Block 1

MNM-015
Media Research Methods

Indira Gandhi National Open University
School of Journalism & New Media Studies
MNM-015
School of Journalism and New Media Studies
BLOCK 1
Communication Research 7
BLOCK 2
Research Methods – Quantitative 77
BLOCK 3
Research Methods – Qualitative 139
BLOCK 4
Analysis and Interpretation 199
EXPERTS COMMITTEE
Prof. B.P.Sanjay Prof. J.S. Yadav Prof. B.K. Kuthiala
Former VC, CUTN; Former Director, IIMC Former VC, MLCRPV,
PVC, Univ. of Hyderabad, New Delhi Bhopal
Hyderabad
Prof. Kiran Thakur Prof. Usha Raman
Prof. G. Ravindran Former Head, Deptt. of S. N. School of Arts &
Head, Department of Communication & Journalism, Communication, University
Communication, Savitribai Phule Pune of Hyderabad
University of Madras, Chennai University, Pune Hyderabad
Mr. Shastri Ramachandran, Prof. Iftekhar Ahmed Prof. Jaishri Jethwaney
Editor and Columnist Director, MCRC, Jamia Milia Former Head, ADPR
New Delhi Islamia, New Delhi IIMC, New Delhi
Prof. Usha Rani Ms Sevanti Ninan Ms Pamela Philipose
Former Head, Deptt. of Senior Journalist & Founder Senior Journalist and Author,
Comm.& Journalism Editor, The Hoot, New Delhi New Delhi
Mysore University
Prof. Biswajit Das Prof. Gita Bamezai
Ms Mahalakshmi Jayaram. Director, CCMG, Jamia Milia Head Dept. of Comm.
Senior Dy. Editor, The Hindu, Islamia, New Delhi Research, IIMC New Delhi
Chennai
Prof. Madhu Parhar Mr. K. Ravikanth
Dr. Vipul Mudgal
Director, STRIDE Director, EMPC
Senior Journalist and Author,
IGNOU IGNOU
New Delhi
Prof. Subhash Dhuliya Prof. Shambhu Nath Singh Dr. O. P. Dewal
Former Director Former Director Associate Professor,
SOJNMS, IGNOU SOJNMS, IGNOU SOJNMS, IGNOU
Dr. Kiron Bansal Dr. K.S. Arul Selvan Dr. Ramesh Yadav
Associate Professor Associate Professor Assistant Professor,
Dr. Shikha Rai Dr. Amit Kumar Ms. Padmini Jain
Assistant Professor Assistant Professor Assistant Professor,
PROGRAMME COORDINATOR: Dr. K.S. Arul Selvan

BLOCK PREPARATION TEAM
Unit 1&3 Prof. Mohanmeet Khosla Content Editor:
School of Communication Studies Prof. Usha Rani Vyasulu Reddy
Panjab University, Chandigarh Visiting Prof., S.N. School of
Unit 2 Prof. Mira K Desai Communication, University of
PG Department of Extension Education Hyderbad
SNDT Women’s University, Mumbai
Block Editor:
Unit 4 Dr.Tarjeet Sabharwal, Assistant Professor (Senior Scale)
Dr. Kiron Bansal
Dept. of Journalism, Delhi of College of
Associate Professor
Art & Commerce, DU, New Delhi
SOJNMS, IGNOU
Unit 5 Dr. Kiron Bansal, Associate Professor
SOJNMS, IGNOU, New Delhi
Unit 6 Prof. Usha Rani Vyasulu Reddy Content Editor:
Advisory Faculty, Visiting Prof., S.N. School of Prof. Usha Rani Vyasulu Reddy
Communication, University of Hyderbad Visiting Prof., S.N. School of
Unit 7 Dr. Kiron Bansal, Associate Professor Communication, University of
SOJNMS, IGNOU, New Delhi Hyderbad
Unit 8 Prof. Mohanmeet Khosla
Block Editor:
School of Communication Studies
Dr. Kiron Bansal
Panjab University, Chandigarh
Associate Professor
Unit 9 Prof. K.V. Nagaraj SOJNMS, IGNOU
Former Prof. Deptt. of Mass Communication
Mizoram University, Aizawl, Mizoram
Unit Dr. Kiron Bansal Content Editor:
10&12 Associate Professor Prof. Usha Rani Vyasulu Reddy
SOJNMS, IGNOU, New Delhi Visiting Prof., S.N. School of
Unit 11 Prof. K.V. Nagaraj Communication, University of
Former Prof. Deptt. of Mass Communication Hyderbad
Mizoram University, Aizawl, Mizoram
Block Editor:
Unit 13 Dr. Anandana Kapur
Dr. Kiron Bansal
Direcotr, CINEMAD
Associate Professor
New Delhi
SOJNMS, IGNOU
Unit 14 Prof. Pradeep Krishnatray
Director, Research & Strategic Planning Content Editor:
Johns Hopkins Centre for Communication Prof. Usha Rani Vyasulu Reddy
Programmes, New Delhi Visiting Prof., S.N. School of
Communication, University of
Unit 15 Dr. Tarjeet Sabharwal Hyderbad
Assistant Professor (Senior Scale)
Department of Journalism
Block Editor:
Delhi College of Art & Commerce
Dr. Kiron Bansal
University of Delhi, New Delhi
Associate Professor
Unit 16 Dr. Sanjeev Kumar SOJNMS, IGNOU
Communication Consultant, New Delhi
PRODUCTION TEAM
Mr. Tilak Raj Ms. Sumathy Nair
Asst. Registrar Asst. Registrar
MPDD, IGNOU, New Delhi MPDD, IGNOU, New Delhi
September, 2021
© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2021
ISBN : ________________
All right reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any
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Website http://www.ignou.ac.in
Printed and Published on behalf of the Indira Gandhi National Open University,
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Research: Concept, Nature
INTRODUCTION TO COURSE: and Scope
COMMUNICATION RESEARCH METHODS

The field of mass communication has grown significantly, as a result of research and
practice during the past few decades. As a student of mass communication, and as a
future practitioner in the field, it is essential that you are exposed to communication
research methods.
The Course MNM-015 Media Research Methods has been developed as
foundational course in a coherent, logical, and systematic way to take you through
the process of doing step by step research in this field. It is presented in Four
Blocks comprising 16 units covering a range of issues in communication research
methods. Depending on the thematic unity of the content, some blocks have five
units, while others have four, and the Block 4 has three units - each building upon
the previous one.
Block 1 addresses the basic concepts in research. Unit 1 introduces you to the
concepts - nature and scope of communication research. Unit 2 describes how
communication research is classified in terms of its essential qualities and purposes;
Unit 3 takes you through the process of formulating research problems, questions,
and hypotheses. Unit 4 explains the process of sampling, so essential to design a
study and Unit 5 deals with various aspects of the review of literature.
Block 2 has four units exploring quantitative research in mass communication. Unit
6 teaches you how to find primary and secondary data. Unit 7 describes the Survey
Method and shows you the fundamental aspects of carrying out a survey. Unit 8
details how content analysis - a method pioneered by communications researchers is
undertaken and Unit 9 explains how to design and carry out an experimental study.
Block 3 focuses on qualitative research methods. Unit 10 discusses Interviews
and Unit 11 details the case study approach and tools. Unit 12 teaches you how
to undertake observation studies in the field; while Unit 13 explores the field of
semiotics, where signs, symbols and meanings have to be understood as part of
qualitative analyses.
Block 4 is devoted to the important areas of data analysis and interpretation. Unit 14
introduces you to elementary quantitative statistics in communication research. This
unit must be seen alongside Unit 15, which, while looking at qualitative research,
also explains how to organise data for analysis and what statistical techniques you
should use and when. The final Unit 16 takes you through the process of report
writing, showing you how a report should be written in a systematic manner.
We hope that you will find the course content informative and useful in your research
work and after completing this course, you should be able to:
• discuss the concept, nature and principles of media and communication research;
• describe different research approaches and methods of data collection;
• analyse the relative strengths and limitations of research methods, tools and
techniques;
• explain the data analysis techniques; and
• apply the learning in your own research work.
The more you practice, a better researcher you would become - learning the basics
of communication research is just the beginning.
5
MNM-015
School of Journalism and New Media Studies
1
Block
COMMUNICATION RESEARCH
UNIT 1
Research: Concept, Nature and Scope 11
UNIT 2
Classification of Research 24
UNIT 3
Defining and Formulating Research Problems 37
UNIT 4
Sampling Methods 51
UNIT 5
Review of Literature 64
BLOCK INTRODUCTION: COMMUNICATION
RESEARCH
This is the first block of the Course MNM-015: Media Research Methods.
There are five units in this block and each unit addresses the introductory concepts
that are necessary for further exploring the subject.
Unit 1: Research: Concept, Nature & Scope introduces Research, its nature
and scope in a broad way. The central concepts, perspectives and various fields
in which communication research is carried out, have been discussed in this unit.
Unit 2: Classification of Research describes varied research approaches based

on design, stage, nature, location, approach and elements in communication. It
helps you in deciding the type of research you would like to undertake, depending
upon the research objectives and questions that you wish to explore.
Unit 3: Defining and Formulating Research Problems discusses the process of

selecting a research problem, defining the terms of enquiry – research questions,
objectives and hypotheses to help you in defining and formulating your own
research problems.
Unit 4: Sampling Methods looks at sampling as part of the research process

which involves the selection of elements to represent the population being studied.
Unit 5: Review of Literature discusses the need and importance of literature

review in research work, the process of selection and organisation of the material
and how to write a literature review.
It is advisable to study the units in a sequence as each builds upon the previous
unit, and subsequent blocks are dependent on this introductory block. We hope
that you will enjoy studying this Block and develop a good understanding of the
concepts and perspectives discussed.
UNIT 1 RESEARCH: CONCEPT,
NATURE AND SCOPE
Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Learning Outcomes
1.2 Research: Concept and Role
1.2.1 Definition
1.2.2 The Central Concept
1.2.3 Growth and Development
1.2.4 Importance of Research
1.3 Research: Nature and Characteristics
1.3.1 Nature of Research
1.3.2 Characteristics of Scientific Research
1.4 Purpose of Research
1.5 Scope of Communication Research
1.6 Let Us Sum Up
1.7 Further Readings
1.8 Check Your Progress: Possible Answers
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Research in mass communication has developed into a full-fledged area of
academic activity. Today it is multi-faceted and covers a wide variety of topics.
Often, it is a product of inter-disciplinary research drawing upon research
methods adopted by different social sciences like sociology, political science,
psychology and others. From effects research to textual analysis to critical
discourse analysis to semiotics, a wide spectrum of research methods are applied
to various communication situations.
At this stage it is important for you to understand that research is a way of

thinking as well as a skill which can be acquired. Research involves a holistic
critical examination of an issue; identification and explanation of the principles
that govern a given process; a search for solutions; and a statement of predictions.
This is done for promoting knowledge and building theory and it is also done to
find solutions to real life issues and problems in industry and society.
Sometimes we are asked to conduct research by an organisation. The first question

that comes to mind is Why? And How? What is the purpose for which we are
undertaking this extensive exercise? Is it to build on the theories or to address a
specific problem that an organisation is facing? These questions are important
and to address them, it is important to know that research is a logical process,
which makes it necessary that we understand the broad concepts, and the nature
and purpose of research. This block is an introduction to a complex field of
communication research, and is designed to set you on an exciting journey in
mass communication research.
11
Communication Research
1.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
After working through this unit, you should be able to:
• discuss the concept, role and importance of research;
• describe the nature and characteristics of research;
• differentiate between Pure and Applied Research; and
• outline the purpose and scope of mass communication research.
1.2 RESEARCH: CONCEPT AND ROLE

In this section we will focus on the core issues that characterise research. We
will also trace its growth trajectory driven by various socio-political factors.
1.2.1 Definition
Research can be defined as a careful investigation or inquiry especially through
search for new facts in any branch of knowledge. Here, the term ‘search’ is
important as researchers are looking for answers and can never be sure where
they will find them or what they will find. In fact, the word ‘research’ can be
seen as a composition of two syllables, re and search, suggestive of a continuous
search for truth and disrespect for the status quo.
Within social sciences, we find the same emphasis in research on inquiry for
theory building and on testing out of and verification of existing theories. In the
past century, communication as a subject has drawn its theoretical basis from
both physical and social sciences and has emerged as a discipline that is both
multi and interdisciplinary. Communication research draws from the definitions
of social scientists but focuses on any “research discipline that can shed new
light on mass communication processes, effects, institutions and institutional
change” (Westley and Stempel, 1981).
1.2.2 The Central Concept

Research is characterised by dynamism and the central concept is that of ‘tentative
truth’. A researcher aims to explore or uncover something that is, in some way,
unnoticed, hidden, secret or problematic.
There is also a symbiotic relationship between theory and research; each is

part of the process as also the result of the other. Findings from research feed
into theory; which in turn forms the basis for further enquiry. Every theory
in communication that has been propounded till date is a result of numerous
revisions and refinements, many at the hands of the original author him/herself.
Some theories have stood the test of time while others have not - thus have been
rejected. For instance, as discussed in Course MJM-030, the Bullet theory of the
early 1900s made way for the Two-step Flow hypothesis of the 1940s; Everett
M. Rogers’ Diffusion of Innovations theory of 1971 saw a reversal barely five
years later making the original premise of the theory irrelevant. Other theories
of media importance in development were also set aside when repeated results
showed that this was not the case. Thus, both theory and research are necessary
to validate or refute each other.
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1.2.3 Growth and Development Research: Concept, Nature
and Scope
Historically, four major social forces were responsible for the development of
research in mass communication – World War I revealed the power of media as
a tool of propaganda. The Hypodermic needle (Bullet) theory of the early 1900s
suggested that whatever message was pushed through the media was received as
it is; by the audience who seem to exercise little or no choice about the content.
The second major force was the Manufacturers’/Advertisers’ Lobby. Mass

production of goods had taken place during the wars and once the wars were
over, manufacturers were looking for buyers. In a market scenario, where supply
exceeded the demand, they recognised the importance of message effectiveness
and media planning in reaching out to the target buyers. They demanded hard facts
regarding circulation figures, demographics of readers etc. from the publishers so
that they could tailor and place the advertising messages accordingly. So research
began to be conducted on the science and art of communication.
The third force was that of the Publishers’ Lobby. From an earlier time, when the
printer was also the publisher, the one-man printing establishments grew into an
industry. Publishers recognised the profit in selling newsprint space to advertisers.
They also realised that more readers meant more advertisers. Research began to
be conducted into, ‘who the readers were and what they wanted’ – resulting in
extensive readership and audience surveys.
The fourth social force was Public Concern. As media became more and more
powerful and intrusive, people began to be more concerned about media impact
on their personal and professional lives as well as on society. Thus began
institutional and public policy research in communications.
Phases of Development: R.D. Wimmer and J.R. Dominick in Mass Media

Research have identified four phases into which research in a particular medium
is divided. These phases are not so much chronological but they are interlinked.
In Phase 1 there is an interest in the medium itself. What is it, how does it work,
what technology does it involve, how is it similar to or different from what we
already have, what functions or services does it provide, who will have access
to the new medium, how much will it cost? All these questions can be asked of
the Internet, Mobile Telephony and other forms of New Media.
Phase 2 begins once the medium is developed. Here the focus is on the uses and
users of the medium. For instance, what are the extent and nature of activities
possible with the use of New Media by different users? What is the demographic
profile of the user? Are the young using it more? Do women use the Internet
more for socio-communicative purposes as compared to men who use it more
for informative purposes? Is the Internet a functional alternative to traditional
media? Is it being used in ways that were not originally intended?
Phase 3 investigates the social, psychological and physical effects of the medium.
How much time is spent in using the medium? When does the use become abuse/
misuse? How much does it help? Do the shy take advantage of online anonymity
to express themselves more freely? Does it reduce the necessity of physical
activity? Can it be combined with other media to make it more useful? Does it
change people’s perspective? Does it enable a level playing ground in business?
13
Communication Research Does it bring in more players with different agendas? And so on.
Phase 4 focuses on how the medium can be improved – either in terms of usage or
technology, for instance, by improving transmission and reception, by increasing
the penetration, by making it more valuable through improvement in content etc.
This phase has been largely driven by the private sector. Intra and inter-media
competition for a larger profit share has ensured that the focus remains on how to
retain audience share and increase it by attracting it away from the competition.
Consumer comfort becomes the business mantra for success.
1.2.4 Importance of Research

