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Light Sensor‬
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‭A light sensor detects light and creates a difference in voltage. A robot’s vision system has a‬
‭computer-controlled camera that allows the robot to see and adjust its movements accordingly. The‬
‭two primary light sensors in robots are Photoresistor and Photovoltaic cells. Other light sensors like‬
‭phototubes, phototransistors, CCDs, etc. are rarely used.‬

‭ ) A photoresistor is a type of resistor whose resistance varies with light intensity changes; more‬
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‭light leads to less resistance, and less light leads to more resistance. They can be easily‬
‭implemented in light-dependent robots.‬

‭ ) Photovoltaic cells convert solar radiation into electricity. This is especially helpful when planning a‬
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‭solar robot. While the photovoltaic cell is considered as an energy source, a smart implementation‬
‭combined with transistors and capacitors can convert this into a sensor.‬

‭ D & 3D Vision: A standard 2D machine vision image is flat, calibrated to measure length and width,‬
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‭but does not provide any height information. 3D vision allows a robot to detect the orientation of a‬
‭part that needs handling more effectively, even if the location and position of the components vary. A‬
‭3D vision system can accurately guide a robotic arm during assembly, while a robotic arm can‬
‭provide multiple viewing angles for critical assembly inspection.‬

‭ . Sound Sensor‬
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‭Sound sensors are generally a microphone used to detect the equivalent voltage of sound and‬
‭return. The sound it receives can be navigated by a simple robot. Imagine a robot turning right to a‬
‭pulpit, turning left for two palpitations. Complex robots may use the same microphone for voice‬
‭recognition. Sound sensors are not as easy as light sensors because sound sensors generate a‬
‭minimal voltage difference which should be amplified to produce a measurable change in voltage.‬
‭Voice systems also use robots with voice commands. This is useful if the trainer has to handle other‬
‭objects when training robots.‬

‭ . Proximity Sensor‬
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‭The nearby object can be detected by a proximity sensor without physical contact. The transmitter‬
‭transmits electromagnetic radiation in the adjacent sensor and receives and analyzes the‬
‭interruption feedback signal. Thus, the amount of light received in the area can be used to detect the‬
‭presence of nearby objects. The sensors provide a collision avoidance method for the robot.‬

‭There are various types of proximity sensors, and only a few of them are usually used in robots.‬

I‭nfrared (IR) transceiver: An IR LED transmits an IR light beam that reflects the light captured by an‬
‭IR recipient when an obstacle is found.‬

‭ ltrasound Sensor: These sensors generate sound waves at high frequencies; the received echo‬
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‭indicates an object is interrupted. Ultrasound sensors can also be used for distance measurement.‬

‭ hotoresistor: Photoresistor is a light sensor, but it can still be utilized as a sensor of proximity. If an‬
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‭object approaches the sensor, the number of light changes, which changes the resistance of the‬
‭Photoresistor. This is detectable and processable.‬
‭ . Tactile Sensors‬
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‭Tactile Sensor is a device specifying an object’s contact. Often used in everyday objects such as‬
‭elevator buttons and lamps, which dim or brighten by touching the base, a tactile sensor allows the‬
‭robot to touch and feel. These sensors are used to measure applications and gently interact with the‬
‭environment. It can be sorted into two principal types: Touch Sensor and Force Sensor.‬

‭ ) Touch Sensor or Contact Sensor: Touch Sensor is capable of sensing and detecting sensor and‬
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‭object touch. Some of the commonly used simple devices are micro-switches, limit switches, etc.‬
‭These sensors are mostly used for robots to avoid obstacles. When these sensors hit an obstacle, it‬
‭triggers a task for the robot, which can be reversed, turned, switched on, stopped, etc.‬

‭ ) Force Sensor: Force sensor is included in calculating the forces of several functions, such as‬
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‭machine loading & unloading, material handling, and so on, performed by a robot. This sensor will‬
‭also be a better assembly process to check problems.‬

‭ . Temperature Sensor‬
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‭Temperature sensors are used to detect the surrounding temperature change. It is based on the‬
‭principle of voltage difference change for a temperature change; this voltage change will provide the‬
‭surrounding temperature equivalent. Temperature sensing applications include air temperature,‬
‭surface temperature, immersion temperature.‬

