VECTOR ALGEBRA 441

16. Find the position vector of the mid point of the vector joining the points P(2, 3, 4)
and Q(4, 1, –2).
17. Show that the points A, B and C with position vectors, = 3iˆ − 4 ˆj − 4kˆ,
= 2iˆ − ˆj + kˆ and = iˆ − 3 ˆj − 5kˆ , respectively form the vertices of a right angled
triangle.
18. In triangle ABC (Fig 10.18), which of the following is not true:
(A)

(B)

(C)

(D) Fig 10.18

19. If are two collinear vectors, then which of the following are incorrect:
(A)
(B)
(C) the respective components of are not proportional
(D) both the vectors have same direction, but different magnitudes.
10.6 Product of Two Vectors
So far we have studied about addition and subtraction of vectors. An other algebraic
operation which we intend to discuss regarding vectors is their product. We may
recall that product of two numbers is a number, product of two matrices is again a
matrix. But in case of functions, we may multiply them in two ways, namely,
multiplication of two functions pointwise and composition of two functions. Similarly,
multiplication of two vectors is also defined in two ways, namely, scalar (or dot)
product where the result is a scalar, and vector (or cross) product where the
result is a vector. Based upon these two types of products for vectors, they have
found various applications in geometry, mechanics and engineering. In this section,
we will discuss these two types of products.
10.6.1 Scalar (or dot) product of two vectors
Definition 2 The scalar product of two nonzero vectors , denoted by , is

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defined as =
where, θ is the angle between (Fig 10.19).

If either then θ is not defined, and in this case, we Fig 10.19

define
Observations
1. is a real number.
2. Let be two nonzero vectors, then if and only if are
perpendicular to each other. i.e.

3. If θ = 0, then
In particular, as θ in this case is 0.
   
4. If θ = π, then a ⋅ b = − | a | | b |
In particular, , as θ in this case is π.
5. In view of the Observations 2 and 3, for mutually perpendicular unit vectors
iˆ, ˆj and kˆ, we have
iˆ ⋅ iˆ = ˆj ⋅ ˆj = kˆ ⋅ kˆ = 1,
iˆ ⋅ ˆj = ˆj ⋅ kˆ = kˆ ⋅ iˆ = 0

6. The angle between two nonzero vectors is given by

or

7. The scalar product is commutative. i.e.

(Why?)
Two important properties of scalar product

Property 1 (Distributivity of scalar product over addition) Let be

any three vectors, then

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Property 2 Let be any two vectors, and l be any scalar. Then

If two vectors are given in component form as a1iˆ + a2 ˆj + a3kˆ and

b1iˆ + b2 ˆj + b3 kˆ , then their scalar product is given as
= (a1iˆ + a2 ˆj + a3kˆ ) ⋅ (b1iˆ + b2 ˆj + b3kˆ )

= a1iˆ ⋅ (b1iˆ + b2 ˆj + b3kˆ ) + a2 ˆj ⋅ (b1iˆ + b2 ˆj + b3 kˆ ) + a3kˆ ⋅ (b1iˆ + b2 ˆj + b3 kˆ)

= a1b1 (iˆ ⋅ iˆ) + a1b2 (iˆ ⋅ ˆj ) + a1b3 (iˆ ⋅ kˆ ) + a2b1 ( ˆj ⋅ iˆ) + a2b2 ( ˆj ⋅ ˆj ) + a2b3 ( ˆj ⋅ kˆ)
+ a3b1 ( kˆ ⋅ iˆ) + a3b2 (kˆ ⋅ ˆj ) + a3b3 ( kˆ ⋅ kˆ ) (Using the above Properties 1 and 2)
= a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3 (Using Observation 5)
Thus = a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3
10.6.2 Projection of a vector on a line
Suppose a vector makes an angle θ with a given directed line l (say), in the

anticlockwise direction (Fig 10.20). Then the projection of on l is a vector p
(say) with magnitude , and the direction of being the same (or opposite)
to that of the line l, depending upon whether cos θ is positive or negative. The vector
B
B
a a
θ
θ l l
A p C C A
p
(0 < θ < 900)
0
(900< θ < 1800)
(i) (ii)

p θ θ p
C l C l
A
A
a a
B B
(1800< θ < 2700) (2700< θ < 3600)
(iii) (iv)

Fig 10.20

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is called the projection vector, and its magnitude | | is simply called as the projection
of the vector on the directed line l.
For example, in each of the following figures (Fig 10.20 (i) to (iv)), projection vector
of along the line l is vector .
Observations
1. If p̂ is the unit vector along a line l, then the projection of a vector on the line

l is given by a ⋅ pˆ .