As discussed above, for us the importance of research lies in its implications
– whether it is meant for knowledge creation or solving real world problems.
• Research is a critical input into the development, design, production, delivery

and evaluation of courses and content; while on the other hand, findings
from research must feed into the theory of this multidisciplinary and even
epistemological enquiry. The perspective must then become total and each
element must be examined in association with each other, rather than in
isolation at each stage of the process.
• Research is an important prerequisite for understanding social order. Social

phenomena are complex. There is constant interaction of diverse influences
– environmental, psychological and social; on human beings, as individuals,
members of a social group, and as a society at large. Therefore, research is
needed to investigate both isolated patterns of behaviour as also to identify
set patterns of behaviour exhibited by social groups and societies.
• Through a systematic interrelation between disparate facts, research allows

us to understand, generalise, predict, and manage social behaviour.
• Research generates voluminous social data which help the formulation of

social policies, planning and priorities. In a culturally diverse country like
India, such data are critically important for judicious use of resources and
coherent development of a rapidly changing society.
• Research is both cumulative and a self-correcting process. Its importance

lies in the fact that, if done well, it can be trusted. The conclusions arrived
at in a research study are firmly tied to reality as they are based on a logic
born out of observation and measurement.
Check Your Progress 1
Note: Use the space below for your answers
Compare your answers with those given at the end of the Unit
1) Define Research.
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2) What is the central concept of Research? Research: Concept, Nature
and Scope
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3) List four reasons for the growth of research.
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5) What is the importance of research?
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1.3 RESEARCH: NATURE AND

CHARACTERISTICS
After an overview of the concept, role and importance of research, let us
understand the nature and characteristics of research.
1.3.1 Nature of Research

As mentioned earlier, the basic nature of research is to advance knowledge and
seek solutions to problems. To do this, we start with simple questions. For
instance, in journalistic practice, the basic questions are: who, what, why, where,
when and how. In research, these questions are addressed in a more systematic,
reliable, testable, and replicable manner.
In practice, all the questions are mixed together and it is difficult to isolate one
from the other when dealing with human behaviour and social phenomenon. In
research, these are isolated and studied in depth – separately as well as together.
The basic premise is that any issue/event/phenomenon can be studied, subjected
to appropriate systematic, objective scientific procedures and conclusions can be
arrived at that can preferably be generalised to the population. Such results and
conclusions should also be amenable to replication as the search for knowledge
is conducted with a defined set of rules and procedures that are commonly
understood and shared by all sciences.
1.3.2 Characteristics of Scientific Research

Research needs to be done in a systematic and logical way, following a series
of steps and sets of protocols. Without such procedures, research cannot be
considered scientific. Let us look at the basic tenets of research:
Research is empirical
The word ‘empirical’ comes from the Greek word ‘empiricism’ which means
experience. Researchers are concerned with what is observable and potentially
15
Communication Research measurable. For instance, the problem of declining circulation figures can be
investigated, identified and measured in numerical terms. With the findings,
solutions to address declining circulation can be suggested.
Since research depends on observations, the factors or variables under study

are defined in operational terms (as operational definitions) so as to be either
observed or measured i.e. observable behaviour patterns that can be connected to
represent abstract (covert) concepts. For instance, if we argue that modernity in
an individual is associated to educational levels, the variable of education can be
easily measured in terms of the educational degree possessed such as matriculate,
graduate etc. The variable of modernity, being more abstract and complex, can be
measured in terms of how the respondent tests on a readily available scale, such
as K.S. Yang’s Multiple Modernity Scale or on a scale created by the researcher
to measure the responses on concepts related to modernity.
The basic aim of research is to arrive at an understanding of why a phenomenon

occurs or is likely to occur. Therefore, we use concepts to organise and make
sense of things. In many ways they are like labels that help us in structuring our
observations. They also enable us to measure the associations and correlations
between and among various concepts. For instance, to study the relationship
between violent behaviour and viewing of violent TV content we may ask- Does
televised violence ‘cause’ violent behavior? This is a very complicated issue and
researchers have been arguing for decades on how to define violence and how
to determine whether the effect of watching televised violence is ‘significant’.
Depending on how the researcher operationally defines terms, the respondent
behaviour can be observed, measured, and results and conclusions arrived at.
Research is objective
All human beings have their own attitudes and perspectives on different aspects of
life. The attitudes and perspectives are a result of the educational and socialisation
process in the culture in which we have grown up. Such attitudes can affect the
way in which we conduct research. Therefore, in order to be accurate in research,
it is important that the research process be objective and as free as possible of
biases and pre-conceived notions, following the scientific method.
The scientific method presupposes ethical neutrality on the part of the researcher
and tries to rule out personal biases and judgments by laying down explicit rules
and procedures in place for the study. Each approach or method of research may
have different ways of reducing bias and prejudice, but at the basic level, rules
and procedures exist. Among the most important is that the data collected during
the course of a research study should speak for itself - rather than be tilted in
favour of a researcher’s opinions. Results are often not as we expected them to
be, but the facts must stand on their own and reflect an objective finding which
is as free of bias as possible. As the noted psychologist B.F. Skinner wrote in
Science and Human Behaviour, “Research projects do not always come out as
one expects, but the facts must stand and the expectations fall. The subject matter,
not the scientist, knows best.”
The ‘creative’ part of research is usually limited to the identification and

formulation of the research problem. But once the methodology is framed, its
implementation should be as per the laid down procedures as the methodology
of a study determines the reliability and validity of the findings and in turn
16
contributes in knowledge generation. For instance, a researcher, based on his Research: Concept, Nature
and Scope
observation, that majority of people discuss the stories covered by a specific
newspaper may hypothesise that it is the largest selling newspaper, but it is
only the collection of primary or secondary data that will support or reject the
hypothesis.
Objectivity is also ensured by framing operational definitions as mentioned

earlier. This, not only establishes that the researcher has used logic and reason
to study a particular phenomenon but also facilitates replication of the study by
other researchers on the same or different parameters. Operational definitions
also help in defining the meaning of a term for the specific purpose of the given
research effort. For instance, a researcher may define violence as a physical act
resulting in bloodshed and then analyse a particular programme to determine
how violent it is. Another researcher may define violence as verbal abuse and
analyse the programme accordingly. Still other researchers have the choice to
replicate the studies of these two researchers by using the same parameters or
conduct independent studies using their own definitions. The end result will
contribute to enhancement of knowledge and a holistic study of violence along
various dimensions. You will read more about defining operational definitions
in subsequent units.
Another method to ensure objectivity is through ‘triangulation’ - when more than

one researcher observes the same phenomena for the same study or when more
than one set of data are compared to determine the final result. This ensures that
individual biases are ruled out and a consensus is arrived at. Triangulation can
also be incorporated into research by using more than one data collection tool
to observe/measure the same phenomenon for cross verification.
Research is systematic and cumulative

Not only is research systematic, it also builds on existing knowledge. No research
study stands alone, nor does it rise or fall by itself. Previous studies are always
used as building blocks or launch pads for current research. The idea is to
strengthen existing theory or to revise it by focusing on the gaps or shortcomings
of previous research. The examination of previous research, also called “Review
of Literature” comes before the formulation of the terms of enquiry and the
framing of appropriate methodology for the collection and analysis of data.
Research may start with a single, carefully observed event and progress ultimately
to the formulation of theories and laws. These theories, in turn are applied to
other single carefully observed events and compared with previous results.
Following a constant cycle of testing and verification, theories are built, tested,
rejected, and rebuilt.
Research is predictive
Science is concerned with relating the past/present to the future. Research strives
to develop theories because they are useful in not just understanding the past/
present, but in predicting future behaviour in different situations.
Research is public
Researchers, especially those in the academic sector, work publicly. Research
in the public domain helps to build theory and is necessary for academic peers
17
Communication Research to compare, test, retest, and validate findings. Even private sector research, if
it has implications for the public, as for instance in pharmaceuticals, has to be
publicly available.
The public nature of academic research implies responsibility in publication.

The published report should include all pertinent details so that the readers are
in a position to judge whether the findings are reliable and valid enough to be
used as a building block for further research or as the justification for a policy
decision. Even where research findings are not made public but used in-house,
the researchers involved have to reveal the methodology used in data collection
and analysis, as too much hinges on the reliability and validity of the findings.
Check Your Progress: 2
1) What are the characteristics of scientific research method?
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2) What is empiricism?
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3) How is objectivity achieved in research?

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1.4 PURPOSE OF RESEARCH

Earlier in the unit, we touched upon the symbiotic relationship between theory
and application. On the one hand, research is a critical input into the development,
design, production, delivery and evaluation of content; while on the other
hand, findings from research feed into the theory of this multidisciplinary field
of communication. The perspective then becomes total and each element is
examined in association with each other, rather than in isolation at each stage
of the processes.
If research has no implication for theory, if it lacks even a minimum of scientific

method and explanatory power, it should not be undertaken. At the same time,
if research in the context of national social and economic development cannot
provide a clear, direct, and unambiguous line between results and decision
alternatives, it lacks pragmatic validity and similarly should not be undertaken.
18 Research can be classified into pure and applied research:

Pure Research Research: Concept, Nature
and Scope
Pure research is when knowledge is pursued purely for intellectual curiosity.
It is undertaken for the satisfaction of knowing or understanding, regardless of
whether they have any practical application for the present or the future. The
emphasis here is on discovering, developing and testing theories. For instance,
a set of propositions that showed how and why audiences considered some news
stories more significant than others was eventually termed as the Agenda Setting
Theory. Pure research is also concerned with the development and refinement of
research procedures, techniques and other aspects of research methodology. For
instance, the development of a standardised scale to measure Internet addiction or
the development of a more sensitive instrument to measure Emotional Quotient
(EQ) would help the research community conduct comparable research across
different groups in different cultures.
Applied Research
Applied research is conducted to solve practical problems of efficiency and
profit. In print media, applied research comprises of readership studies – the
demographic and psychographic profiling of readers and non-readers. Need
gratification studies are conducted to determine who is reading what and why.
Other kinds of studies are done to determine how variation in presentation
(typography, makeup etc.) influences understanding of content; management
studies. These are some examples of applied research in mass communication.
In electronic media, ratings and non-ratings research is conducted to determine

the popularity of a programme, demographics and psychographics of its audience,
formulation and implementation of creative strategy, programme scheduling,
host/anchor popularity, etc.
Applied research is also conducted in the areas of advertising and public

relations. In the former case, research is conducted along cognitive, affective
and behavioural dimensions i.e. how advertising copy should be crafted so that
it provides both information and entertainment while at the same time prompting
action in the form of product purchase/attitude change. Research is also conducted
to determine the right media mix – markets, budget allocations, choice of media
channels, message distribution and advertising mechanics such as purchase of
time units, print space etc.
In Public Relations, environmental monitoring programmes are conducted to

observe trends in public opinion and socio-political events that could have
significant impact on an organisation. Public relations audits are conducted to
determine and assess image management activities; communication audits are
done to assess the impact of internal and external communication tools such
as press releases, in-house publications. Further, social audits are conducted to
measure an organisation’s social performance i.e. how well is it living up to its
public responsibilities in a society.
It is important to mention here that it is not always possible to classify a given

study neatly as one or the other. Pure research itself is an application of knowledge
garnered from previous research and/or the researcher’s own thought processes.
Similarly, applied research is basic in the sense that it is true to a particular
problem being currently studied. It is also difficult to make a distinction based
19
Communication Research on that one searches for knowledge and the other applies it or that one comes
before the other. It is true that basic research often yields knowledge that has
immediate practical utility but applied research may also yield the discovery of
basic principles. For example, when the application of the Bullet Theory could
not predict the outcome of the 1948 American Presidential elections, it was
studied again and eventually paved the way for Two-Step Flow theory.
1.5 SCOPE OF COMMUNICATION RESEARCH

As we have already seen, communication research extensivly borrows from
anthropology, sociology, political science, economics, psycology and other
disciplines. Communication research is about researching communication –
human and tecnology mediated communication. Media and communication
studies are one of the parts of human communication which includes media
massage creation, design of those messages, distribution of those messages, and
consumption of media massages.
Media messages inevitably include use of technology. For example, you read
newspaper, watch television, listen to radio, use mobile phone or see film in a
cinema hall. All these activities consist of areas of research within communication
research. Anything and everything about communication can be researched; who
is creating communication, what is being communicated, how the communication
is being sent and how is it being received, which communication is reaching the
receiver and what are the effects of communication – all these are within the
purview of communication research.
In the previous section, we have seen how communication research encompasses

market research, film studies, media research, audience research, content research,
and advertising research and so on. The basic elements of communication
sender-message-channel-receiver-feedback can be researched individually or in
combination with each other. Communication research includes researching each
of them individually using suitable methods or examining the effects on each
other. However, what specific aspects of each of these areas do communication
researchers study?
Communication researchers study three things: Firstly, communication

production, transmission and meaning making. Secondly they study content or
form of communicative messages. Thirdly, communication researchers study
functions and effects of communication messages. There are multiple branches
of communication research.
When we link communication research to other social sciences, new areas or

branches of communication studies emerge. Some of these are:
• Communication policy and law
• Organisational communication
• Cross-cultural systems
• Intra-personal communication
• Family communication
• Development communication
20
• Marketing communication Research: Concept, Nature
and Scope
• Persuasive communication
• Political communication
• Health communication
• Instructional communication
• Public Relations
Within each of these sectors, like any other methods of research, communication
research can be further viewed from quantitative and qualitative methods
perspective. Quantitative methods encompass surveys, content analysis,
experiments whereas qualitative analysis includes discourse analysis,
ethnographies, case studies, semiotics, and rhetoric analysis and so on. You will
read about them in detail in Block 2 and 3 of this course.
1) Name the disciplines from which communication draws its methods.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
2) What are the three things communication research studies?

...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
3) Mention some research methods used in communication.

