Democracy in Brief
Democracy in Brief
Democracy in Brief
In 1215, English nobles pressured King John of England to sign a document known as the
Magna Carta, a key step on the road to constitutional democracy. By doing so, the king
acknowledged he was bound by law, like others, and granted his subjects legal rights.
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Characteristics of Democracy • Citizens in a democracy
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discuss issues and arrive at elect officials to make political decisions, formulate laws, and
decisions by consensus or administer programs for the public good.
majority vote.
Some U.S. states, in Majority Rule and Minority Rights
addition, place “propositions”
and “referenda” — mandated All democracies are systems in which citizens freely make
changes of law — or possible political decisions by majority rule. In the words of American
recall of elected officials on essayist E.B. White: “Democracy is the recurrent suspicion that
ballots during state elections. more than half the people are right more than half the time.”
These practices are forms of But majority rule, by itself, is not automatically
direct democracy, expressing democratic. No one, for example, would call a system fair or
the will of a large population. just that permitted 51 percent of the population to oppress
Many practices may have the remaining 49 percent in the name of the majority. In
elements of direct democracy. a democratic society, majority rule must be coupled with
In Switzerland, many important guarantees of individual human rights that, in turn, serve to
political decisions on issues, protect the rights of minorities and dissenters — whether ethnic,
Some local jurisdictions in the United States
including public health, still practice a form of direct democracy, as religious, or simply the losers in political debate. The rights of
energy, and employment, in this town meeting in Harwick, Vermont.
minorities do not depend upon the good will of the majority and
Schools and taxes tend to be popular issues.
are subject to a vote by the cannot be eliminated by majority vote. The rights of minorities
country’s citizens. And some are protected because democratic laws and institutions protect
might argue that the Internet is creating new forms of direct the rights of all citizens.
democracy, as it empowers political groups to raise money for Minorities need to trust the government to protect their
their causes by appealing directly to like-minded citizens. rights and safety. Once this is accomplished, such groups can
However, today, as in the past, the most common form participate in, and contribute to their country’s democratic
of democracy, whether for a town of 50,000 or a nation of 50 institutions. The principle of majority rule and minority rights
million, is representative democracy, in which citizens
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Tolerance and cooperation build democracy.
An educated citizenry is the best guarantee for a thriving democracy.
authority. Most democratic societies have thousands of private
characterizes all modern democracies, no matter how varied in organizations, some local, some national. Many of them serve a
history, culture, population, and economy. mediating role between individuals and society’s complex social
and governmental institutions, lling roles not given to the
Pluralism and Democratic Society government and offering individuals opportunities to become
part of their society without being in government.
In a democracy, government is only one thread in the In an authoritarian society, virtually all such organizations
social fabric of many and varied public and private institutions, would be controlled, licensed, watched, or otherwise
legal forums, political parties, organizations, and associations. accountable to the government. In a democracy, the powers of
This diversity is called pluralism, and it assumes that the many the government are, by law, clearly dened and sharply limited.
organized groups and institutions in a democratic society do As a result, private organizations are largely free of government
not depend upon government for their existence, legitimacy, or control. In this busy private realm of democratic society, citizens
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Rights and Responsibilities
D emocracies rest upon the principle that government exists
to serve the people. In other words, the people are citizens
of the democratic state, not its subjects. Because the state
protects the rights of its citizens, they, in turn, give the state
their loyalty. Under an authoritarian system, by contrast, the
state demands loyalty and service from its people without any
reciprocal obligation to secure their consent for its actions.
Fundamental Rights
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are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. That to unwise or oppressive government officials or policies. Citizens
secure these rights, governments are instituted among and their elected representatives recognize that democracy
men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the depends upon the widest possible access to uncensored ideas,
governed. data, and opinions. For a free people to govern themselves, they
must be free to express themselves — openly, publicly, and
More specically, in democracies, these fundamental or repeatedly — in speech and in writing.
inalienable rights include freedom of speech and expression, The protection of free speech is a so-called “negative right,”
freedom of religion and conscience, freedom of assembly, simply requiring that the government refrain from limiting
and the right to equal protection before the law. This is by no speech. For the most part, the authorities in a democracy are
means an exhaustive list of the rights that citizens enjoy in a uninvolved in the content of written and verbal speech.