2. Projection of a vector on other vector b , is given by


a ⋅ bˆ, or

3. If θ = 0, then the projection vector of will be itself and if θ = π, then the

projection vector of will be .
π 3π
4. If θ = or θ = , then the projection vector of will be zero vector.
2 2
Remark If α, β and γ are the direction angles of vector = a1iˆ + a2 ˆj + a3 kˆ , then its
direction cosines may be given as

Also, note that are respectively the projections of

along OX, OY and OZ. i.e., the scalar components a1, a2 and a3 of the vector , are
precisely the projections of along x-axis, y-axis and z-axis, respectively. Further, if
is a unit vector, then it may be expressed in terms of its direction cosines as
= cos αiˆ + cos βˆj + cos γkˆ

Example 13 Find the angle between two vectors with magnitudes 1 and 2
respectively and when =1.
Solution Given . We have

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Example 14 Find angle ‘θ’ between the vectors .

Solution The angle θ between two vectors is given by

cosθ =

Now = (iˆ + ˆj − kˆ) ⋅ ( iˆ − ˆj + kˆ ) = 1 − 1 − 1 = −1 .

−1
Therefore, we have cosθ =
3

hence the required angle is θ=

Example 15 If , then show that the vectors

are perpendicular.
Solution We know that two nonzero vectors are perpendicular if their scalar product
is zero.
Here = (5iˆ − ˆj − 3kˆ ) + ( iˆ + 3 ˆj − 5kˆ) = 6iˆ + 2 ˆj − 8kˆ
and = (5iˆ − ˆj − 3kˆ) − ( iˆ + 3 ˆj − 5kˆ ) = 4iˆ − 4 ˆj + 2kˆ

So ( ).( ) = (6iˆ + 2 ˆj − 8kˆ) ⋅ (4iˆ − 4 ˆj + 2kˆ) = 24 − 8 − 16 = 0.

Hence are perpendicular vectors.

Example 16 Find the projection of the vector = 2 iˆ + 3 ˆj + 2 kˆ on the vector
= iˆ + 2 ˆj + kˆ .
 
Solution The projection of vector a on the vector b is given by
(2 × 1 + 3 × 2 + 2 × 1) 10 5
= = = 6
(1) 2 + (2) 2 + (1)2 6 3
Example 17 Find , if two vectors are such that
and .
Solution We have

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into the positive y-axis, a right handed (standard) screw would advance in the direction
of the positive z-axis (Fig 10.22(i)).
In a right handed coordinate system, the thumb of the right hand points in the
direction of the positive z-axis when the fingers are curled in the direction away from
the positive x-axis toward the positive y-axis (Fig 10.22(ii)).

Fig 10.22 (i), (ii)

Definition 3 The vector product of two nonzero vectors , is denoted by

and defined as
= ,

where, θ is the angle between , 0 ≤ θ ≤ π and n̂ is a

unit vector perpendicular to both , such that

form a right handed system (Fig 10.23). i.e., the
right handed system rotated from moves in the direction
Fig 10.23
of n̂ .
If either , then θ is not defined and in this case, we define .
Observations
1. is a vector.
 
2. Let a and b be two nonzero vectors. Then if and only if are
parallel (or collinear) to each other, i.e.,

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In particular, and , since in the first situation, θ = 0 and

in the second one, θ = π, making the value of sin θ to be 0.
π
3. If θ = then .
2
4. In view of the Observations 2 and 3, for mutually perpendicular
unit vectors iˆ, ˆj and kˆ (Fig 10.24), we have

iˆ × iˆ =
iˆ × ˆj = kˆ, ˆj × kˆ = iˆ, kˆ × iˆ = ˆj Fig 10.24

5. In terms of vector product, the angle between two vectors may be

given as

sin θ =

6. It is always true that the vector product is not commutative, as = .

Indeed, , where form a right handed system,
i.e., θ is traversed from , Fig 10.25 (i). While, , where
form a right handed system i.e. θ is traversed from ,
Fig 10.25(ii).