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1.6 LET US SUM UP

The central concepts, broad perspectives and purposes, and the various fields in
which communication research is carried out were introduced in this unit. The
importance of communication research, either for expanding our knowledge or
for solving specific problems was also discussed.
The relationship of communication research to other disciplines was explored

at some length. We also discussed specific areas in the media industry where
communication research has helped organisations to expand readerships, improve
their product image and credibility. What communication researchers study in
terms of the medium, the content and the meaning was explained.
21
Communication Research This is the introductory unit of the course. Subsequent units will take you through
a logical sequence of how to carry out communication research in much greater
detail. Therefore, understanding the basic concepts presented in this unit is
essential and you may read through the unit again, if you need to, so that you
understand the full background of the subject.
1.7 FURTHER READINGS

1) Kerlinger, F.N., (1973), Foundations in Behavioural Research, Holt,
Rhinehart and Winston. NY.
2) Kumar, Ranjit (2008), Research Methodology, Pearson Education. New

Delhi.
3) Neuman, W.L., (2007), Social Research Methods – Qualitative and

Quantitative Approaches, Pearson Education. New Delhi.
4) Westley, Bruce H and Stempel, Guido H (1981), Research Methods in Mass

Communication, Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, Inc.
5) Wimmer, R.D and Dominick, J.R, (2010), Mass Media Research – An

Introduction, Thomson Wordsworth Publishers, London.
1.8 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS: POSSIBLE

ANSWERS
1) Research is a “systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation
of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among natural
phenomena.”
2) The central concept of research is ‘tentative truth’. The word ‘research’ can
be seen as a composition of two syllables, re and search, suggestive of a
continuous search for truth and disrespect for the status quo.
3) The four major reasons for the growth of research are the World Wars,
Manufacturers’/Advertisers’ Lobby, Publishers’ Lobby and Public Concern.
4) The four phases of development in research are the medium, uses and users
of the medium, effects of the medium and improvements of the medium.
5) Research is important for the evolution of civilisation, for promoting a

dynamic social order that is free of myth and superstition. It enables us to
exercise control of our environment by increasing our ability to predict our
future. It also helps us to put our past into perspective as well as understand
our present.
1) The scientific research method is empirical, objective, systematic and
cumulative, predictive and public.
2) Empiricism is derived from ‘experience’ - something that can be observed

22 and measured.
3) Objectivity in research is ensured by focusing on method which should be Research: Concept, Nature
and Scope
detailed and logically defensible.
1) Anthropology, Psychology, Political Science, and Sociology.
2) Communication researchers study the following:

• Communication production, transmission and meaning making
• Content or form of communicative messages
• Functions and effects of communication messages.
3) Some methods used in communication research are surveys, content analysis,
experiments whereas qualitative analysis includes ethnographies, case
studies, semiotics, and rhetoric analysis.
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UNIT 2 CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH
Structure:
2.0 Introduction
2.2 Classification of Communication Research
2.2.1 Based on Design
2.2.2 Based on Stage
2.2.3 Based on Nature
2.2.4 Based on Location
2.2.5 Based on Approach
2.3 Study of Elements in Communication
2.3.1 Communicators
2.3.2 Media Content
2.3.3 Distribution
2.3.4 Audiences
2.4 Let Us Sum Up
2.0 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit, we discussed the concept, nature and scope of research. In
this unit, we shall discuss various classifications of communication research.
The communication process in terms of its elements such as sender-message/
channel-receivers-feedback can be researched at various levels. We shall explain
how communication research can be examined using various lenses in terms
of design, stage, nature, location, and approaches to research human
communication.
How a given research project is done can be described in many ways. For instance,
the way in which you plan to design your research is one way. Similarly, when
you conduct your research or the ‘stage’ of research, i.e. before, during, or after
a project, can be another way to classify it. A third way to classify research is
by the reason for which it is done - for what purpose or objective is the project
undertaken. A fourth way to classify research is by the location in which it is
carried out — in the field or in a laboratory. A fifth way of classifying research is
by locating it within a discipline, i.e. in agriculture, psychology, political science,
or sociology, among others. Yet another way to classify research is based on
the theoretical approaches with the field, i.e. structural, behavioural, or critical.
How you approach a research project often defines the broad methodologies that
are followed. Finally, we can also study four broad aspects of communication
research - communicators, media content, distribution and consumption by
audiences.
24
Classification of Research
After reading this unit you should be able to:
• analyse various classifications of research;
• describe possible approaches to communication research; and
• examine ways of doing research within media and communication discipline.
2.2 CLASSIFICATION OF COMMUNICATION

RESEARCH
Communication research can be examined from various strands and there is no
single way to classify it. Different experts in communication classify approaches
to research differently. The ways of looking at it can be based on how you wish
to examine it. The design, stage, nature, location and approach are some of
the ways to classify communication research. Let us discuss each of them in
detail. there may be some overlap. However, because despite the best efforts,
communication research cannot be placed only in one classification. The ways of
looking at communication research projects depend largely upon the objectives
and expected outcomes of your research study.
For the purpose of this course, we shall follow the classification used by two
well known communication scholars, Roger Wimmer and Joseph Dominick in
their book “Mass Media Research: An Introduction” since their approach is most
relevant for the studies you may be conducting. They have examined applications
of communication research into print media, electronic media, advertising and
public relations, Internet and effects research. Media research is a very significant
part of communication research.
2.2.1 Based on Design

Research design is a philosophical framework whereas method is a more tangible
way to undertake research process. If we examine communication research
designs there can be broadly four categories - descriptive, diagnostic, exploratory,
and experimental. Historical or archival methods too can be part of any of these
four categories.
Descriptive
When we want to describe a phenomenon under study, it is called a descriptive
design. Let us say, we want to describe how people watch television or what
happens when people watch film in the theatre or how do children deal with the
mobile phones of their parents – all these are possible descriptions of individuals
interaction with media.
Diagnostic
This design refers to understanding cause-effect association or solving a problem
on hand. For example, if there is drop in the viewership of a show or there is a
sudden rise in the usage of mobile data, the researcher can find out the reasons
by using appropriate research methods. Most of the diagnostic studies are applied
in nature.
25
Communication Research Exploratory
There are occasions when variables are unknown or the phenomenon under study
is a new development. In such a case, the researcher can use an exploratory design.
This design provides flexibility for study and helps in the process of identifying
variables for future research. Exploratory studies provide the basic information
upon which we can sharpen our research questions, identify our variables and
state our hypotheses. When preliminary information is not readily available,
exploratory research is found useful.
Experimental
In Experimental designs, the researcher can control and manipulate the situation
in order to observe a phenomenon under study. This type of research can be
conducted in a laboratory, in an online environment or even in real life field
conditions. Experimental research can be of many types which are described
in detail in Unit 9 of this course. An experimental design is useful if you want
to analyse the extent to which a film on HIV/AIDS helps improve knowledge
about the disease among subjects exposed to the film. The difference between
what they knew before they saw the film and what they learned after the film,
can tell you how effective the film you showed them was.
Historical
Historical designs are based on archival material. Historical research is also
being used in communication research. For example, if you study the letters
between Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru and his daughter, Indira Gandhi, it will help
you understand various aspects of political and social life of that era. Media
histories, audience experiences, memory research are some of the examples of
historical designs within communication research.
2.2.2 Based on Stages

You can take the context of time of communication as an aspect of research.
Based on the stage of communication, research can be classified as pre-
communication (Formative), during communication (Process) and post
communication (Summative) research. The Development Educational
Communication Unit of Indian Space Research Organisation (DECU-ISRO)
Ahmedabad pioneered this approach for most of its development communication
projects starting with Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE) in
1975.
Formative Research
Formative research is undertaken before any communication project is created
in order to define the audience – for whom the communication is intended; the
content – what will be the content, and the presentation - how will that content
be communicated what will be the language, and so on. You will need to
make decisions about the locale or language or set design or clothing or social-
psychological-economic milieu of the content. For example, if you want to make
a film about Mahatma Gandhi, you will have to research about clothing of that
period, sets, his writings, possible locales, audience understanding, what you
wish to convey through your film and many such things. All these constitute
formative research which then serves as information inputs into the programme
planning.
26
The E-PG Pathshala project of Ministry of Human Resource Development, Classification of Research
Government of India has courseware for MA in Communication Studies under
Social Sciences. There are chapters on Formative-Process-Summative research as
a part of their Development Communication paper. You can read about formative
research in detail on URL: https://epgp.inflibnet.ac.in/ahl.php? csrno=24 for
a better understanding of how formative research can contribute to making
communication effective.
Process Research
Information is needed when a communication project is in progress. For example,
there is a need to know what is being communicated in terms of content, how
is it being received, what are the contexts of reception, and what do audiences
do when they receive communication. Such questions are addressed by process
research. You may choose to take a telephone survey and ask randomly which
programme is being watched by people when a particular television programme is
being telecast and the finding will reveal if the programme you were researching
is being watched or not. Various scholars have studied the telecasts of Ramayan
and Mahabharata serials on Doordarshan during 1980s and found that people
remained indoors and roads were empty at the time of telecast. People offered
prayers when they sat in front of television sets and treated the actors of these
serials as demi-gods and even asked for their blessings. The findings of process
research may help in correcting problems, making changes in content and format,
and in general, fine-tuning the communication project as per audience needs.
Summative Research
Unlike formative and process research, summative research is undertaken
after the communication programme is completed. There are many reasons for
conducting summative research. Often, we need to know the extent to which
a communication project met the objectives for which it was designed; how
effective the project has been; was the money well spent; and finally, should
the project be modified or stopped or continued in a different form. There may
be mixed results and summative research helps to understand what succeeded,
what failed, and why. For example, summative research conducted after SITE
(mentioned earlier in this unit) helped in many ways for future planning. Current
work in development communication in India has its roots in the research carried
out during SITE. Usually for a communicator, summative research serves as an
investment for next communication project.
You can read more about summative research on URL: https://epgp.inflibnet.

ac.in/ahl.php?csrno=24.
2.2.3 Based on Nature

Research can be carried out for the purpose of policy or prior to production (Pre-
production), during production, during telecast, post telecast. This classification
of communication research may not be used for a specific programme but for a
group of programmes. It may be undertaken by a communication agency or by
third party agencies to define the larger goals of communication.
Policy
Research is undertaken to provide inputs for policy level decisions. For example,
it can examine if people have stopped watching television? Is mobile phone the 27
Communication Research only way to reach out to young audiences? Are films in cinema hall being watched
mainly by middle-aged people so the themes need to be serious in nature and
not mere love stories? Communication planners can address such questions in
order to make decisions about their communication plans as part of large national
programmes such as Rural Health Mission and so on.
Pre-Production
Similar to formative research for a particular communication project, pre-
production research is undertaken prior to the production of a programme or
series of programmes. Pre-production research, as the name suggests aims
to decide matters related to communication, audiences and even message.
Pre-production research includes deciding target audience, story, script, and
production related decisions about locations-sets-costumes-casting-property,
pilot testing, and so on.
Production
This type of research is done when production is in progress. You may be aware
that while production is in progress, the communicator may be required to make
changes in the original plans. It may be to do with resources as costs planned
earlier increase, actors are not available, new things are added on the spot or there
may be changes while executing the production or even practical considerations
while work is in progress. Production research helps in keeping a planned process
under check and can also help in monitoring of work.
Monitoring of Telecast
Similar to process research which we discussed earlier, telecast research is when
the communication telecast is in progress. For example, producers of television
entertainment programmes often rely on audience viewership figures for deciding
whether to change the script, change characters, extend a entertainment serial,
or even when to end a programme. For example, when a character in a popular
serial died or was killed by the producers because the actor left the show, people
came to the streets and demanded that he should be brought back. Researchers
have also noted that people watching religious serials touch the television
screen and pray to the god/goddess characters in the serial! Such findings were
possible due to telecast research. Visit of film makers to theatres to ascertain the
audience response and other tools such as Peoples’ meters or Television Audience
Measurement are used by broadcasters to monitor telecasts.
Post-telecast
Like summative research, post-telecast research is undertaken to examine how
communication is received, what was audience feedback, should there be any
changes in communication for future, and so on. Post-telecast research is usually
used in electronic media in order to understand issues for the next production.
It is important to understand that research serves as an important investment

for a media organisation. For example, if a newspaper finds its circulation has
gone up after introducing a new feature page, they may start charging more
for advertising; and their incomes would go up as a consequence. Further,
post-production research for a particular project can become pre-production
research for the next production. Similarly pre-production research which helps
28
in production can be useful in examining production process and can contribute Classification of Research
to post-production processes.
2.2.4 Based on Location

Research can also be classified in terms of location – field research, laboratory
experiments or field experiments.
Field research
Field research as the name suggests is carried out in locations. Going to a village
would become a necessity for an organisation which wants to know if Wi-Fi is
available in a village, what is the strength of the signal, and what kind of facilities
are available for men and women to access the Internet. Such kind of information
cannot be collected from a laboratory or a bookstore. Field research is carried
out where the activity is actually taking place - the field can be home or a work
place or an educational institution of the respondent. Most of the social science
research is generally carried out in the field because a laboratory is controlled
and cannot describe the real life situation. Variety of methods are used in the
field, e.g. surveys, observations, and other ethnographic methods described in
detail in Block 2 and 3 of this course.
Laboratory Experiments
Experiments are conducted in controlled environments created by the researcher
as per the requirements of the respective research project. There can be varied
types of experimental designs employed depending upon the requirements of
respective research. The most commonly used method is pre-post design or
control group-experiment designs. Laboratory experiments are extensively used
in medical and pharmaceutical research; but they are also used in communication
research. For instance, an experiment can be carried out for the pilot testing
of a TV programme or an advertisement to see how effective it is likely to be,
when launched. If it is not effective, then it is cast aside. Lab experiments are
also conducted extensively in educational communications, when the project
managers want to see if the content of the programme is useful for the target
audience or not.
Field experiments
Field experiments are those where the researcher goes to the field and conducts
experiments in the field itself to observe an intervention/experiment being
undertaken. You may study about SITE (Satellite Instructional Television
Experiment), JDCP (Jhabua Development Communication Project) which are
examples of field experiments to analyse the role of satellite technology for social
change. These experiments have used research to design communication, made
changes based on research and undertaken evaluations to ascertain influence
of such experiments.
2.2.5 Based on Approach

As discussed earlier, communication research is a multi-disciplinary subject. It
borrows research methods from anthropology, sociology, psychology, economics,
and political science and so on. Based on the approach undertaken by the
researcher, there can be four strands - Structural, Functional, Behavioural, and
Cultural/Critical.
29
Communication Research Structural
Structural or Structuralism borrows from sociology, anthropology, literary
criticism, architecture, psychology and linguistics. Structure means interrelated
parts of a system, e.g. how the communication content is structured.
Philosopher Simon Blackburn (2008) defines structuralism as “the belief that
phenomena of human life are not intelligible except through their interrelations.
These relations constitute a structure, and behind local variations in the surface
phenomena there are constant laws of abstract culture”.
In order to understand structuralism, let us take an example from language. In

linguistics (language as science of signs) we examine how pattern of words
communicate meaning. As you know “I love you” and “I love you?” do not mean
same thing in spite of the fact that both the sentences use the same words. The
meaning will change just by changing the sequence of words or putting a question
mark or an exclamation mark. Similarly in visual media, the composition or the
sequencing of visuals communicates the message. The structural approach to
research in communication examines how shots have been ordered in the film,
how sequence of words in radio is changing the presentation, what has been the
presentation in television show and how different genres of programming get
influenced by structure. The Structural approach examines sequence, grouping,
and patterns etc. and the change in sequence can lead to change in meaning in
the context of media communication.
Language is a sign system of communication in human society and tells us many

things about its speaker hence words spoken by a character can reveal a lot about
him/her. Researchers using structuralism examine structural elements of the
message in order to reach their conclusions. For example, researcher analysing
the portrayal of women in films will examine camera angles, length of the shots,
frames, the sequence of presentation, the relational difference in men versus
women and so on. If certain parts of women’s body are focused upon more; then
a different meaning will be attributed to such a portrayal.
Functional
This research classification examines what are the functions of communication.
Uses and gratification theory is an example of functional approach to
communication research as it examines the ‘why’ of communication. Why do
people watch television, why do they keep watching the same film number of
times, why do people keep listening to music even while they are on a busy
road. Uses and gratification provides a useful framework to understand the ‘why’
of media consumption. The theory notes that there are: cognition, diversion,
social utility, affiliation, expression, and withdrawal functions of media use by
individuals. To take the above example of portrayal of women in films, if the
researcher is using a functional approach, s/he will examine- what is the character
given to women in the story line, how does her character take the story further,
what the woman does in the film- is she within or outside the house- what is she
doing- what kind of clothes is she wearing- what is she speaking and so on. If
the functions given to women are ornamental or passive, then it may suggest
that the portrayal of women in that particular film is cosmetic in nature and not
significant.
30
Behavioural Classification of Research
Communication is also considered a behavioural science. Communication helps

the receivers know about the issues, help in changing their attitudes about the
issues and finally change their practices. But it may not always be in that order.
For example, people are aware that ‘smoking is injurious to health’, but even
then they smoke. The social awareness campaigns generally use fear appeal to
stress that you will get cancer because you smoke. Now, if all the viewers who
saw that campaign get impacted by the communication, everyone should have
quit smoking but that does not happen and only a few people get influenced
by the campaign. A behavioural approach on the importance of ‘No Smoking’
campaign will examine which members quit smoking after being exposed to
the campaign and why.
Cultural/Critical
Cultural approach, as the name suggests, indicates signs, values, attitudes, beliefs,
assumptions, language, even clothing, accessories, food etc. in a given society.
Cultural approach in communication research looks at communication from the
point of view of socio-cultural processes. Borrowed from anthropology, this
approach to research examines communication as socio-cultural process and
explores ritualistic processes due to communication. This approach acknowledges
heterogeneity, diversity and the dynamic nature of communication process.
Cultural studies, unlike cultural theory, come from critical approach. Cultural
studies relate to the study of ideology, culture, social structure and power and
borrow from Marxism, feminism, race, culture, film theory, post colonialism,
political economy, history, philosophy and so on.
1) What areas are included in communication research?
...................................................................................................................
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...................................................................................................................
2) List the types of communication research based on the nature and stage of
programme.
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...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
3) What is the difference between formative and pre-production research?