democracy, but it does constitute a set of the irreducible core Protests serve as a testing ground for any democracy
rights that any democratic government worthy of the name — thus the right to peaceful assembly is essential and plays an
must uphold. Since they exist independently of government, integral part in facilitating the use of free speech. A civil society
in Jefferson’s view, these rights cannot be legislated away, nor allows for spirited debate among those in disagreement over
should they be subject to the whim of an electoral majority. the issues. In the modern United States, even fundamental
issues of national security, war, and peace are discussed freely in
Speech, Assembly, and Protest newspapers and in broadcast media, with those opposed to the
administration’s foreign policy easily publicizing their views.
Freedom of speech and expression, especially about Freedom of speech is a fundamental right, but it is not
political and social issues, is the lifeblood of any democracy. absolute, and cannot be used to incite to violence. Slander and
Democratic governments do not control the content of most libel, if proven, are usually dened and controlled through the
written and verbal speech. Thus democracies are usually lled courts. Democracies generally require a high degree of threat
with many voices expressing different or even contrary ideas to justify banning speech or gatherings that may incite violence,
and opinions. Democracies tend to be noisy. untruthfully harm the reputation of others, or overthrow a
Democracy depends upon a literate, knowledgeable constitutional government. Many democracies ban speech
citizenry whose access to information enables it to participate that promotes racism or ethnic hatred. The challenge for all
as fully as possible in the public life of society and to criticize democracies, however, is one of balance: to defend freedom
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practice, and teaching without fear of persecution from
government or other groups in society. All people have the right
to worship or assemble in connection with a religion or belief, and
to establish and maintain places for these purposes.
Like other fundamental human rights, religious freedom
is not created or granted by the state, but all democratic states
should protect it. Although many democracies may choose to
recognize an official separation of church and state, the values
of government and religion are not in fundamental conict.
Governments that protect religious freedom for all their citizens
are more likely to protect other rights necessary for religious
freedom, such as free speech and assembly. The American
colonies, virtually theocratic states in the 17th and 18th centuries,
Democracy as hope: In 2006, 20,000 people marched in Hong Kong carrying banners developed theories of religious tolerance and secular democracy
reading “Justice, Equality, Democracy, and Hope.”
almost simultaneously. By contrast, some of the totalitarian
of speech and assembly while countering speech that truly dictatorships of the 20th century attempted to wipe out religion,
encourages violence, intimidation, or subversion of democratic seeing it (rightly) as a form of self-expression by the individual
institutions. One can disagree forcefully and publicly with the conscience, akin to political speech. Genuine democracies
actions of a public official; calling for his (or her) assassination, recognize that individual religious differences must be respected
however, is a crime. and that a key role of government is to protect religious choice,
even in cases where the state sanctions a particular religious faith.
Religious Freedom and Tolerance However, this does not mean that religion itself can become an
excuse for violence against other religions or against society as
All citizens should be free to follow their conscience in a whole. Religion is exercised within the context of a democratic
matters of religious faith. Freedom of religion includes the society but does not take it over.
right to worship alone or with others, in public or private, or
not to worship at all, and to participate in religious observance,
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Democratic development and economic prosperity often go hand in hand: above, a market
in Istanbul.
As democracies become stable, they permit more freedoms. When French voters were
Citizen Responsibilities given the right to vote by referendum on the proposed European Constitution (here being
mailed to them in May 2005), they expressed their binding opinion by rejecting it.
Citizenship in a democracy requires participation, civility, It is certainly true that individuals exercise basic rights —
patience — rights as well as responsibilities. Political scientist such as freedom of speech, assembly, religion — but in another
Benjamin Barber has noted, “Democracy is often understood sense, rights, like individuals, do not function in isolation. Rights
as the rule of the majority, and rights are understood more and are exercised within the framework of a society, which is why
more as the private possessions of individuals. ... But this is to rights and responsibilities are so closely connected.
misunderstand both rights and democracy.” For democracy Democratic government, which is elected by and
to succeed, citizens must be active, not passive, because they accountable to its citizens, protects individual rights so that
know that the success or failure of the government is their citizens in a democracy can undertake their civic obligations and
responsibility, and no one else’s. responsibilities, thereby strengthening the society as a whole.