Fig 10.25 (i), (ii)

 
Thus, if we assume a and b to lie in the plane of the paper, then nˆ and nˆ1 both
will be perpendicular to the plane of the paper. But, n̂ being directed above the
paper while n̂1 directed below the paper. i.e. nˆ1 = − nˆ .

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Hence =
=
7. In view of the Observations 4 and 6, we have
ˆj × iˆ = − kˆ, kˆ × ˆj = − iˆ and iˆ × kˆ = − ˆj.

8. If represent the adjacent sides of a triangle then its area is given as

.
By definition of the area of a triangle, we have from
Fig 10.26,
1
Area of triangle ABC = AB ⋅ CD.
2
Fig 10.26
But (as given), and CD = sin θ.

Thus, Area of triangle ABC =

9. If represent the adjacent sides of a parallelogram, then its area is given

by .
From Fig 10.27, we have
Area of parallelogram ABCD = AB. DE.
But (as given), and
.
Thus, Fig 10.27

Area of parallelogram ABCD =

We now state two important properties of vector product.
Property 3 (Distributivity of vector product over addition): If
are any three vectors and λ be a scalar, then
(i)
(ii)

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Let be two vectors given in component form as a1iˆ + a2 ˆj + a3kˆ and

b1iˆ + b2 ˆj + b3 kˆ , respectively. Then their cross product may be given by

iˆ ˆj kˆ
= a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3
Explanation We have
= (a1iˆ + a2 ˆj + a3kˆ ) × (b1iˆ + b2 ˆj + b3kˆ )
= a1b1 (iˆ × iˆ) + a1b2 (iˆ × ˆj ) + a1b3 (iˆ × kˆ ) + a2b1 ( ˆj × iˆ)
+ a2 b2 ( ˆj × ˆj ) + a2b3 ( ˆj × kˆ)
+ a3b1 ( kˆ × iˆ) + a3b2 (kˆ × ˆj ) + a3b3 ( kˆ × kˆ) (by Property 1)
= a1b2 (iˆ × ˆj ) − a1b3 (kˆ × iˆ) − a2b1 (iˆ × ˆj )
+ a2 b3 ( ˆj × kˆ ) + a3b1 (kˆ × iˆ) − a3b2 ( ˆj × kˆ)
(as iˆ × iˆ = ˆj × ˆj = kˆ × kˆ = 0 and iˆ × kˆ = −kˆ × iˆ, ˆj × iˆ = −iˆ × ˆj and kˆ × ˆj = − ˆj × kˆ)
= a1b2 kˆ − a1b3 ˆj − a2b1kˆ + a2b3iˆ + a3b1 ˆj − a3b2iˆ
(as iˆ × ˆj = kˆ, ˆj × kˆ = iˆ and kˆ × iˆ = ˆj )
= (a2b3 − a3b2 )iˆ − (a1b3 − a3b1 ) ˆj + ( a1b2 − a2b1 ) kˆ

iˆ ˆj kˆ
= a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3

Example 22 Find
Solution We have
iˆ ˆj kˆ
= 2 1 3
3 5 −2

= iˆ( −2 − 15) − (− 4 − 9) ˆj + (10 – 3)kˆ = −17iˆ + 13 ˆj + 7kˆ

Hence = ( −17) 2 + (13) 2 + (7)2 = 507

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Example 23 Find a unit vector perpendicular to each of the vectors and

where .

Solution We have
   
A vector which is perpendicular to both a + b and a − b is given by

Now = 4 + 16 + 4 = 24 = 2 6
Therefore, the required unit vector is

c −1 ˆ 2 ˆ 1 ˆ
 = i+ j− k
|c | 6 6 6

Note There are two perpendicular directions to any plane. Thus, another unit
1 ˆ 2 ˆ 1 ˆ
vector perpendicular to will be i− j+ k . But that will
6 6 6
be a consequence of .
Example 24 Find the area of a triangle having the points A(1, 1, 1), B(1, 2, 3)
and C(2, 3, 1) as its vertices.