...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
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31
Communication Research 4) What is the difference in structural-functional-behavioural and cultural
approach to communication research?
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2.3 STUDY OF ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION

Communication research also includes researching various elements of
communication including communicators, media text, distribution process
and audiences. The communicators include the owners, creators, content
producers, actors or technicians and so on while media text includes – film,
television programmes, newspaper articles, radio programme or any media
content. Distribution covers how and what reaches consumers/audiences/
receivers of communication. The most important and challenging dimension
of media communication is the audience. Consumption of communication in
terms of its receivers/audiences- how communication is being received, effects
of communication, consequences and context of consumption also need to be
researched. Let us discuss each of these elements in detail.
2.3.1 Communicators
Communication in a mass media environment is designed and executed by
communicators. You watch television shows, play games on mobile, listen to
radio programmes, watch films either on television or in theatres; all of these
are created by communicators who work in teams, led by a team director. But
as a researcher, it is interesting to find out how these productions get made.
Communicator studies can be labelled as those in which institutions as media
communicators cannot be individuals but are organisations/agencies/institutions
or even media conglomerates.
Within communication research traditions, communicators can be researched

using varied methods. For example, you can do in-depth interviews of the
psychological or sociological characteristics of filmmakers to understand their
perspectives. One can also study the management practices in television channels
and the ownership patterns of media by either politicians or by large industrial
houses to understand how their views influence the content of the media. You
can also examine the language spoken by film directors on the film sets or study
how actresses are treated on television sets and so on.
Communicator researches help us understand who creates the communication

and under what conditions. There can be studies of policy, media economics, or
political economy approaches to examine media institutions. There can also be
managerial, organisational, financial studies in order to understand the working
of media institutions.
2.3.2 Media Content

Media content is another important aspect of research - it can be television or
radio programmes, newspaper articles, internet content, or films which make up
media text. A study of media content provides us information about the society
32
from where the text has originated or society for which the text is intended, Classification of Research
and being consumed. For example, Indian films are popular across the world.
However, their popularity is not defined by who created the films but the way
the codes, values and narratives are presented transcending the geo-political
boundaries.
As a researcher you can use methods like content analysis or semiotic analysis
to examine media content. Text analysis, literary analysis, semiotic analysis,
message system analysis are some of the examples of communication material
research. Study of text also helps you understand what is being communicated
and who is being portrayed and how. For example, you can study how much
space given in a newspaper to issues relating to senior citizens. By analysing the
space, you can arrive at the importance of senior citizens’ issues. You can also
study how much time is given to politics in a news bulletin and compare that
with the time given to health related issues, to determine the priority a television
channel places on those subjects. What will you conclude, if over fifteen days, the
major news bulletin of a news channel gives 60 per cent of its time to political
news, 15 per cent to sports; 15 per cent to entertainment; and only 10 per cent
to other newsworthy items?
2.3.3 Distribution
As you are aware, mass media reach audiences through various distribution
channels. Understanding how communication is reaching the audience or
how communication is being sent will help you to understand the ecology of
communication. For example, newspaper distribution in India is still a complex
process. However, the newspaper readership and consumption is linked to
distribution patterns. Analysis of the distribution patterns and the impact of online
availability of newspapers will help you understand the status of newspaper
business in a given society.
2.3.4 Audiences
Receivers or audiences are the most important in the process of communication.
As opposed to earlier conceptions of audience as individuals, literature now
recognises them as plural and ‘audiences’. Mass media audiences can be radio
listeners, television viewers, newspaper readers, filmgoers, mobile phone users
and so on. Since mass media audiences are heterogeneous and scattered it is
important to research them. Researching audiences helps you understand if
the communication reached them, how they received it, what the effects of
communication were, and if any changes happened because of the communication
in the lives of the audience.
You have studied basic communication process of sender-message-receiver-

feedback in earlier units. Communication research has to examine how
communication messages are received. If there is no receiver for the message,
the process of communication research is not complete. The other examples of
research related to receivers are audience research and reception analysis. The
earlier traditions of research have effects tradition which viewed media as all
powerful impacting each member of the media audiences. Today, post-effects
traditions, uses and gratification, cultivation research, reception analysis view
audiences as more active and creators of meanings.
33
Activity-1
Design a research study using two key words; “Women” and “Media”. Select
the type of study you wish to design and the approach adopted, drawing
upon the content of this unit.

1) Which elements of communication can be researched?
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
2) Is it possible to design a research study that can examine all the elements
of communication process? If so which approach will be useful for such
study?
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3) Briefly mention the shift in the way audiences are perceived in
communication research over the years.
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2.4 LET US SUM UP

In this unit you were exposed to various classifications of communication
research. It was discussed that communication research can be examined
using the lenses of design, stage, nature, location, and approaches to research
communication. Communication research is also undertaken on the elements
of communication; sender-message-receivers as well as feedback or effects of
communication.
By now you would have understood that research problems can be studied using
varied approaches and can be designed depending upon your research goals and
questions that you wish to explore through your study.
In the next unit, we shall discuss defining and formulating a research problem.
Keeping the classification of research in the background will help you to define
your own research problem.
34
Classification of Research
1) Baxter L A and Earl Babbie (2003), The Basics of Communication Research,
Thomson Wadsworth, Australia
2) Berger Arthur Asa (2015), Media and Communication Research Methods:

An Introduction to Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches, Fourth Edition,
Sage, LA
3) Kubitschko S and Anne Kaun (2016), editors, Innovative Methods in Media

and Communication Research, Palgrave MacMillan, Switzerland
4) Plooy GM Du (2001), Communication Research: Techniques, Methods and

Application, reprinted in April 2008, JUTA & Co, Landsdowne
5) Treadwell Donald (2017), An Introduction to Communication Research-

Paths of Inquiry 3rd edition, Sage, USA
6) Wimmer R D and J R Dominick (2010), Mass Media Research: An

Introduction, sixth edition, Wadsworth Publishing Company, Belmount- CA

ANSWERS
1) Communication research covers a wide spectrum of areas including media
message creation, design of those messages, distribution of those messages,
and consumption of media messages.
2) Based on the:
Nature of programme: policy, pre-production, production, telecast, post
telecast.
Stage of research: formative; process and summative research.
3) Formative research is about goals of programme, audiences, programme
content and decisions about transmission/distribution whereas pre-
production research is a micro exercise and is mainly decision making with
reference to the particular production in terms of story, locations, script
breakdowns, sets, clothing, properties and so on.
4) Structural approach to communication research focuses on structure of

content whereas functional approach examines what is the function of that
communication for audiences. Behavioural approach examines change
in practices amongst members of audiences and cultural (which is also
known as critical approach to communication research) views process of
communication as an activity/process that impacts power and questions
relationship between communicator and audiences.
1) All the elements of communication- sender, message, channel, receiver,
feedback can be researched. Approaches to research these elements may
35
Communication Research vary but it is possible to research each and every element of communication
process.
2) It is possible to design a research study that can examine all the elements
of communication process using cultural studies or critical approach.
3) Earlier approaches viewed audience as a homogenous entity which was

uniformly influenced by the media message. This led to media effects
tradition. Later researchers recognised that audiences are diverse and
heterogeneous entities who receive media messages and interpret them
according to their own context. This also led to plural of audience as
‘audiences’. Uses and gratification, Reception analysis and Cultural studies
have suggested that audiences are active beings who receive media messages
in their local context and do not get uniformly impacted.
36
UNIT 3 DEFINING AND FORMULATING
RESEARCH PROBLEMS
Structure
3.0 Introduction
3.2 Selecting the Research Problem
3.2.1 Difference between a Social Problem and a Research Problem
3.2.2 Importance of Review of Literature
3.2.3 Questions of relevance, feasibility and achievability
3.3 Formulating the Research Problem
3.3.1 Research Questions
3.3.2 Research Objectives
3.3.3 Research Hypotheses
3.4 Defining the Terms of Enquiry
3.4.1 Concepts
3.4.2 Constructs
3.4.3 Variables
3.4.4 Establishing Operational Definitions
3.5 Let Us Sum Up
3.0 INTRODUCTION
In the previous units you were introduced to the concept, nature and scope of
research. You have read the tenets of scientific research and various classifications
and applications of communication research. In this unit, we shall discuss
the process of selecting and formulating a research problem. In this regard,
conducting survey of available literature is the most important step, though,
peers, sponsoring agencies; researcher’s own observation of the environment
can also suggest a research problem. Once the broad area has been selected, it
is then necessary to formulate the research problem in terms of specifics such
as research questions, objectives and hypotheses. For this, a review of existing
literature in the concerned discipline becomes essential. The more specific and
clear you are, the better, since well begun is half done. If you are clear about
what you want to research, then how you are going to conduct your research is
merely its logical extension.
It is also important to understand the constituents of the terms of enquiry

i.e. concepts, constructs and variables. It is their varying values in terms of
occurrence, degree of intensity, nature of direction etc. that enable us to draw
conclusions about the associations, correlations and causality that exists in human
and social phenomena at any given point in time and space.
37
After working through this unit you should be able to:
• differentiate between a social and a research problem;
• identify the factors that determine the selection of a research problem;
• discuss the importance of review of literature;
• define hypotheses and explain its various types;
• discuss concepts, constructs and variables; and
• explain the need and importance of operational definitions in research.
3.2 SELECTING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

In this section we will focus on the difference between a social problem and a
research problem. We will also explain the importance of review of what has
already been studied so that you do not end up ‘rediscovering the wheel’ unless
you are interested in replicating previous studies in order to test or strengthen
existing theories. We will finish this section by outlining various factors that go
towards making the final decision regarding the selection of research problem.
3.2.1 Difference between a Social Problem and a Research

Problem
A social problem involves society at large and therefore has a broader framework
than a research problem. A research problem has a limited context that primarily
involves either academia or industry. Social problems also deal with a range
of issues from politics, culture and religion, while research problems are often
limited in scope and are well defined.
A social problem has the element of public concern while a research problem
can exist at the level of curiosity alone i.e. when a scientist does research just
because s/he wants an answer to a question. It can also exist at the level of profit,
for example, when a manufacturer wants to identify the optimum market for a
new product.
A social problem (riots, global warming, female foeticide etc.) exists irrespective
of the researcher. The researcher, on the other hand, formulates a research
problem, for instance, s/he could be interested in the role of media in covering
communal riots or awareness of female foeticide.
A social problem deals with mandatory (e.g. the legal age of marriage is 18
years) or normative propositions (e.g. Literacy should serve as the foundation
of a nation). A research problem deals with propositions that can be proved or
disproved through empirical determination. For example, early marriage leads
to health problems or literacy leads to social awareness. The validity of both
these statements can be tested through research.
A social problem serves as a trigger or a launch pad for the formulation of

research problems. Research findings, on the other hand, provide descriptions,
explanations, predictions and solutions to social problems. For instance, research
could establish that motherhood at a tender age is associated with death of the
38
mother during childbirth or higher risk of infant mortality. Therefore we can say Defining and Formulating
Research Problems
that the findings of research studies enable the framing of mandatory propositions/
laws/policies.
A social problem is a one-time problem. It finishes once it is tackled or until it

emerges again. A research problem is formulated by the researcher and can be
repeated as per his/her requirement. In this regard, experimental research studies
set up in laboratories are a case in point.
A social problem causes disruption in the smooth running of the social order
while a research study causes no such disruption other than minor intrusions
into the respondents’ lives.
A social problem can be dealt with by using intuitive thinking, common sense
etc. while a research problem is dealt with using scientific thinking based on
empirical logic and reason. Moreover, a social problem can arise all of a sudden,
necessitating spur of the moment decisions. A researcher on the other hand
systematically proceeds to identify, formulate and lay down a procedure to study
a research problem and only then starts data collection and analysis.
3.2.2 Importance of Review of Literature

After the identification of the broad area of study and before the finalisation of
the research topic, it is important to consider certain relevant factors. This is
where the importance of the review of literature comes in. Existing literature
available on our chosen research topic is reviewed with the aim to ensure that
our topic is relevant, feasible and achievable within a particular time frame,
budget and infrastructure.
Review of literature economises efforts and maximises profit. It gives you an

idea of what kind of research has already been done, by whom, where, when and
how. As an extension, it also tells you which aspects have been largely ignored
or which methodologies have not been used – in effect it allows you to identify
the research gaps in subject matter, theoretical perspectives, methodologies etc.
You can then decide to either replicate previous research and thereby strengthen
existing theory or take up new areas and thereby revise existing theory or
formulate new explanations for existing phenomena. A review of literature gives
you an idea of the practical problems faced by previous researchers as well as
take up on their suggestions for further research. Review of literature also gives
inputs regarding methodology, terms of inquiry as well as gain an insight into
defining the variables you intend to study in your own research.
Literature refers to all information in printed or oral form that is available on

your topic of research interest. For review of literature, one can consult: Indices –
these contain alphabetically organised listings of research articles under subject,
title and author headings as also information regarding from where the article
can be sourced,e.g. Social Sciences Citation Index, Humanities Index, etc.Unit
6 deals extensively with this topic.
Bibliographies are akin to indexes other than that they concentrate more on
periodical/journal literature. A bibliography can also be limited to just books
published in a particular discipline during a specific period.
39
Communication Research Compilations of Abstracts can also be consulted. These are typically arranged
according to subject matter and author and contain summaries of specific
published articles. In that sense they are more beneficial since one can decide
to consult the full study on the basis of whether the abstract’s relevance to one’s
study e.g., Dissertations, Abstracts, International. Journals and Periodicals are
other sources of literature. They are publications of a fixed periodicity and
discipline which contain full papers, articles, reviews etc.
Books and Encyclopaedias are also consulted for an exhaustive analysis and
overview of one’s interest area. Encyclopaedias can be particularly useful for
framing operational definitions.
General and professional/trade publications are other sources. Articles for

the layman appearing in newspapers and magazines can provide interesting
perspectives on complex problems in communication and media for researchers
to pursue. Many trade publications are published in films, advertising, public
relations etc. which can provide case studies in respective areas.
The Internet is an immense source of information. The only drawback is that one
has to be careful regarding the credibility of the information that one sources
online. It is advisable to refer to the websites of recognised journals and research
institutions.
3.2.3 Questions of Relevance, Feasibility and Achievability

A good research topic is one that can be related to a theoretical frame of reference.
For instance, if you are interested in doing research in advertising, you can refer
to the Uses and Gratifications theory, Diffusion of Innovations theory etc. or any
other theory discussed in detail in the Course on Communication and Media
Studies. This will not only root your research in an existing body of theory, but
also make it easier to identify potentially fruitful questions. This theoretical base
will also enable your research to find its niche in the existing well of knowledge
since your findings will either support the existing theory or help revise it. Even
if you are doing research in a completely new area, you can still consult theories
from related disciplines and develop a better understanding of your subject. For
instance, if you are researching social media addiction, you can always draw upon
theories from the discipline of psychology and link them to the study of a mass
medium. Review of literature of existing research studies helps to determine how
relevant your research would be in respect of the existing knowledge – will it
fill a gap, will it strengthen it – in other words, is your chosen research problem
significant?
One also needs to determine the feasibility of the topic before starting work on
it. A topic might prove unsuitable for investigation simply because the question
being asked cannot be answered with the facilities and information currently
available. For instance, there is no point taking up a topic that requires classified
information for the analysis or any other information that cannot be legally
obtained. You may not have the necessary budget or infrastructure to use a
required technology to investigate the problem. Often, the necessary technology
may not even exist. For instance, it is only now that we have technologies like
brain mapping to determine how individuals react to message stimuli.
40
Moreover, a topic does not lend itself to productive research if it requires the Defining and Formulating
Research Problems
collection of data that cannot be observed or measured with validity or reliability.
If controlling for error is an important consideration for you then such a topic
may not be very feasible. It is equally important to have a very clear idea of one’s
own capabilities. If one is not a team person then it would not be feasible to take
up a topic that requires large-scale collaboration. Similarly, it is better to take up
a qualitative study if one is not comfortable with numbers or statistical analysis.
Before finalising one’s research topic, one also needs to address the question
of achievability. You might be engaging in research for the fulfilment of the
requirements of a degree, such as a dissertation. Quite naturally, you will be
working on a deadline if you have got a research grant or a fellowship for a
specific period. Therefore, it is important to ensure that your research topic is
not too broad and unwieldy. One tip is to write down your proposed title and
then attempt to dissect the topic into small questions. For instance, Computer-
mediated Communication as a tool for social relations – this working title will
immediately ensure that you draw up boundaries and concentrate on this aspect
in order to arrive at closure within a specified time period.
1) List two differences between a Social problem and a Research problem.
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2) List the sources of information for conducting a review of literature.

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3) How can you determine the relevance of your topic?