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At a minimum, citizens should educate themselves about Democratic Elections
the critical issues confronting their society, if only so that they
can vote intelligently. Some obligations, such as serving on juries
in civil or criminal trials or in the military, may be required by law,
F ree and fair elections are essential in assuring the consent of
the governed, which is the bedrock of democratic politics.
Elections serve as the principal mechanism for translating that
but most are voluntary. consent into governmental authority.
The essence of democratic action is the peaceful, active,
freely chosen participation of its citizens in the public life of their Elements of Democratic Elections
community and nation. According to scholar Diane Ravitch,
“Democracy is a process, a way of living and working together. It The late Jeane Kirkpatrick, scholar and former U.S.
is evolutionary, not static. It requires cooperation, compromise, representative to the United Nations, offered this denition:
and tolerance among all citizens. Making it work is hard, not easy. “Democratic elections are not merely symbolic. ...They are
Freedom means responsibility, not freedom from responsibility.” competitive, periodic, inclusive, denitive elections in which the
Fullling this responsibility can involve active engagement in
organizations or the pursuit of specic community goals; above
all, fulllment in a democracy involves a certain attitude, a
willingness to believe that people who are different from you
have similar rights.
As democracy expands worldwide, so does the ballot box. Above: Yemeni voter.
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of assembly for opposition
parties does not imply mob
rule or violence. It means
debate.
Democratic elections are
periodic. Democracies do not
elect dictators or presidents-
for-life. Elected officials are
accountable to the people,
and they must return to the
voters at prescribed intervals
to seek their mandate to
continue in office and face
the risk of being voted out of
Free choice is essential in elections. Here, voters in the Democratic Republic of Congo
peruse choices in 2006. office.
The more self-condent the democracy, the
greater the variety of candidates. Democratic elections are
chief decision-makers in a government are selected by citizens Michelle Bachelet’s election as Chilean
inclusive. The denition of
president expanded political horizons for
who enjoy broad freedom to criticize government, to publish women. citizen and voter must be large
their criticism, and to present alternatives.” enough to include the adult
Democratic elections are competitive. Opposition parties population. A government chosen by a small, exclusive group
and candidates must enjoy the freedom of speech, assembly, is not a democracy — no matter how democratic its internal
and movement necessary to voice their criticisms of the workings may appear. One of the great dramas of democracy
government openly and to bring alternative policies and throughout history has been the struggle of excluded groups
candidates to the voters. Simply permitting the opposition — whether racial, ethnic, or religious minorities, or women — to
access to the ballot is not enough. The party in power may enjoy win full citizenship, and with it the right to vote, hold office, and
the advantages of incumbency, but the rules and conduct of participate fully in the society.
the election contest must be fair. On the other hand, freedom Democratic elections are denitive. They determine the
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Loyal Opposition
Administering Elections
Due Process
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In order to implement due process, the following rules
have evolved in constitutional democracies:
• No one’s home can be searched by the police without
a court order showing that there is good cause for such
a search. The midnight knock of the secret police has no
place in a democracy.
• No person shall be held under arrest without explicit,
written charges that specify the alleged violation.
Moreover, under the doctrine known as habeas corpus,
every person who is arrested has a right to be brought
before a court and must be released if a court nds that
the arrest is invalid.
• Persons charged with crimes should not be held in Rule of law can be complicated: above, a lawsuit alleging wrongful employment
prison for protracted periods before being tried. They are termination begins in court in the State of Washington, 2005.
A constitution, which states government’s fundamental in a single written document, establishes the authority of the
obligations and the limitations on state power, is a vital national government, provides guarantees for fundamental
institution for any democracy. human rights, and sets forth the government’s basic operating
procedures. Constitutions are often based on previously
Constitutions: Supreme Law uncodied, but widely accepted, practices and precedents. For
instance, the U.S. Constitution is based on concepts derived
A constitution denes the basic purposes and aspirations from British common law as well as 18th-century philosophers’
of a society for the sake of the common welfare of the people. attempts to dene the rights of man.
