city-states.
Social  Toltec centered their political power around the capital city of Tula and expanded through
Structure military conquest.
 The Zapotec, on the other hand, maintained a complex system of city-states with their own
rulers and political structures, connected through a network of tribute and alliances.

Agricultural  All three civilizations practiced advanced agriculture, cultivating staple crops such as
Practices maize, beans, and squash.
 They relied on a combination of agriculture, hunting, fishing, and the gathering of wild
resources to sustain their populations.

Political  The Toltec were known for their military expansionism and the formation of a regional
Organization empire, while the Olmec and Zapotec tended to be more localized in their political and
cultural influence.
 The Toltec's conquests and political unification of central Mexico had a more far-reaching
impact on subsequent civilizations, like the Aztecs.

Arts and  The Olmec are renowned for their colossal stone heads and their pioneering role in the
Culture development of the Mesoamerican calendar system.
 The Toltec are known for their impressive architectural works, such as the Pyramid of Tula,
and their advanced metalwork and textile production.
 The Zapotec, on the other hand, are particularly recognized for their sophisticated writing
system and calendar, as well as their intricate stone carvings and ceramics.

Religion and  All three civilizations had complex religious and mythological systems, worshipping a
Mythology pantheon of deities.
 They practiced elaborate rituals and ceremonies, including human sacrifice in some
cases.

Timing and  The Olmec civilization is considered the earliest of the three, emerging around 1500-400
Chronological BCE.
Di erences  Toltec and Zapotec civilizations flourished later, from around 900-1200 CE and 500-900 CE,
respectively.
North American Civilizations
Arctic and Subarctic Cultures
Geography and  The Arctic and Subarctic regions encompass the tundra, taiga, and boreal forest biomes
Environmet of northern North America. The harsh, cold climate and limited vegetation shaped the
lifeways of these cultures.
Ways of  Hunting large game like caribou, muskox, and seals, as well as fishing, formed the
subsistence primary subsistence activities for these nomadic groups. The ability to thrive in the
challenging northern environments was essential.

Seasonal  Rather than settling in permanent communities, these groups followed the seasonal
nomadism movements of game and the availability of resources, migrating between summer and
winter camps as needed.

Northwest Coastal Cultures

Geography and  The Northwest Coastal region is characterized by a temperate rainforest climate, with
Environment dense forests, rivers, and a rugged, mountainous coastline. This abundant natural
environment supported the development of these cultures.

Totem Poles  Totem poles were large, carved wooden structures that depicted important stories,
symbols, and representations of ancestors, spirits, and animals. They served as public
displays of a family's history and identity.

Maritime  The coastal environment made the Northwest Coastal peoples skilled seafarers and
traditions fishermen. They relied heavily on marine resources like salmon, whales, seals, and
other ocean life for food, trade, and cultural practices.
Southwest Cultures
Geography and  The Southwest region is characterized by arid, desert landscapes with high plateaus,
environment mesas, and canyons. This harsh, dry environment presented unique challenges and
opportunities for the cultures that developed there.

Ceremonial  Religion and spirituality were deeply woven into the cultural practices of Southwest
rituals peoples, with extensive ceremonial rituals, kivas (underground chambers), and other
religious structures playing important roles in their lives.

Cli dwellings  The Southwest cultures built remarkable multi-story structures, often nestled into the
and architecture sides of cli s and mesa tops. These sturdy, adobe and stone dwellings allowed them to
adapt to the rugged terrain and harsh climate of the region.
Extension of the Inca Empire
From 1438 to 1533, the Incas incorporated a large portion of
western South America, centered on the Andean Mountains, using
conquest and peaceful assimilation, among other methods. At its
largest, the empire joined modern-day Peru, what are now
western Ecuador, western and south central Bolivia,
northwest Argentina, the southwestern most tip of Colombia and a
large portion of modern-day Chile into a state comparable to the
historical empires of Eurasia. Its o icial language was Quechua.

Extension of the Maya Empire

The Maya civilization developed in the Maya Region,
an area that today comprises southeastern Mexico,
all of Guatemala and Belize, and the western
portions of Honduras and El Salvador. It includes
the northern lowlands of the Yucatán Peninsula and
the Guatemalan Highlands of the Sierra Madre, the
Mexican state of Chiapas, southern Guatemala, El
Salvador, and the southern lowlands of the Pacific
littoral plain.

Extension of the Aztec Empire

The Aztecs were a Mesoamerican culture that
flourished in central Mexico in the post-classic
period from 1300 to 1521. The Aztec people included
di erent ethnic groups of central Mexico,
particularly those groups who spoke the Nahuatl
language and who dominated large parts of
Mesoamerica from the 14th to the 16th centuries.