Solution We have . The area of the given triangle

is .

iˆ ˆj kˆ
Now, = 0 1 2 = − 4iˆ + 2 ˆj − kˆ
1 2 0

Therefore = 16 + 4 + 1 = 21
1
Thus, the required area is 21
2

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Example 25 Find the area of a parallelogram whose adjacent sides are given
by the vectors
Solution The area of a parallelogram with as its adjacent sides is given

by .

iˆ ˆj kˆ
Now = 3 1 4 = 5iˆ + ˆj − 4kˆ
1 −1 1

Therefore = 25 + 1 + 16 = 42
and hence, the required area is 42 .

EXERCISE 10.4

1. Find .
2. Find a unit vector perpendicular to each of the vector , where
.
π π
3. If a unit vector makes angles with iˆ, with ˆj and an acute angle θ with
3 4
k̂ , then find θ and hence, the components of .
4. Show that

5. Find λ and µ if .
6. Given that and . What can you conclude about the vectors
?
7. Let the vectors be given as a1iˆ + a2 ˆj + a3kˆ, b1iˆ + b2 ˆj + b3kˆ,
c1iˆ + c2 ˆj + c3 kˆ . Then show that .

8. If either then . Is the converse true? Justify your

answer with an example.
9. Find the area of the triangle with vertices A(1, 1, 2), B(2, 3, 5) and C(1, 5, 5).

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10. Find the area of the parallelogram whose adjacent sides are determined by the
vectors and .

11. Let the vectors be such that , then is a unit

vector, if the angle between is
(A) π/6 (B) π/4 (C) π/3 (D) π/2
12. Area of a rectangle having vertices A, B, C and D with position vectors
1 1 1 1
– iˆ + ˆj + 4kˆ, iˆ + ˆj + 4kˆ , iˆ − ˆj + 4kˆ and – iˆ − ˆj + 4kˆ , respectively is
2 2 2 2
1
(A) (B) 1
2
(C) 2 (D) 4

Miscellaneous Examples
Example 26 Write all the unit vectors in XY-plane.
Solution Let be a unit vector in XY-plane (Fig 10.28). Then, from the
figure, we have x = cos θ and y = sin θ (since | | = 1). So, we may write the vector r as
= cos θ iˆ + sin θ ˆj ... (1)
Clearly, | |= cos 2 θ + sin 2 θ = 1

Fig 10.28
Also, as θ varies from 0 to 2π, the point P (Fig 10.28) traces the circle x2 + y2 = 1
counterclockwise, and this covers all possible directions. So, (1) gives every unit vector
in the XY-plane.

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Example 27 If iˆ + ˆj + kˆ, 2iˆ + 5 ˆj, 3iˆ + 2 ˆj − 3kˆ and iˆ − 6 ˆj − kˆ are the position
vectors of points A, B, C and D respectively, then find the angle between and .
Deduce that and are collinear.
Solution Note that if θ is the angle between AB and CD, then θ is also the angle
between and .
Now = Position vector of B – Position vector of A
= (2iˆ + 5 ˆj ) − (iˆ + ˆj + kˆ) = iˆ + 4 ˆj − kˆ

Therefore | |= (1) 2 + (4) 2 + ( −1) 2 = 3 2


Similarly = − 2iˆ − 8 ˆj + 2kˆ and |CD |= 6 2

Thus cos θ =

1(−2) + 4(−8) + ( −1)(2) −36

= = = −1
(3 2)(6 2) 36
Since 0 ≤ θ ≤ π, it follows that θ = π. This shows that and are collinear.

Alternatively, which implies that and are collinear vectors.

Example 28 Let be three vectors such that and

each one of them being perpendicular to the sum of the other two, find .

Solution Given
Now

=
+
=
= 9 + 16 + 25 = 50
Therefore = 50 = 5 2

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