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3.3 FORMULATING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

In this section we will focus on how to formulate the terms of enquiry for your
research. These primarily constitute research questions, objectives and hypotheses.
It is not necessary that all three be included in every research study. For instance,
when conducting exploratory research you may just have some research questions
and objectives. You may have research objectives and hypotheses in more
structured studies that address issues of association, correlation and causality.
41
Communication Research A study does not necessarily become weaker in the absence of hypotheses. The
importance of formulating the terms of enquiry lies in the fact that it narrows
down the research problem to a manageable specificity, lays down the extent
and limits, identifies the relationships proposed to be significant – in short all
that you hope to achieve through your study.
The important thing to be kept in mind is that there is coordination in the

formulation of the terms of enquiry. For instance, if your research question is
‘whether demographic variables impact on internet usage’, then the corresponding
objective should be to collect data pertaining to the demographics of the Internet
user as well as his/her Internet usage patterns. It is only when you have this data
that you will be in a position to answer your research question. How the question
is answered will prove or disprove your research hypothesis that perhaps could
be that ‘socio economic status and frequency of Internet use is positively co-
related’.
3.3.1 Research Questions

Research questions are usually asked in exploratory research when not enough
is known about the research area to justify the framing of categorical hypotheses
at the outset itself. Since the researcher is working in an area that has only
been studied marginally or not at all, s/he may be unsure of the existence of
the determining factors or of the interrelationships. At this point, research is
a knowledge-gathering exercise rather than verification. So s/he asks a series
of questions, gets many answers, looks for patterns and it is only at the end of
research that s/he may be in a position to frame hypotheses to be taken up later
in a more structured study.
3.3.2 Research Objectives

When a researcher is working in an area for which extensive literature is already
available, it acts as a facilitating mechanism for him/her to straightaway frame
the research objectives followed by research hypotheses. The latter is in the
nature of an answer – a tentative proposition, the validity of which remains to
be tested. For instance, s/he can directly list a hypothesis – ‘media consumption
and need gratification is positively correlated’ – without having to first frame
it as a question. While framing the objectives, you have to keep in mind that
they should be exhaustive and logically sequenced. For instance, an objective
to determine media usage patterns should be listed before an objective about
studying the reasons for those patterns. Also, it is important that only those
objectives are listed that are empirically achievable; i.e.,amenable to being
observed or measured.
3.3.3 Research Hypotheses

As mentioned earlier, a hypothesis is a tentative generalisation, the validity
of which remains to be tested. Hypotheses enable to test existing theories,
suggest new ones as well as help to describe social phenomena with a certain
degree of certainty. For instance, a hypothesis such as ‘the more the exposure
to televised violence, the stronger the belief in a violent world’, enables you
to put George Gerbner’s Cultivation theory to the test. Similarly, a hypothesis
such as ‘communication breakdown between couples is the primary factor for
divorce’, if proved, enables you to describe the reasons behind divorce rates in
42 the country. The importance of hypotheses in a research study lies in their ability
to bring direction, specificity and focus. They help us to control the intervening Defining and Formulating
Research Problems
variables and enable decision- making and policy formulation.
Hypotheses can be classified on the basis of various criteria; on the basis of

source, level of abstraction, on the basis of composition and functionality.
On the basis of source:

a) The researcher can frame a hypothesis on the basis of his/her own perception
or intuition regarding a particular phenomenon. For instance, a researcher
may belong to a family where the men only discuss issues regarding their
work or business while the women only discuss domestic issues. The
researcher here draws upon one’s personal experiences and hypothesises that
‘conversational engagement is associated with identity perception’. These
kinds of hypotheses have an important contribution in building up theory
and are useful in exploratory research since they bring forth interesting
questions.
b) The researcher can frame a hypothesis on the basis of existing theory. The
genesis here lies not in his/her intuition but in the findings of specific research
conducted to study a particular phenomenon. For instance, s/he can take up
the want-get ratio formulated by Daniel Lerner and seek to replicate it. S/he
too may find that this ratio regularly operates in underdeveloped countries
while not so much in the developed world. S/he may also identify gaps in
existing research and frame a hypothesis accordingly. For instance, one may
find loneliness as a factor in media consumption has not been studied, so
s/he can frame a hypothesis such as ‘social support and media consumption
are associated’.
Level of abstraction:
a) Level of commonplace impression: These kinds of hypotheses are in the
nature of an observation about some empirical uniformity in respect of the
phenomena under study. The focus here is on the descriptive, for instance,
‘male reporters cover hard core reporting’.
b) Level of conceptualisation: These hypotheses are based on existing theory

where a hypothesis has been more or less proved but is open to falsifiability.
For instance, the Two-step flow hypothesis is relatively well-established
in understanding how information flow takes place in remote areas. Here,
information is routed through the local opinion leaders like the sarpanch
etc. rather than directly through the mass media.
c) Level of specification: These hypotheses specify the nature of relationship

between the variables that constitute the hypothesis. A hypothesis may state
that something tends to be accompanied by something else i.e. it states
the association between the variables - ‘Education is associated with civic
awareness’. Specifying the degree and direction of the relationship can
also state a hypothesis, e.g. ‘Increase in leisure time leads to increase in
media consumption’. A hypothesis can also be stated in terms of a causal
relationship between variables - ‘Continuous exposure to computer screens
causes dry eye syndrome’.
43
Communication Research On the basis of composition/complexity:
a) A simple hypothesis is one that has only one or two variables. For instance,
Times of India is the largest circulated newspaper in India’. Or ‘Age and
Internet usage is associated’.
b) A complex hypothesis is one that has more than two variables. For example,
increase in age and socio-economic status leads to increase in media
consumption’. These hypotheses are more difficult to test because more
the variables in a single hypothesis, the more difficult it is to assess their
interrelations - quantitatively and theoretically.
On the basis of functionality/testability:

a) A theoretical hypothesis is stated in terms of abstract concepts and is
untestable in any direct sense.
b) A research hypothesis is derived from the above but is stated in such a

way that it can be tested i.e. it is a functional or a testable or a working
hypothesis. Most research methodologists recognise only two hypotheses
under this category – Research hypothesis and Null hypothesis. The
theoretical and the statistical hypothesis are assumed to be understood as part
of the research hypothesis. Here the hypothesis is stated in terms of some
operations to be performed i.e. construct language is used. For example. ‘IQ
levels and comprehensive abilities are positively correlated’. To be able to
prove or disprove this hypothesis the constructs of IQ and comprehension
are measured with the help of test instruments. To determine the IQ any
standardised IQ test can be used. To measure comprehension we could
construct a test instrument such as a reading passage followed by questions
– the respondents’ test score will rate their comprehension capability.
c) A null hypothesis can be deemed to be the reverse of the research hypothesis

or its negation. To take up the above example, the null hypothesis would
be, ‘IQ levels and comprehensive abilities are negatively correlated’ or
‘IQ levels and comprehensive abilities are independent of one another’.
It is the null hypothesis that is actually tested in research. This practice is
followed by convention and also because by testing the null hypothesis first,
the researcher is declaring his/her objectivity. Since the null hypothesis is
a denial of what researcher holds to be true, by according it priority, s/he
declares that s/he is giving all the alternatives first chance to be proved.
The concept of null hypothesis is based on the law of probability. The

research hypothesis and the null hypothesis are alternative statements.
Both have the probability of being true or false, so if one is proven, its
alternative, by logic, is considered disproven (though it should be noted that
neither the research hypothesis nor the null hypothesis can be absolutely
true or absolutely false under any given test of it. That is why we say that
the data failed to support the hypothesis or that the data failed to reject the
hypothesis). Moreover, it seems easier to prove something false than to prove
it is true – one can say that there could be many reasons for a particular
effect, but this one is not the cause.
d) A statistical hypothesis refers to the technical form in which the hypothesis is

stated for purposes of a statistical test, i.e. it is stated in a manner that makes
44
it amenable to the application of the relevant statistical tests of significance. Defining and Formulating
Research Problems
The data is quantified, confidence levels are set, tests are applied, values are
obtained and checked to determine whether they fall in the area of rejection
or acceptance. It is important to note the difference between significance
and importance in research methodology. The former is mathematical while
the latter is subjective, based on experience and judgment. A hypothesis
may be rejected on the basis of it not clearing a statistical test, set to certain
parameters, but that does not mean that it ceases to be important.
1) When are research questions asked?
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2) What is the importance of hypotheses?

...................................................................................................................
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3) Define a Null hypothesis.

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3.4 DEFINING THE TERMS OF ENQUIRY

In this section you will study how hypotheses are framed. The criterion of a
good hypothesis is that it should be clear and concise regarding what is to be
studied and how. In that sense it should also be testable. Whether the hypothesis
is merely descriptive or analytical, it will always have one or more variables
that have to be observed or measured. In certain instances this task is easy while
in other instances procedures have to be put in place so that the observation or
the measurement can take place. Since we are dealing with human and social
phenomena, we also have to understand that the same phenomena can have
multiple meanings depending upon the context of time, situation and person.
Therefore, it becomes important to understand how variables should be defined
for a specific research study in order to ensure that the findings are understood
in the right perspective.
45
Communication Research 3.4.1 Concepts
Concepts can be referred to as observables i.e. they are terms that have direct
empirical referents. A concept is formed by summarising related observations
of characteristics that are either directly observable or easily measured. For
instance, income is a concept that can be deduced through observations of a
person’s lifestyle or directly measured in terms of monthly/annual income. We
can say that a concept is a term formed by generalisation from particulars. We
can examine the properties of a particular book – size, weight, thickness, paper
quality, print, subject matter, ratio of visual content to verbal content etc. and
slot it in the genre of text books, reference books, fiction and so on.
3.4.2 Constructs
Constructs can be referred to as non-observables as they cannot be easily related
to the phenomena they are intended to represent. They have no direct empirical
referent i.e. they are not directly part of our empirical world. For instance, anxiety,
violence, faith, intelligence, social prestige, attitudes and so on. You cannot point
to something and say this is faith. To be able to observe or measure faith you
will have to frame certain parameters or indicators to do so and depending upon
how many of those parameters are met, you will be able to state the quantum
of faith possessed by a particular person or group. Therefore, we can say that
constructs can be defined as higher level abstractions as they are constructed from
concepts at a lower level of abstraction. Often researchers construct their own
indicators to concretise a phenomenon that is relatively abstract or they combine
concepts to explain a construct. In that sense its exact meaning relates only to the
context in which it is found. For instance, to measure the construct of social status,
a researcher may combine the concepts of income, education and occupation etc.
3.4.3 Variables
A variable is the empirical counterpart of a concept or construct. It is capable
of taking on different values, thus in effect a variable is something that varies.
Variables are important because they link the empirical world with the theoretical
– they are the phenomena and events that can be measured or manipulated in
research. A person’s age varies in terms of years, income varies in terms of
money earned, and intelligence varies in terms of scores achieved on an IQ test
and so on. Variables are used by a researcher to measure how they affect other
variables. They can also be manipulated to study the corresponding effect of this
manipulation on other variables. Researchers try to test a number of associated
variables to develop an underlying meaning or relationship among them. After
suitable analysis, the most important variables are retained. These are referred
to as marker variables and continue to be built upon as research continues in a
particular area. Variables can be classified according to the manner of their usage.
a) Independent variables are those that are systematically varied or manipulated

by the researcher. Dependent variables are those that are systematically
observed for concomitant variation as a result of the manipulation of the
independent variable. For instance, to measure whether the camera angle
has any influence on the credibility that a viewer attaches to a news reader,
a researcher may shoot the same news bulletin using three different camera
angles – top, low and eye level. S/he then shows this news bulletin to three
46
different groups of people and asks them to rate how credible they perceive Defining and Formulating
Research Problems
the news reader to be. S/he may find that the group that was shown the news
bulletin where the news reader is looking directly into the camera found the
bulletin to be most credible.
In this example, the camera angle is the independent variable and the
effect of its variation is measured on the dependent variable i.e. credibility.
Since this is an experimental study and there is active manipulation of the
independent variable, this variable can also be referred to as the active
variable or the manipulated variable or the experimental variable. The
dependant variable here can also be referred to as the passive variable or the
measured variable. In non-experimental research where there is no active
manipulation of variables, different terms can be used – the variable that is
used for making predictions or is deemed to be the cause of something e.g.
if poverty is present, so will illiteracy, this variable can also be termed as
the predictor or the antecedent variable while the variable that is predicted
to be result or is assumed to be affected, is called the criterion variable.
b) When specifying relationships in a hypothesis, it is important to account for

or control for the extraneous or the intervening variables. If this is not done
then the findings may be erroneous or invalid. For instance, we may have
hypothesised that education leads to modernity. We collect data regarding
the two variables and prove or disprove the hypothesis accordingly. But it
may so happen that even though education does impact on whether a person
develops a more modern outlook or not, but no amount of education will
greatly change a person’s outlook unless his/her family is also a progressive
one. But since we have not factored in the variable of family background,
we have erroneously held education to be responsible or not responsible
for a modern outlook while actually the causal variable had been the family
background.
Since, in human and social phenomena many factors combine to create

a particular effect, it is important that the researcher either includes all
the variables or s/he controls them. With reference to this example, if the
researcher feels that family background could be an intervening variable,
s/he can control it by only including those respondents in sample who come
from similar backgrounds. By doing so, its effect will be cancelled out of the
equation since this variable will now be held constant. When such a thing
is done, these variables are also referred to as ‘control variables’.
Intervening variables can also be understood as those variables without the

intervention of which, the relationship between the independent variable and
the dependent variable cannot be established. Suppose you want to study the
relationship between age and newspaper readership, you assume that older
people read the newspapers more. But without the intervening variable of
literacy, the relationship between the independent and the dependent variable
will not be complete.
3.4.4 Establishing Operational Definitions

It is very important to define the variables under study as failure to do so impacts
upon the reliability and validity of the study. In general, any first attempt at a
definition is an application of common sense and everyday life experience.
47
Communication Research For instance, the most conventional approach to defining age would be to
define it in terms of years lived beginning from the date of birth. But then as
knowledge grows, concepts evolve, meanings change, perspectives multiply,
it becomes important to categorically state how one is going to be studying
a particular concept for a particular study. For instance, one researcher may
want to study violence purely on physical terms so s/he defines it accordingly.
Another researcher wants to study it from the point of view of verbal violence,
yet another wants to draw a distinction between animated and real violence, still
another wants to study it only from the perspective of the victim and so on. As
complexities increase, so does the need to focus on specifics.
When defining the variables under study, two approaches are followed –
convention i.e. framing a definition in terms of what is most commonly
understood; or framing a definition in terms of the researcher’s own understanding
or objectives. In the latter case, the researcher has to ensure that the definition
remains within the bounds of logic and reason.The conventional definitions are
usually the constitutive, nominal or formal definitions which define a word by
substituting other words for it. These are usually the dictionary meanings. For
instance, status is defined as a person’s standing in society; anxiety is defined
as nervousness etc.
The stipulated definitions are usually the operational definitions. An operational

definition defines a concept in terms of the operations by which it will be
represented in a particular study i.e. it specifies the procedures to be followed
in expressing or measuring a concept. In a way, operational definitions are
quantifications of the nominal definitions. For instance, violence could be defined
as any physical act that results in bodily injury to be measured in time units.
Anxiety could be defined in terms of the score obtained on a five-item scale or
on the basis of observation of the occurrence of certain physical actions such as
restless gestures, perspiration, stuttering etc. Basically an operational definition
provides an empirical referent to the variable under study.
1) What is the basic difference between concepts and constructs?
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
2) Define a variable.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
48
3) What is an operational definition? Defining and Formulating
Research Problems
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
3.5 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we discussed how to go about selecting a research problem. We started
with differentiating between a social and a research problem. This was followed
by highlighting the importance of conducting a review of literature which
helps in identification and selection of the research problem. The importance
of ensuring that the topic we select should be relevant, feasible and achievable
was also dwelt upon.
We further focused on formulating the terms of enquiry – research questions,

objectives and hypotheses. The various types of hypotheses were categorised.
How the hypothesis is framed using variables was also described. The difference
between concepts and constructs was highlighted and the importance of framing
clear operational definitions was emphasised.
It is hoped that the above discussion will help you in defining and formulating
your own research problem. In the next unit, we shall take the discussion forward
and focus on sampling methods.