‭ . Navigation and Positioning Sensors‬

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‭Positioning sensors are used to approximate the position of a robot. The usual positioning sensor is‬
‭a GPS (Global Positioning System). Satellites orbiting our Earth transmit signals, and a robot‬
‭receiver acquires and processes these signals. Use the processed information to determine a robot’s‬
‭approximate position and velocity.‬

‭ igital Magnetic Compass provides directional measurements using the Earth’s magnetic field that‬
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‭guides your robot to reach its destination. Compared to GPS modules, these sensors are cheap, but‬
‭a compass works best when you need both positional feedback and navigation. Another method‬
‭called location refers to the task of automatically determining a robot’s location based on external‬
‭elements such as natural and artificially placed landmarks such as doors, windows, walls, etc.‬

‭ . Acceleration Sensor‬
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‭An accelerometer is a device for measuring acceleration and tilt. The two types of forces affect an‬
‭accelerometer: a) Static Force — the frictional force between any two objects. By measuring this‬
‭gravity, we can determine how much robot tilts. This measurement is useful in balancing robot or‬
‭determining whether a robot is driving on a flat or uphill surface. B) Dynamic Force — The‬
‭acceleration required to move an object. Measuring dynamic force using an accelerometer tells the‬
‭speed/speed at which a robot moves.‬
‭Pressure Sensors:‬

‭ hey are widely used to quantify pressure. Tactile is a robot sensor that is used to measure‬
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‭force and pressure with the help of touch. It is used to determine the grip strength of a robot arm‬
‭and the pressure it requires to hold an object.‬

‭Distance Sensors:‬

‭ ost of the proximity sensors are extensively used as distance sensors. These are also‬
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‭commonly referred to as Range Sensors. The IR and ultrasonics are great assets to calculate‬
‭distances accurately.‬

‭Tilt Sensors:‬

‭ he tilt sensor helps to find if an object tilts accurately. In a typical tilt sensor, a small amount of‬
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‭mercury is present in a glass bulb. If tilted, the mercury automatically flows to one of the ends,‬
‭turning the switch off to indicate the tilt.‬

‭Navigation Sensors:‬

‭ he Navigation sensors are also called positioning sensors. The position sensors in robots are‬
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‭used to detect their positions. The commonly used position sensors are:‬

‭GPS - It is beneficial for outdoor robots. It analyses the maps received from the GPS satellites.‬

‭ ocalisation - This sensor helps a robot recognise elements externally and process the data to‬
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‭locate their positions. It considers both natural and artificial landmarks to achieve the task.‬

‭ ompass - Like a magnetic compass, the digital version also helps a robot detect directions.‬
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‭They are very cheap in comparison to GPS.‬

‭Acceleration Sensors:‬

‭ his sensor helps to measure the tilt as well as the acceleration. The two primary forces that‬
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‭can affect the functioning of an accelerometer are static forces and dynamic forces.‬

‭ he static force is friction between two objects. This force is used to understand how exactly a‬
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‭robot tilts.‬
‭ he dynamic force is the amount of force needed to move an object. Hence, dynamic force‬
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‭calculates the required acceleration.‬

‭Gyroscope:‬

‭ ith the help of angular momentum, this sensor is used to quantify the orientation. It is used‬
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‭when we want our robot to be independent of the earth’s gravity to maintain the right orientation.‬

‭IMU:‬

‭ o measure velocity, orientation, and gravitational forces together, an IMU is used to combine all‬
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‭the required sensors to determine the results accurately.‬

‭Voltage Sensors:‬

‭ hese sensors are mainly used to convert a lower voltage to a higher one or vice versa. For‬
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‭example, take a simple Op-Amp that intakes a low voltage, amplifies, and creates a higher‬
‭output. They are also used to determine the potential difference between two ends, like a‬
‭voltage comparator.‬

‭Current Sensors:‬

‭ hese sensors are made to monitor the flow of current in a circuit. The output is either the same‬
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‭current or the corresponding voltage. Most of the voltage outputs of current sensors are in the‬
‭range of 0V to 5V. The obtained current, if required, can be modified by a microcontroller.‬