All citizens, including the nation’s leaders, are subject to the Constitutionalism recognizes that democratic and
nation’s constitution, which stands as the supreme law of the accountable government must be coupled with clearly dened
land. limits on the power of government. All laws, therefore, must be
written in accordance with the constitution. In a democracy, a
politically independent judiciary allows citizens to challenge
laws they believe to be unconstitutional, and to seek court-
ordered remedies for illegal actions by the government or its
officials.
Despite their enduring, monumental qualities, constitutions
must be capable of change and adaptation if they are to
be more than admirable fossils. The world’s oldest written
constitution, that of the United States, consists of seven brief
articles and 27 amendments — the rst 10 of which are known
as the Bill of Rights. This written document, however, is also
the foundation for a vast “constitutional” structure of judicial
decisions, statutes, presidential actions, and practices that has
been erected over the past 200 years and which has kept the
U.S. Constitution alive and relevant.
Signing of the U.S. Constitution, Philadelphia, 1787.
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In general, there are two schools of thought about the
process of amending, or changing, a nation’s constitution. One
holds that it is best to adopt a difficult procedure, requiring
many steps and large majorities for amendment. As a result,
the constitution is changed infrequently, and then only for
compelling reasons that receive substantial public support. This
is the U.S. model.
A simpler method of constitutional change, which many
nations use, is to provide that any amendment may be adopted
by approval of the legislature and passed by the voters at the
next election. Constitutions revised in this fashion can become
quite lengthy.
Federalism: Dispersal of Power In the U.S. federal system, institutions such as the police and schools are largely funded and
managed at the local level.
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complaints, or in response to political criticism. Instead, they Free and Independent Media
A
can be removed only for serious crimes or infractions through s modern societies grow in size and complexity, the
the lengthy and difficult procedure of impeachment (bringing arena for communication and public debate has become
charges) and trial — either in the legislature or before a separate dominated by the media: radio and television, newspapers,
court panel. magazines, books — and increasingly by newer media such as
the Internet and satellite television.
Whether Web logs (known as blogs) or printed books,
the media in a democracy have a number of overlapping
but distinctive
functions that remain
fundamentally
unchanged. One is to
inform and educate.
To make intelligent
decisions about
public policy, people
need accurate,
timely, unbiased
information. Freedom of expression relies on vibrant, multi-faceted
press and information services.
However, another
media function may
be to advocate, even without pretense of objectivity. Media
audiences may benet from various, conicting opinions,
in order to obtain a wide range of viewpoints. This role is
especially important during election campaigns, when few
voters will have the opportunity to see, much less talk with,
candidates in person.
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A second function of the media is to serve as a watchdog
over government and other powerful institutions in the society.
By holding to a standard of independence and objectivity,
however imperfectly, the news media can expose the truth
behind the claims of governments and hold public officials
accountable for their actions.
The media can also take a more active role in public debate
through editorials or investigative reporting, and serve as a
forum for groups and individuals to express their opinions
through letters and articles, and postings on the Web, with
divergent points of view.
Commentators point to another increasingly important
role for the media: “setting the agenda.” Since they can’t
report everything, the news media must choose which
issues to highlight and which to ignore. In short, they tend to Freedom of expression also takes the form of peaceful assemblies and demonstrations.
Above: political rally, Zanzibar, 2005.
decide what is news and what isn’t. These decisions, in turn,
inuence the public’s perception of what issues are most such exchanges, the better. Writer E.B. White once put it this
important. Unlike countries where the news is controlled by way: “The press in our free country is reliable and useful not
the government, however, the media in a democracy cannot because of its good character but because of its great diversity.
simply manipulate or disregard issues at will. Their competitors, As long as there are many owners, each pursuing his own brand
after all, are free to call attention to their own lists of important of truth, we the people have the opportunity to arrive at the
issues. truth and dwell in the light. ...There is safety in numbers.”
Citizens of a democracy live with the conviction that
through the open exchange of ideas and opinions, truth will
eventually win out over falsehood, the values of others will be
better understood, areas of compromise more clearly dened,
and the path of progress opened. The greater the volume of
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Political Parties, Interest Groups, NGOs
C itizens cannot be required to take part in the political
process, but without citizen action, democracy will weaken.
The right of individuals to associate freely and to organize
themselves as they see t is fundamental to democracy.