1) Kerlinger, F.N., (1973), Foundations in Behavioural Research, Holt,
Rhinehart and Winston. NY.
2) Kumar, Ranjit (2008), Research Methodology, Pearson Education. N.D.
3) Neuman, W.L., (2007), Social Research Methods – Qualitative and

Quantitative Approaches, Pearson Education. N.D.
4) Wimmer, R.D and Dominick, J.R, (2010), Mass Media Research – An

Introduction, Thomson Wordsworth Publishers, London
3.7 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS: POSIBLE

ANSWERS
1) A social problem can arise all of a sudden while a research problem is
formulated. Secondly, a social problem has the element of public concern
while a research problem can exist at the level of curiosity alone.
2) Review of literature can be conducted by consulting indices, bibliographies,

abstracts, journals, periodicals, books, encyclopedias, general interest
publications, trade publications and the Internet.
49
Communication Research 3) The relevance of a research topic can be determined by ensuring that it has a
theoretical frame of reference as its foundation, thereby either strengthening
existing theory or revising it. Its relevance also exists in its significance – it
should fill research gaps in subject matter, make methodology more precise,
or have implications for framing of policies.
1) Research questions are usually asked in exploratory research when not
enough is known about the research area to justify the framing of categorical
hypotheses at the outset itself.
2) Hypotheses enable us to test existing theories, suggest new ones as well

as help us to describe social phenomena with a certain degree of certainty.
From the point of view of methodology, hypotheses ensure a more precise
study, they impose boundaries, clarify concepts, and enable controlling for
intervening variables and testing for statistical significance.
3) A null hypothesis is based on the law of probability and is deemed to be the

reverse of the research hypothesis or its negation.
1) The basic difference between concepts and constructs is that concepts have
a direct empirical referent, which constructs do not have.
2) A variable is a concept or a construct that takes on different values, in effect

a variable is something that varies.
3) An operational definition defines a concept in terms of the operations

by which it will be represented in a particular study i.e. it specifies the
procedures to be followed in expressing or measuring a concept.
50
UNIT 4 SAMPLING METHODS
Structure
4.0 Introduction
4.2 Population
4.2.1 Sample
4.2.2 Types of sampling
4.2.3 Sampling Error
4.3 Non-Probability Samples
4.3.1 Accidental Samples
4.3.2 Available/Convenience Samples
4.3.3 Volunteer Samples
4.3.4 Purposive Samples
4.3.5 Quota Samples
4.3.6 Snowball Sample
4.4 Probability Samples
4.4.1 Simple Random Sampling
4.4.2 Table of Random Numbers
4.4.3 Systematic Random Sampling
4.4.4 Stratified Random Sampling
4.4.5 Cluster Sampling
4.4.6 Multi-Stage Sampling
4.5 Sampling Size
4.6 Let us Sum Up
4.8 Key Words
4.0 INTRODUCTION
You use a small spoonful of curry to taste what the whole dish is like. Based
upon what you find, you choose to eat or not to eat the curry. That small spoonful
is a sample, a reflection of the whole dish, not too different from what is done
in research designs.
In statistics and survey methodology, sampling is concerned with a subset of

individuals from within a statistical population to estimate the characteristic of
a whole population. The whole is called ‘population, which could be any set of
definable elements. That group or sample can stand for or represent the whole.
An element may be persons, households, organisations, television programmes
or a spoonful of rice or stew. Sampling involves the selection of elements to
represent the population. So in other words, a fully representative sample has
characteristics similar to the population in the same proportion to the population.
Populations are defined according to the purpose of research. Therefore, the first
step in sampling is to project the intention of the research.
51
Communication Research The selection of elements in a sample is made from a sampling frame which
identifies all the individual sampling units within a population. A sampling unit
may be a single element or a collection of elements. Examples of sampling
unit could be a household, a television programme or a child. Typical sampling
frames can be telephone directories, voter registration lists, PIN code lists, list
of licensed television channels, memos distributed in an organisation and so on.

After working through this unit, you should be able to:
• discuss the meaning of population in research;
• identify the types of sampling methods used in research;
• distinguish between probability and non-probability sampling;
• adopt a sampling design with minimum error;
• apply the various sampling techniques in research; and
• generalise the results of the sample to the population.
4.2 POPULATION
All items under consideration in any field of enquiry constitute a ‘universe’
or ‘population’. The goal of any research is to first describe the nature of a
population. It could be a-group or class of subjects, variables, concepts or
phenomena. Sometimes an entire group needs to be investigated. The process of
examining every member of such a population is called a census. For instance,
India’s census taken every ten years enumerates the entire population. Examining
an entire population is not possible in practice under many circumstances. It
involves a great deal of time and resources. Also, studying every member of a
population can confound the research because measurements of large numbers
often affect measuring quality. Hence, we select only a few items from the
universe for the purpose of our study. The items so selected constitute what is
technically called a sample and the procedure adopted to select that sample is
the sampling technique or sample design.
Populations are defined according to the purposes of research. If the purpose of

research is to predict the outcome of the elections in a state, then the population is
composed of the actual voters in that election. If we wish to predict the outcome
before the official counting but after the vote have been cast, then we can do an
exit poll of voters as they leave their voting booths. But, if our intent is to predict
the outcome before the day of election, then we have to redefine our population.
Here, our population would comprise of registered voters who may be further
qualified with a firm intention to vote.
4.2.1 Sample
A sample is a subset of the population that is representative of the entire
population. In the diagram below, P is the population and P1 is the sample. A
census would measure every member of the population i.e., P whereas a sample
would be a portion of the population i.e., P1. The most important part of any
sampling procedure is to avoid any kind of bias i.e., every element or member
52
of the population should have an equal chance of being selected. In other words, Sampling Methods
the sampling design must be free from any bias.
Population
Sample P1
4.2.2 Types of Sampling

Sampling is of two types: probability and non-probability.
Probability and Non-Probability Samples

Samples can be either probability or non-probability samples. A probability
sample is selected according to mathematical guidelines where the chance of
selection of each unit is known. A non-probability sample does not follow the
guidelines of mathematical probability. The distinguishing characteristic of both
these types of samples is that probability samples allow researchers to calculate
the sampling error whereas non probability samples do not. Probability samples
also enable a more accurate generalisation of the results of a survey.
4.2.3 Sampling Error

There is always a need to make a sample error free. However, often, this may not
be possible. The degree to which measurements of the units or subjects selected
differ from those of the population as a whole is known as sampling error. The
procedure adopted to select the sample introduces the likelihood of sampling
error. Sampling error is also known as standard error. In other words, sampling
error occurs when measurements taken from a sample do not correspond to what
exists in the population. Therefore, while selecting a sampling procedure, the
researcher must ensure that the sample design causes a relatively small sampling
error and helps to control the bias.
To minimise sampling error, the characteristics of a good sample design should

adhere to the following criteria:
1) The sample design must result in a truly representative sample.
2) The sample design selected must ensure minimum sampling error.
3) The sample design selected should take budget and time constraints into
consideration.
Sampling error does not depend on the type of sample. Whether convenience,
judgment or probability sampling, the possibility of error always exists when
population members vary and something less than the entire population is drawn.
With convenience and judgment samples, one can do nothing more than accept
that possibility. With probability samples, we can estimate the rate of sampling
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Communication Research error, thereby giving us an idea of the risk assumed in accepting the sample as
true.
Note: 1) Use the space below for you answers.
2) Compare your answers with those given at the end of this unit.
Fill in the blanks:
1) The process of sampling involves the selection of a group of individuals
from a .........................................
2) The selection of elements in a sample is done within a ...........................
3) ........................................... occurs when the sample selected does not
represent the population.
4) A ............................................... sample is selected according to mathematical
guidelines.
5) A sample design selected should take .................................. and ..............
into consideration
4.3 NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING

There are other issues to be taken into consideration while deciding to use
probability or non-probability samples. Some research studies are not designed
to be generalised to the population but to collect exploratory data for designing
questionnaires or measurement instruments. A non-probability sample is
appropriate in such situations. Secondly, if the cost of a probability sample
is too high in relation to the type and quality of information collected, then a
non-probability sample is a possible alternative. Since, probability samples are
often time consuming, a non-probability sample may be adopted to meet the
time-constraints.
Sometimes the sampling frame may not contain accurate information. For
instance, if a telephone survey is used in elections to predict voting patterns,
and the telephone directory is used, those who do not have access to telephones
are left out. Sometimes, especially in developing countries, data enabling the
creation of a sampling frame simply does not exist.
Although non-probability sampling may be appropriate in certain situations, it

is always best to use a probability sample when a study is conducted to support
or refute a significant research question or hypothesis and the results will be
generalised to the population.We take up these two designs separately:
In non-probability sampling, the items for the sample are selected deliberately by
the researcher. In other words, the researcher purposively chooses particular units
of the universe for constituting a sample. Mass media researchers frequently use
non-probability sampling, particularly in the form of available samples, samples
using volunteer subjects and purposive samples. For example, in testing drugs,
volunteer subjects have to be used, given ethical and other considerations. Some
of the different types of non-probability samples are:
a) Accidental samples
54 b) Available/Convenience samples
c) Volunteer samples Sampling Methods
d) Purposive samples
e) Quota samples
f) Snowball samples
4.3.1 Accidental samples

In accidental sampling, the researcher simply reaches out and selects the subjects
that s/he comes across and continues doing so till such time as the sample
reaches a designated size. For example, s/he may take the first 150 persons one
meets at a mall entry point who are willing to be interviewed or to provide the
information s/he is seeking. In such a sample, there is no way of estimating
bias except by doing a parallel study with a probability sample or undertaking a
complete census. This does not mean that accidental samples have no place in
scientific research. Besides being economical and convenient, they can provide
a basis for stimulating insights and hypotheses.
4.3.2 Available/Convenience samples

An available sample is also known as a convenience sample. It is a collection
of readily accessible subjects for study, such as a group of students enrolled in
a mass media course or shopkeepers in a mall. Although available samples are
helpful in collecting exploratory information, the samples may contain unknown
quantities of error. Researchers need to consider both the positive and negative
aspects of available samples before using them in a research study. Available
samples are a subject of debate in research as critics argue that these samples do
not represent the population and therefore have no external validity. Proponents
of available samples claim that if a particular trait or characteristic does exist,
then it should exist in any sample. This sampling technique is useful in pretesting
questionnaires or conducting a pilot study.
4.3.3 Volunteer samples

Persons who willingly participate in research projects are known as volunteer
samples. Subjects who constitute a volunteer sample also form a non-probability
sample as the individuals are not selected according to mathematical guidelines.
Researchers have found that these subjects tend to exhibit higher educational
levels, occupational status and intelligence levels. These characteristics imply that
the use of volunteer subjects may significantly bias the results of the research and
may lead to inaccurate assumptions of various population parameters. In some
cases, volunteer subjects are necessary but they should be used carefully since
they contain unknown quantity of error. Volunteer samples are extensively used
these days by the media and internet websites. Various polls conducted on radio
and television stations, TV networks, the Internet, newspapers and magazines
use volunteer samples. However, such samples are considered inappropriate in
scientific research.
4.3.4 Purposive samples

The basic assumption behind purposive sampling is that the subjects are selected
for a specific characteristic or quality and eliminates those who fail to meet
these criteria. Purposive samples are often used in advertising studies where
researchers select subjects who use a particular type of product and ask them to
55
Communication Research compare it with a new product. However, in such a sampling there is no assurance
that every element or subject has some specifiable chance of being selected.
Here, the sampling errors and biases cannot be computed since the sampling
procedure does not involve probability sampling at any stage.
4.3.5 Quota samples

One of the most commonly used methods of sampling in market research is the
method of quota sampling. Here the subjects are selected to meet a predetermined
or known percentage. The basic objective of such sampling is the selection
of a sample that is similar to the population in terms of proportion of certain
characteristics. For example, a researcher is interested in finding out how girl
students differ from boys in their intelligence levels in a co-educational institution.
If, there is a sharp difference in the proportion of girls and boys studying in the
institution, then, a quota sample is appropriate in order to reflect the population
characteristics. For this, the researcher would identify the proportion of the
subgroups (girls and boys) in the population (the institute) and apply the same
proportion while selecting the sample. So, if there are 200 girls and 100 boys
in the institute, the selected sample would have double the number of girls as
compared to the boys. In quota sampling the population is reflected in terms
of certain characteristics, and the proportion of the population with specific
characteristics is determined and selected like-wise.
4.3.6 Snowball sample

Sometimes, especially in exploratory research, it is difficult to find the relevant
respondents. Therefore, each respondent is asked to identify one or more
respondents, e.g. people with walking sticks; cancer specialists; experts in a
particular field, or mothers who also volunteer their services, even other friends
who are social media users. Thus, the sample grows to a predetermined number
by each respondent identifying others who can be sampled.
Fill in the blanks:
1) An available sample is also known as a....................sample.
2) Persons who willingly participate in a research project are known as.............
samples.
3) In ...................sampling persons are selected to meet a predetermined
percentage.
4) The basic assumption behind.............sampling is that the subjects are selected
for a specific quality.
5) In..............sampling, the researcher simply reaches out and selects the
subjects that s/he comes across.
4.4 PROBABILITY SAMPLING

Probability sampling method involves a systematic selection procedure to
ensure that each unit has an equal chance of being selected. However, it does
56
not always guarantee a representative sample from the population, even when Sampling Methods
systematic selection is followed. It is possible to randomly select 50 students
of a university hostel in order to determine the average number of hours spent
on watching television during a typical week only to discover that there was no
TV set installed in the hostel or even if it was installed it was never in a working
condition. This may be unlikely but it underscores the possibility of inadequacy.
The most commonly used probability samples are:
a) Simple random samples
b) Systematic random samples
c) Stratified random samples
d) Cluster samples
4.4.1 Simple random sampling

The most basic type of probability sampling is the simple random sampling.
Here, each subject or unit in the population has an equal chance of being
selected. In principle, one can use this method for selecting random samples
from populations of any size. But in practice, it becomes very cumbersome.
If a subject or unit is drawn from a population and removed from subsequent

selections, the procedure is known as random sampling without replacement- a
widely used random sampling method. Random sampling with replacement
involves returning the subject or unit to the population so that it has an equal
chance of being selected another time.
4.4.2 Table of random numbers

Researchers also use the list of random numbers to generate a simple random
sample. For example, a researcher wants to analyse the portrayal of women in 10
soap operas on television channels out of a population of 100 programmes then
s/he can use the table of random numbers to select 10 programmes by numbering
each of the 100 programmes from 00 to 99. A random number table is included
as an Appendix. First a starting point in the table is selected. There is no specific
way to choose a starting point; it is at the discretion of the researcher. The
researcher then selects the remaining 9 numbers by going left, right, up or down.
For example, if the researcher goes down the table from the starting point 39
then his drawn sample will include programmes numbered 39, 02, 78, 94, 71,
83, 20, 49, 64, 08 and 55.
Simple random samples for use in television surveys are often obtained by a
process called random digit dialing. This method involves the randomly selected
four-digit numbers and adding them to the three-digit or four-digit exchange
prefixes in the city in which the survey is conducted. Many of the telephone
numbers generated by this method are invalid because some phone numbers are
disconnected or they may be temporarily out of service and so on. Therefore it is
best to consider three times the number of telephone numbers needed; if a sample
of 100 is required then at least 300 telephone numbers should be generated.
Random number generation is possible through a variety of methods. However,

two basic rules must be kept in mind: (1) each subject in the population must have
an equal chance of being selected (2) The selection process must be free from
57
Communication Research bias of the researcher. The purpose of random sampling is to reduce sampling
error and overlooking the above mentioned rules only increases the chance of
error creeping into the study.
4.4.3 Systematic Random Sampling

The most practical way of sampling is to select every ith item on a list. Sampling
of this type is known as systematic random sampling. For example, to obtain a
sample of 50 from a population of 500, or a sampling rate of 1/10, a researcher
randomly selects a starting point and sampling interval. Thus, if the number 4
is chosen as the starting point, then the sample will include the 50 subjects or
items numbered 4, 14, 24, 34, 44, 54, and so on. To add further randomness to
the process, the researcher can select the starting point and the sampling interval
randomly. For example, an interval of 6 with a starting point 37 generates the
numbers 43, 49, 55, 61, and so on.
Let us take an example. You wish to study the contents of a newspaper over
a three month period with a sample of 30 issues. If you take a simple random
sample, it is possible that all the days of the week may not be included. So you
choose a systematic random sample choosing every 3rd issue. This way, the
likelihood of all days of the week being included is ensured. In systematic random
sampling, selection of subjects is easy, accurate and generally inexpensive as
compared to simple random sampling. However, a complete list of the population
must be obtained as hidden periodicity in the population may bias the process.
4.4.4 Stratified Random Sampling

If a population from which a sample is to be drawn does not constitute a
homogeneous group, stratified sampling design is generally used in order to
obtain a representative sample. In some cases, the researcher wants to ensure
that a specific sub sample gets adequate representation. In such instances, a
stratified random sampling approach is adopted to get an adequate representation
of the sub sample. The population is divided into different strata with specific
characteristics. The characteristics or features of the strata or segment may include
any variable: age, gender, religion, occupation, income level etc. There are some
benefits of stratification: 1) Sampling from strata ensures that at least some
elements of the total sample will come from each strata 2) Since the procedure
involves choosing independent samples from each strata, different methods of
selection can be used for one or more strata 3) Sampling error is considerably
reduced because each strata has an assured representation in the sample.
Stratified random sampling can be applied in two different ways. Proportionate

stratified sampling includes strata with sizes based on their proportion in the
population. If 20% of the population is in their teens in the age-group of 13-19,
then 20% of the total sample will be subjects in this age-group. This gives each
person in the population an equal chance of being selected. In disproportionate
stratified sampling, the sample units are selected on equal basis from each stratum
irrespective of their size of representation of their strata in the population.
Some merits of the stratified random sampling method are that selection of the
sample units is made from a homogeneous group and comparisons can be made
to other populations. One of the disadvantages of this method is that this method
is time-consuming as well as expensive.
58
4.4.5 Cluster Sampling Sampling Methods
A key difference between cluster sampling and stratified random sampling is that
the total population is divided into clusters or groups or categories and the sample
units are randomly selected from each of these clusters. The ultimate sample
consists of all units from these clusters. With cluster sampling, the researcher
can divide the state into districts or PIN code areas and select groups from these
areas. For example, a PIN code area may contain mostly residents of a high socio-
economic status who are unrepresentative of the rest of the state; if selected for
analysis, such a group may confound the results. To help control such error, it
is best to use small areas or clusters, both to decrease the number of elements
in each cluster and to maximise the number of clusters selected (Babbie, 2001).
If clusters are formed or based on some geographic sub-divisions, then cluster
sampling is better known as area sampling.
4.4.6 Multi-stage Sampling

Multi-stage sampling is a further development of the principle of cluster sampling.
In many nation-wide surveys, researchers use a form of cluster sampling called
multi-stage sampling, in which individual households or persons and not groups
are selected. In multi-stage sampling, each stage is a separate sampling task.
Therefore, the separate stages can be approached with different methods. For
example, in a large population, stratification may be useful within the initial
steps and simple random procedures in final ones.
Let us take an example of a city, where one does not have exact data of all the
residents. You can divide the city into its zones from available municipal data,
divide the zones further into wards, and select clusters from wards, ensuring that
all zones are represented. So, if there are 6 zones and 10 wards in each zone (total
60), you may choose two wards from each zone, and then choose two clusters
(each of 10 persons) from each ward. In this way, you can get an adequate sample
of 120 respondents, representative of the whole city.
Fill in the blanks:
1) The purpose of random sampling is to ...................................................
sampling error.
2) Simple random samples for use in television surveys are often obtained by
a process called ..........................................................
3) If a subject or unit is drawn from a population and removed from subsequent
selections, the procedure is known as .....................................
4) In .................................................... sampling, population is divided into
different ................................ and specific characteristics.
5) If ........... are formed or based on some geographic sub-divisions, then
cluster sampling is better known as area sampling.
59
4.5 SAMPLE SIZE
Every sampling procedure has to deal with the question of how large or small
a sample to draw. Unfortunately, this simple question does not have a simple
answer. Ideally, larger samples are preferable, but this is often not possible. The
size of the population is dependent on certain considerations of the project under
study. 1) The resources and time available 2) the complexity of the characteristics
of the population under study 3) the precision required to approach the study. The
important aspect to understand is that the sample, however selected, should be
as representative of the population as possible, whether very small or very large.
The complexity of a characteristic depends on the number of categories used to

measure it. Say for example, the likelihood of a respondent watching a reality
show on television. One can begin asking “Yes/No” question. Then we may
investigate the “Yes/No” responses by the sex of the respondent, 3 levels of
socio-economic class and 6 levels of education and so on. In this case we can
have a 2x2x3x6 category scheme or 72 different cells.
Precision is determined by the efficiency of the statistical procedure to be used

and the variability of the characteristic under study. It does not involve the size
of the population. Here, the researcher’s time and money are important.
Characteristics which are complex and must be approached with high precision
require large samples and considerable resources. A rough rule of thumb for
the novice researcher is that samples of less than 30 are generally considered
inadequate; samples in the 100 to 200 range are rarely brought into question on
the basis of size and some research questions require samples of greater than
500.
Sampling Bias
Sampling bias refers to a sampling procedure which systematically excludes
some member or members of the population. Whereas convenience and judgment
samples are by definition biased samples, true random samples are free from
sampling bias but not sampling error by their nature. Most probability samples
are not truly random because of the difficulty of effecting random selection.
Sampling bias is also the consequence of respondents refusing to participate in
a study even when drawn in a sample.
Fill in the blanks:
1) ................. refers to a sampling procedure which systematically excludes
some member or members of the population.
2) .................. is determined by the efficiency of the statistical procedure to be

used and the variability of the characteristic under study.
3) What are the considerations taken into account while determining the size
of a population for a research study?
60
Sampling Methods
4.6 LET US SUM UP
In this unit we have discussed the methods employed to select a sample from a
given population. To make predictions about events, concepts or phenomena,
researchers must perform detailed objective analyses. One procedure to use in
such analyses is a census, in which every member of the population is studied.
However, conducting census for each research project is impractical. The most
widely used option is to select a random sample from the population and make
predictions from it that can be generalised to the population.
If the scientific procedure is to provide valid and useful results, close attention
must be paid to the methods used in selecting a sample. Probability and non-
probability samples are adopted depending on the kind of research, costs and
time. The non-probability samples are accidental, available, volunteer, purposive
and quota samples while the probability methods are simple random sampling,
systematic random sampling, stratified random sampling and cluster sampling.
The size of the sample required depends on many factors - the purpose of research,
time and financial constraints. To sum it up, it is important for any researcher
to seriously consider the various factors discussed above to select a research
sample for any study.

1) Ina Bertrand and Peter Hughes (2005), Media Research Methods- Audiences,
Institutions and Texts, Palgrave Macmillan Publications, New York
2) Kothari, C. R. (2004), Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques,

New Age International Ltd. Publishers, India
3) Priest H. Susanna (2010) in Media Research –An Introduction, Sage

Publications, New Delhi
4) Wilkinson and Bhandarkar (1990), in Methodology and Techniques of Social

Research, Himalaya Publishing House, Delhi
5) Wimmer and Dominick (2003), Mass Media Research-An Introduction,

Thomson Wadsworth, Singapore
4.8 KEY WORDS

Cluster sample: sample placed into groups or categories.
Population: a group or class of objects, subjects or units
Sample: a subgroup or subset of a population or universe.
Sampling error: the degree to which measurements obtained from a sample
differ from the measurements that would be obtained from the population
Sampling frame: a list of members of a particular population
Sampling interval: a random interval used for selecting subjects or units in the
systematic sampling method
61
4.9 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS:POSSIBLE
ANSWERS
1) Population 2) Sampling Frame 3) Sampling Error
4) Probability Samples 5) Budget and Time
1) Convenience Sample 2) Volunteer Samples 3) Quota Samples
4) Purposive Samples 5) Accidental Sampling
1) Reduce 2) Random digital dialing
3) Random sampling without replacement
4) Random stratified, strata 5) Clusters

1) Sampling bias 2) Precision
3) The size of the population is dependent on certain considerations of the

project under study. (1) The resources and time available (2) the complexity
of the characteristics of the population under study (3) the precision required
to approach the study.
62
Appendix 1 Sampling Methods
Table of Random Numbers

16 33 04 81 00 95 62 79 94 07 12 85
09 50 23 08 48 37 49 96 10 11 03 14
10 19 16 47 37 21 44 52 02 55 18 77
04 54 22 12 39 43 57 79 83 86 05 13
99 00 60 35 28 95 80 20 66 00 02 59
55 94 58 98 83 58 68 31 49 79 73 15
49 96 10 11 03 14 73 88 39 03 19 29
10 19 16 47 37 21 44 52 02 55 18 77
04 54 22 12 39 43 18 07 78 21 34 67
16 33 04 81 00 95 62 79 94 07 12 85
09 50 23 08 48 37 49 96 10 11 03 14
10 19 16 47 37 21 44 52 71 55 18 77
04 54 22 12 39 43 57 79 83 86 05 13
99 00 60 35 28 95 80 17 20 66 00 02
55 94 58 98 83 58 68 31 49 79 73 15
49 96 10 11 03 14 73 88 64 03 19 29
10 19 16 47 37 21 44 52 08 55 18 77
04 54 22 12 39 43 18 07 78 21 34 67
97 25 33 05 47 65 81 73 11 23 31 46
53 26 13 01 32 42 55 66 71 80 60 40
09 50 38 99 45 19 20 28 14 61 22 67
51 27 16 83 97 10 18 89 94 35 07 03
48 17 24 41 93 37 98 49 63 70 30 21
03 14 73 88 39 03 19 29 65 36 27 34
10 19 16 47 37 21 44 52 02 54 18 77
04 54 22 12 00 02 59 17 55 94 58 98
63
UNIT 5 REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Structure
5.0 Introduction
5.2 Literature Review: Need and Importance
5.2.1 Literature Review for Whom?
5.2.2 Focus of Review of Literature
5.3 Objectives of Review of Literature
5.3.1 Refine ideas and concepts
5.3.2 Sharpen research objectives and hypothesis
5.3.3 Select appropriate theoretical framework and research methods
5.3.4 Identify practical problems
5.3.5 Avoid duplication of work and generate ideas for future research
5.4 Evaluation of Material for Review
5.4.1 Selection of Material
5.4.2 Collection of Material
5.5 Writing Review of Literature
5.5.1 Organisation of the Material
5.5.2 Writing the Reviews
5.5.3 Ethical issues
5.6 Let Us Sum up
5.0 INTRODUCTION
Review of Literature is an important component of research work. Whether you
are working on your research paper, dissertation or thesis, literature review is
an integral part of the research process. However, many a time it is not properly
understood and carried out. Students/ research scholars often consider review as
a collation of large body of information and statistics available on the subject.
The literature review has a specific purpose and role in research – it collates,
classifies and summarises the major work undertaken in the research area. Review
of Literature traces the existing scholarship available in a specific field, their focal
areas, research approaches and methodologies used and major findings arrived
at. Thus, it captures the essence of the studies in a specific area and links them
with the present research work.
Review is concerned with secondary data and discusses published studies. It

draws on the heritage of the past by synthesising the ideas and arguments made
by other scholars. It captures major debates in a specific area and provides new
interpretations to the existing available material. Thus it serves as a handy guide
64 of intellectual progression in an area of study.
We shall discuss various aspects of Review of Literature in detail in this unit. Review of Literature
We shall start with the need and importance of literature review in research
work, the process of selection and organisation of material collected and how
to write a review.

After reading through this unit, you should be able to:
• discuss the need and importance of Review of Literature in research;
• describe the objectives of Review of Literature;
• outline the steps in material selection and collection for literature review;
and
• describe the process of writing Review of Literature.
5.2 LITERATURE REVIEW: NEED AND

IMPORTANCE
In Unit 1, subsection 1.3.2 while discussing the characteristics of research we
had discussed that scientific research is:
• Objective: as it deals with facts
• Empirical: as it deals with the knowable and potentially measurable facts/
elements
• Predictive: as it relates the present to future and predicts behaviour
• Systematic and cumulative: the studies previously undertaken serve as
building blocks
• Public: as the results are shared with scientific community to build
knowledge.
For the purpose of our discussion, let us focus on the last two points – scientific
research is cumulative and public. Research, as you are aware, is a series of
work undertaken by different scholars in an area of exploration. They have
examined varied aspects of an issue over a period of time thus added a body of
scholarship in a discipline and also shared their work with larger public. This
sharing has been done through various means such as publications in research
journals, books, theses and dissertations as well as presentations in seminars and
conferences, and so on. Thus, a large body of research material already exists
in a subject that needs to be accessed, examined and referred to. It is possible
that the available material may not directly be related to the specific area which
you wish to investigate. However, it may be similar in some respects or have
linkages with your topic, hence merits a close examination or ‘review’. Thus
review of literature enables you to examine the gamut of issues and available
research involved in an area, create a broad picture and situate your own work
within a larger framework.
As discussed in Unit 2, primary data and secondary data are used in research.
Primary data collection involves first hand observation by researcher while
secondary data is already available - possibly for reasons other than the purposes
65
Communication Research of your research. The Literature Review is concerned with secondary data in
which major research findings of other scholars and researchers in specific as
well as related areas are collated, classified and summarised.
5.2.1 Literature Review for Whom?

When you start working at the review section you need to ask the question, for
whom I am writing the literature review? This will help you select appropriate
material and pitch it at the proper level. The literature review is certainly not
meant for a general audience - the audience/ readers of review of literature will be
specialised in nature. For example, at the Masters level, they will be department
faculty, dissertation supervisor, and academic councilors at the Regional Centres
among others. Similarly, at the PhD level, they will be your supervisor/s, fellow
researchers, Doctoral Research Committee (DRC) members and examiners.
Scholars in other disciplines, media practitioners and even policy makers may
also read your thesis. Thus, at each level, your work will be critically examined
by a specialised audience emphasising the need for suitably pitching the content.
5.2.2 Focus of Review of Literature

One question often asked by researchers is that what type of information needs
to be cited in Review of Literature and how is it different from the information
given in the introductory chapters. To this question, it is suggested that while
accessing material, you will come across a vast body of literature in your subject
that will include general information, statistical data, opinions and observations
of scholars, and research studies. All information may not be useful for your
research work, and you will have to select relevant information with care.
You may include the theoretical content, statistical data etc. in your introductory
chapters to develop and build a context for your study. Ideally, the focus of review
of literature should be on research studies. Therefore, while undertaking library/
Internet research, you should give special attention to the studies undertaken
in your area for inclusion in literature review section, apart from collecting
background material.
You may also include studies in related fields to develop a broader perspective
on a subject. For example, if you are investigating Health Communication
for Polio – apart from polio, you may also collect studies undertaken on
communication for sanitation, hygiene, nutrition, reproductive health and so on.
This will enable you to examine the common patterns in other aspects of health,
to provide a holistic view. However, if a good number of studies are available
in your specific topic, you may limit the studies to polio, to keep the discussion
focused.
5.3 OBJECTIVES OF REVIEW OF LITERATURE

According to Berger (2000) the literature search does two things: ‘first it offers
a sense of context for your readers so that they can see how your research fits
into the larger scheme of things. Second, it shows readers where you got your
information and lets them assess how current it is and how reliable it might be’.
Thus the information collected for literature review has to be relevant, current,
and reliable.
66
In addition, the review also helps to: Review of Literature
• refine ideas and concepts

• sharpen research objectives and hypothesis
• select appropriate theoretical frameworks and research methods
• identify practical problems
• avoid duplication of work and generate ideas for future research.
5.3.1 Refine Ideas and Concepts

The review of literature helps in firming up your ideas and developing a sound
grasp of your topic. When you venture into research, you have great interest in
a specific subject but may not know much in depth about it. The rich resources
expose you to the varied research areas/ problems undertaken and thus enable
you to evaluate your concepts and approaches and in turn firm them up.
According to Brennen (2013), “literature review should not only give readers
an understanding of what research has been done in this area but also describe
how the new research project fits into the broader field of study and why it is
important to pursue the study”.
5.3.2 Sharpen Research Objectives and Hypothesis