Political Parties
Open access to judicial proceedings is part of the free ow of information. Here, a man in
China watches a televised trial.
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John Sweeney, head of the U.S. Federation in labor organizations, AFL-CIO, addresses a
meeting. Trade unions are still important interest groups.
Non-governmental organizations work worldwide. Here, a Uganda aid worker uses a solar-
powered computer provided by an American NGO.
strongly committed to their issues can exercise inuence out of
NGOs may provide expertise
proportion to their numbers.
and personnel on the ground
One of the most striking developments in recent
for implementation of
decades has been the emergence of internationally based
government-funded projects.
nongovernmental organizations (NGOs). In attempting to
NGOs may be politically
serve the needs of a community, nation, or cause, which
unaffiliated, or they may be
may be dened globally, these NGOs try to supplement or
based on partisan ideals and
even challenge the work of the government by advocating,
seek to advance a particular A eld worker for a British NGO removes and
educating, and mobilizing attention around major public stores a land mine in Sri Lanka.
cause or set of causes in the
issues and monitoring the conduct of government and private
public interest. In either model the key point is that NGOs
enterprise.
operate under minimal political control of states.
Governments and NGOs frequently work as partners.
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Civil-Military Relations rather than leads it: Military leaders advise elected leaders and
I ssues of war and peace are the most momentous any nation carry out their decisions. Only those who are elected by the
can face, and at times of crisis, many nations turn to their people have the ultimate authority and the responsibility to
military for leadership. decide the fate of a nation. This principle of civilian control and
Not in democracies. authority over the military is fundamental to democracy.
In democracies, defense issues and threats to national Civilians need to direct their nation’s military and decide
security must be decided by the people, acting through their issues of national defense, not because they are necessarily
elected representatives. A democracy’s military serves its nation wiser than military professionals, but precisely because they
are the people’s representatives and, as such, are charged with
the responsibility for making these decisions and remaining
accountable for them.
The military in a democracy exists to protect the nation and
the freedoms of its people. It must not represent or support any
particular political viewpoint or ethnic or social group. Its loyalty
is to the larger ideals of the nation, to the rule of law, and to
the principle of democracy itself. The purpose of a military is to
defend society, not dene it.
Any democratic government values the expertise and
advice of military professionals in reaching policy decisions
about defense and national security. But only the elected
civilian leadership should make ultimate policy decisions
regarding the nation’s defense — which the military then
implements.
Military gures may, of course, participate as individuals
in the political life of their country, just like any other citizens.
Military personnel may vote in elections. All military personnel,
Ukranian soldiers examine ballots in Kiev in 2002. however, must rst withdraw or retire from military service
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The Culture of Democracy
H uman beings possess a variety of sometimes contradictory
desires. People want safety, yet relish adventure; they aspire
to individual freedom, yet demand social equality. Democracy
is no different, and it is important to recognize that many of
these tensions, even paradoxes, are present in every democratic
society.
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to achieve consensus, stiing the voices of the people, the
society can be crushed from above.
There is no easy solution to the conict-consensus
equation. Democracy is not a machine that runs by itself once
the proper principles are inserted. A democratic society needs
the commitment of citizens who accept the inevitability of
intellectual and political conict as well as the necessity for
tolerance. From this perspective, it is important to recognize that
many conicts in a democratic society are not between clear-
cut “right” and “wrong” but between differing interpretations of
democratic rights and social priorities.
Education is a vital component of any society, but especially An educated citizenry is, potentially, a free citizenry.
of a democracy. As Thomas Jefferson wrote: “If a nation expects
to be ignorant and free, in a state of civilization, it expects what resources to education just as they strive to defend other basic
never was and never shall be.” needs of citizens.
There is a direct connection between education and In contrast to authoritarian societies that seek to inculcate
democratic values: in democratic societies, educational content an attitude of passive acceptance, the object of democratic
and practice support habits of democratic governance. This education is to produce citizens who are independent,
educational transmission process is vital in a democracy questioning, yet deeply familiar with the precepts and practices
because effective democracies are dynamic, evolving forms of of democracy. Chester E. Finn Jr., a senior fellow at the Hoover
government that demand independent thinking by the citizenry. Institution on education policy, has said: “People may be born
The opportunity for positive social and political change rests with an appetite for personal freedom, but they are not born
in citizens’ hands. Governments should not view the education with knowledge about the social and political arrangements
system as a means to indoctrinate students, but devote that make freedom possible over time for themselves and their
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discarded.
Scholar Diane
Ravitch observes:
“Coalition-building
is the essence of
democratic action. It
teaches interest groups
to negotiate with
others, to compromise,
and to work within the
constitutional system.
By working to establish
Using one’s energy fully for one’s own goals fosters
individual identity. coalition, groups with
Education frees the spirit from the mundane, as with these Turkish university students. differences learn how
to argue peaceably, how to pursue their goals in a democratic
children. ...Such things must be acquired. They must be learned.” manner, and ultimately how to live in a world of diversity.”
Learning about democracy begins in school; it continues Self-government cannot always protect against mistakes,
throughout a life of civic involvement, and curiosity about the end ethnic strife, guarantee economic prosperity, or ensure
many kinds of information accessible in a free society. happiness. It does, however, allow for public debate to identify
and x mistakes, permit groups to meet and resolve differences,
Society and Democracy offer opportunities for economic growth, and provide for social
advancement and individual expression.
Democratic constitutionalism is ultimately the foundation The late Josef Brodsky, Russian-born poet and Nobel Prize
by which a society, through the clash and compromise of ideas, winner, wrote, “A free man, when he fails, blames nobody.” It is
institutions, and individuals, reaches, however imperfectly, for true as well for the citizens of democracy who, nally, must take
truth. Democracy is pragmatic. Ideas and solutions to problems responsibility for the fate of the society in which they themselves
are not tested against a rigid ideology but tried in the real world have chosen to live.
where they can be argued over and changed, accepted, or
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Freedom permits people to live a peaceful, private life.
Page 1: North Wind Picture Archives. 2: © Bettmann/CORBIS. CORBIS. 51: Euan Deholm/Reuters – Kamal Kishore/Reuters.
Democracy itself guarantees nothing. It offers instead 5: Javier Medina/AP Images. 6: Toby Talbot/AP Images. 8: 52: © Reuters/CORBIS. 54: Mark Wilson/Getty Images. 55:
the opportunity to succeed as well as the risk of failure. In © John Berry/Syracuse Newspapers/The Image Works. 9: L. Lartigue/USAID. 57: © Ted Spiegel/CORBIS. 58: © Lynsey
© Greg Friedler/Jupiterimages. 10: Georgios Kefalas/AP Addario/CORBIS. 59: Jupiterimages. 60: © Rob Crandell/The
Thomas Jefferson’s ringing but shrewd phrase, the promise of Images. 11: Library of Congress, LC-USZC4-9904. 14: © Paul Image Works.
democracy is “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.” Hilton/epa/CORBIS.
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Democracy is then both a promise and a challenge. It is a Images. 19: Courtesy IFES. 20: Schalk Van Zuydam/AP Editor-in-Chief—George Clack
Images. 21: Micelle Bachelet/AP Images. 22: © 2007 Patricio Executive Editor—Mildred Solá Neely
promise that free human beings, working together, can govern Realpe/archivolatino/Redux. 23: AFP/Getty Images. 24: Managing Editor—Paul Malamud
themselves in a manner that will serve their aspirations for Rebecca Blackwell/AP Images. 26: Matt Rainey/Star Ledger/ Writer—Howard Cincotta
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personal freedom, economic opportunity, and social justice. It 30: © Bettmann/CORBIS. 33: Cheryl Hatch/AP Images. 35: Cover Designer—Paul Zwolak
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is a challenge because the success of the democratic enterprise 36: Photography Deryc Sands/UK Parliament Copyright. Graphic Designer—Sylvia Scott
rests upon the shoulders of its citizens and no one else. 39: Bru Garcia/AFP/Getty Images. 40: Frazer Harrison/Getty
Images. 41: Alessandra Tarantino/AP Images. Consulting Editor:
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Images. 46: © Owen Franken/CORBIS. 47: Natalie Behring/ Wilson International Center for Scholars.
Reuters. 48: Bob Child/AP Images. 50: Andrew Lichtenstein/
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