Designing proper objectives is a skill which needs to be developed by researchers.
A study of available literature helps you to design and sharpen your objectives
properly. Many a time, objectives are written in general and vague terms such
as ‘to know’; ‘to find out’, ‘to understand’ etc. which are not observable and
measurable. A good research study outlines the research objectives in behavioural
terms which are measurable and specific. Some examples of behavioural terms
are given in the box below:
Behavioural Terms
Analyse Examine Explore Explain Identify Illustrate
Outline Define Describe Distinguish Demonstrate
Differentiate
Apart from refining your ideas and research objectives, the findings of other
studies help you in formulating your hypothesis which is an important element of
the research design. Hypothesis, as discussed in Unit 3, is a tentative proposition,
the validity of which remains to be tested. A proper hypothesis ensures a more
precise study, as it imposes boundaries and helps to control intervening variables
and testing for statistical significance. The review of literature exposes you to
different forms of writing hypothesis and enables you to write it in a clear and
concise manner.
5.3.3 Select Appropriate Theoretical Framework and Research

Methods
The review of literature helps in selection of appropriate theoretical framework
and research methods. As discussed in previous units, theoretical framework
links a study with the larger body of work undertaken in a specific area and thus
helps to focus and guide your inquiry.
67
Communication Research Similarly, you can learn from the strong points of previous research – the type
of research approach used (qualitative; quantitative or mixed method), research
methods, tools and techniques selected and so on. A critical assessment of the
research methodology adopted by other scholars will help you select suitable
tools and techniques for your research objectives. However, care needs to be
taken if you are making a major deviation, for example, if majority of the studies
reviewed have adopted qualitative approach and you wish to use quantitative
methods, you will have to give a proper justification for such a deviation.
Some studies may not use proper research framework or sample selection
hence could be weak in design, treatment and analysis. There could be some
contradictions and inconsistencies in the results which may not be valid and
reliable. Thus reviewing a large body of literature will bring criticality and the
learning acquired will enable you to modify and select appropriate research tools,
and thus infuse rigour in your research design.
5.3.4 Identify Practical Problems

Many reports mention some practical problems faced by the researchers - these
could be in terms of vast scope of the study (taking up too many objectives
or research methods, large sample etc.) which they found difficult to achieve
within the limitations of timeframe, efforts and resources. The problems could
also relate to some field experiences which were avoidable. As a researcher you
can learn from the mistakes of others and avoid the pitfalls in your own study.
Thus literature review helps to delimit the scope of the study and economise
your efforts.
5.3.5 Avoid Duplication of Work and Generate Ideas for Future

Research
A critical review of existing materials helps to determine which types of research,
objectives, themes and topics have been ‘over emphasised, under emphasised
and/ or neglected and what more can be done to make the material more
comprehensive’. According to Priest (2010),‘a review of literature helps clarify
conceptual issues, identify fruitful theories and methods and rule out “dead ends”
that appear to have been thoroughly investigated already, which is why it is first
on the list of essential steps in the research process’. Many published research
reports generally include suggestions for further research in an area which are
helpful in generating ideas for future research.
1) What is the role of theoretical framework in a study?
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
68
2) Why research objectives should be written in behavioural terms? Review of Literature
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
5.4 EVALUATION OF MATERIAL FOR REVIEW

The library is the first place to initiate the process of selection and collection of
material and the available resources help you gain some familiarity with your
field of research.
5.4.1 Selection of Material

Evaluation of material starts with the gate-keeping process itself. At the first
level; credibility of the source needs to be ensured, for example, in the case of a
journal, you need to find out whether it is peer-reviewed or not, the periodicity and
regularity of publication etc. The authority of the writer, currency and accuracy
of content etc. also need to be evaluated. An assessment of the definition of
concepts used and the evidence provided also help in ensuring quality of the
material selected.
During library as well as Internet research you will come across a variety of
information from varied sources of superficial nature. However, the kind of
information needed for your specific purpose needs to be ensured otherwise
you will get saddled with a large body of material. While some amount of extra
material is inevitable during collecting material for review, care needs to be
taken to remain focused on the research topic. It is also possible that in your
anxiety to include large amount of information the depth of information gets
ignored. As a researcher you should ensure that the information selected is very
specific and in-depth to make your review of literature chapter a meaningful
exercise.
A key point to remember is that a source like Wikipedia is not acceptable as an

academic source for research.
5.4.2 Collection of Material

Libraries mostly use a system of keywords in their indexes which should be used
to identify the relevant material. Material can also be located by examining the
citations in recent publications on your topic. Search engines are commonly
used for identifying relevant literature but much of the material may not be
reliable or relevant for your work. Newspaper articles also give latest data and
statistics on some areas from time to time. Academic journals constitute the
most reliable and credible sources for literature review followed by books and
monographs. The following are some well-known peer-reviewed journals in
mass communication:
69
Journals in Mass Communication
• Journal of Creative Communications, Sage Publication with MICA,
Ahmedabad
• Vidura, Press Institute of India, Quarterly, Chennai
• Communicator/ Sanchar Madhyam, IIMC, Quarterly, New Delhi
• Media Asia, Journal of Asian Media Information and Communication
Centre (AMIC), adopted by Taylor and Francis, Singapore
• The Asian Journal of Communication, Wee Kim Wee School of
Communication and Information jointly with Asian Media Information
and Communication Centre (AMIC), Singapore
• Communication, Culture & Critique – International Communication
Association (quarterly), Southern Illinois College of Mass Communication,
USA
• Communication Research Trends (Quarterly), Communication Department,
Santa Clara University, Santa Clara, USA
• Journalism & Mass Communication (Quarterly), Sage Publication, School
of Journalism and Mass Communication, University of North Carolina,
Chapel Hill, USA
• Media, Culture & Society – Sage Publication (quarterly), University of
Glasgow, UK
Since research process, especially academic research involves a prolonged period
of study; it is advisable to keep records of the data accessed which should be
done concurrently, lest you may forget. The downloaded material from online
resources may be kept in separate folders in your computer with appropriate titles/
captions. Apart from ensuring reliability and credibility of online resources, you
must note down the date of retrieval for the purpose of citation.
Relevant pages from books and journals may be photocopied and kept in separate
file covers. There will, however, be occasions when you will have to take copious
notes of the material available in an exclusive library not quipped with photo-
copying facility. With the increased accessibility of smartphones fitted with
cameras, researchers take pictures of relevant pages and convert them into .pdf
files. However, some libraries/ organisations/ individuals may not allow you
to take pictures without permission. Hence, it would be prudent to take prior
permission of the concerned, in view of the ethical issues involved.
Whatever strategy is followed for material collection, you must ensure full
bibliographic details of all the resources collected so that you do not lose out
an important citation at the report writing stage due to misspelling of a foreign
author’s name or missing year of publication, and so on.
Yet another common query is that how many studies or citations are considered
sufficient for a review. In this regard, there is no rule of thumb and it would
entirely flow from your research topic, availability of the material as well as the
level of study (Masters, MPhil, PhD). Priest (2010) argues, “you will keep seeing
citations to literature that has already been examined as key academic sources
on a specific question are usually limited in number and often refer to one
70 another”.
Once requisite material has been collected, it has to be thoroughly read, re-read, Review of Literature
classified and arranged for writing.
1) What care will you take while selecting material for literature review?
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
2) Why it is important for the researcher to keep a record of the material

collected?
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
Activity-1
Identify a topic of your choice for exploration. Select a research journal

in media and communication and obtain the issues of past three years. Go
through these issues and find out if similar or related topics were investigated
by other researchers in the journal. List the studies identified.
5.5 WRITING REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Writing literature review is an important part of the research process. According
to Priest (2010), “putting the existing literature together in summary form,
showing how it relates to a new problem (or a new interpretation of an old one)
and identifying gaps and opportunities in the existing research record is both
demanding and creative”.
There is no single way of writing review of literature as it can be written in

different ways. Researchers generally begin with a discussion of their theoretical
framework and literature review before they develop their research questions.
However, according to Brennen (2013), “some qualitative researchers interact
with previously published literature throughout their reports, forming an extended
conversation with other researchers”.
5.5.1 Organisation of the Material

Material collected can be organised in the following ways:
• Chronological
• Thematic
• Methodological
• Area-wise 71
Communication Research Chronological: Writing a review of literature in chronological manner is
one of the most common ways of documentation in which you start from the
earliest published studies then gradually move on to the more recent ones. The
emphasis here is on progression of work in a given area over a period of time.
To take an example, if you are researching the topic Communication Strategies
for HIV/AIDS, you will identify studies ever since the epidemic emerged in
mid 80s in different parts of the world and then move on to the recent ones.
Such chronological classification will be linear in nature and may not take into
account varied emergent themes investigated by different scholars and thus may
lack continuity in terms of themes.
Thematic: During material collection some themes, issues and concepts are
likely to emerge frequently. These emergent themes will have to be refined and
merged together for the purpose of analysis. To extend the previous example
of Communication Strategies for HIV/AIDS; some emergent themes could
be: health communication; HIV as a gender issue; role of mass media; role
of alternate media, among others. Here the organisation of material is around
a theme rather than progression over a period of time. However, even then,
chronological development of these themes may be required to provide a flow
and structuring of the content.
Methodological: The studies may also be organised in terms of theoretical

frameworks, methods and materials used and key variables investigated. For
example, you may organise the studies in terms of qualitative and quantitative
research and mixed method approaches. This will enable you to assess their
methodological strengths and weaknesses and reveal how research practices
differ across groups, times and settings.
Area-wise: Material can also be classified in relation to the part of the world from
where the studies emanate, for example, Communication Strategies for HIV/
AIDS in Developing Countries; Developed Countries; Eastern Europe & CIS;
and Studies in India. Such a categorisation can trace common emergent trends
from a specific geo-political area for the purpose of analysis. Many developing
countries are likely to share similar set of problems and concerns and discussing
them in broad terms can reveal common patterns and findings.
From the above analysis you would have seen that the review of literature follows
many patterns and approaches. You can also select one way say, theme-wise
and then proceed to include studies in a chronological manner – starting from
the early studies to the latest ones. Each theme should be given a sub-head and
within that you may proceed chronologically. The bottom line is that there should
be some rationale and justification for placing the studies under a broad head.
A thread should run throughout the entire review so that the diverse studies are
linked in some way to reveal emergent patterns and trends.
5.6.2 Writing the Reviews

Now that the material collected for literature review has been organised following
a pattern, it is time for writing. Literature review, like any academic work is
written in a formal style avoiding colloquial words and expressions. It has an
introduction, a body and a summary. The introduction sets the context and guides
72
the reader what to expect – the broad themes and areas identified for discussion. Review of Literature
The body discusses the focus of each study, the methods and materials used, the
major findings and recommendations while the summary provides a gist of your
conclusions and the argument you wish to make. Let us discuss this in some
detail.
Introduction: The Review of Literature in a thesis or dissertation generally

comes after introduction and theoretical framework of the study (if discussed
separately). At times, it is also made a part of the introductory chapters. Whatever
approach you take, the first few paragraphs should provide a gist to the reader
what to expect in the review in a crisp and concise manner. A brief introduction
introduces the central theme and establishes connections between various themes
of the studies discussed in sections and sub-sections.
The Body: This part of the report summarises the findings of all the relevant
research work that has already been undertaken. One of the common practices
in writing review is to present a synthesis of the work undertaken by an author.
This is generally done by selecting the most important point in each source,
outlining the problem examined, describing the research methods and tools used.
Towards the end, major research findings are summarised and suggestions for
future research enunciated. It is possible that some studies may not provide all
these details and as researchers, you will have to decide to include them in the
review or not.
According to Berger (2000), ‘Review of Literature in essence is a form of

editing, in which quotations and sometimes summaries, phrases and synthesis
of the material read from various scholars, authors and researchers are collected
to produce an essay or article that makes its argument’. While writing you may
use original sentences, phrases and expressions and some short quotations of
the respective authors/ researchers for infusing individuality.
The review can be written either in the present tense or past tense but consistency
should be maintained. Instead of ‘the author says’, verbs such as argues, examines,
explores, claims, emphasises, observes, stresses, states etc. may be used. Some
linking words such as, in addition, similarly, moreover, however, etc. may be
used. To highlight a different point of view you may write - striking a different
note, on the other hand, in a contrary view, nevertheless, etc.
Summary: After capturing the essence of the entire gamut of studies in

a systematic manner, you have to summarise their major thrust areas and
recommendations in two-three paragraphs. Thus you are summarising and
synthesising within each source as well as throughout the review. Here, you
also need to enumerate the strengths and limitations of the studies and the gaps
revealed in them. The strengths of the studies could be in terms of choosing
varied areas for exploration, rigour in the research design, use of multiple tools
of data collection and refined statistical tools for data analysis, path-breaking
findings, among others. The limitations of the study could be weak research
design, inadequate sample size, lack of focus etc.
Ideally, your study should aim to fill some kind of gap traced during the review
and the summary should ‘make an argument’. Like any good piece of writing
you should edit the content and revise and re-revise to firm up the section/
chapter on review. 73
Communication Research 5.5.3 Ethical Issues
While writing a review, you also need to keep various ethical issues in mind.
For example you should present the ideas of other scholars accurately and be
respectful of others’ opinions. You should give due credit and proper citations
from wherever you source the material. Citation is an important ‘intellectual
tool’ for the researchers. According to Bertrand & Hughes (2013),
• “It adds credibility to your research by providing evidence that you have
consulted other sources.
• It enables you to share your research with other researchers. The citations
of others have provided valuable sources of information to you, and your
citations are part of a reciprocal system of information exchange.
• Correct and accurate citation ensures that you cannot be accused of

plagiarism”.
You should not give any slant to the findings of other researchers and edit the
material to show your own work in a positive light. You should also adhere to
the copyright law and not use more than 60 words at a stretch and put material
in quotations and cite the source.
While reviewing, you may come across some works which may be very relevant
for your study. However, you should not attempt to copy verbatim and pass
off the data as your own as you will get into plagiarism charges. Plagiarism
is the unacknowledged passing of someone else’s words or ideas as your own
without proper acknowledgment of your sources (Bertrand & Hughes, 2013).
Now plagiarism has become an extremely serious matter and various anti
plagiarism softwares are available in this regard. At the Indira Gandhi National
Open University, it is mandatory to run each PhD thesis submitted by a scholar
through anti plagiarism software to address this menace.
Activity-2
Go through the studies identified in Activity-1 closely. Analyse their major

findings and trace the emergent trends.

1) Among different ways of classification of material which one will you select
and why?
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
74
2) List three points which you will keep in view while writing review of Review of Literature
literature.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
5.6 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we looked at various aspects of Review of Literature and tried to
demystify the topic. We started with discussing that review of literature is a form
of secondary research which reviews the available research studies in a given
area/ topic. The major works are identified, classified and summarised to make
an argument. It is not review of great literary texts on which personal opinion
on the materials read has to be provided or summary of available bibliographical
material and citation of various sources at one place.
We discussed that review helps in refining your ideas and concepts, firms up
your objectives and hypotheses. It also helps in selecting appropriate theoretical
framework, research methods, tools and techniques for your study. A critical
review of existing materials helps to determine which type of research, objectives,
themes and topics have been over emphasised, under emphasised and neglected
and what more can be done to make research more comprehensive.
We described the process of material selection, collection and organisation and

suggested that research studies for reviews may be classified chronologically,
thematically and methodologically or in a combination of two.
The process of writing review of literature was discussed in detail. It is generally

done by selecting the most important point in each source, outlining the problem
examined, describing the research methods and tools used and summarising
the major research findings and giving suggestions for future research. It was
emphasised that through such analysis the literature review identifies some gap
which your study aims to fill.
Towards the end, some ethical issues were briefly discussed that ideas of other
scholars should be presented accurately with due credit and proper citations. It
was stressed that to show your own work in a positive light, you should not give
any slant to the findings of other researchers and edit the material indiscriminately.
It is hoped that the above analysis will help you in reviewing literature for your
research. This will help you approach, classify and write the review using your
own style and contribute to the scholarship in your discipline.

1) Berger, Arther Asa (2000), Media and Communication Research Methods,
Sage Publications, London, New Delhi
2) Brennen Bonnie S. (2013), Qualitative Research Methods for Media Studies,

Routledge, New York
75
Communication Research 3) Bertrand Ina & Peter Hughes (2005), Media Research Methods: Audiences,
Institutions, Texts, Palgrave MacMillan, New York
4) Priest S. H (2010), Doing Media Research: An Introduction, Sage

Publications, New Delhi
5) Wimmer R.D. & Joseph R. Dominick (2004), Mass media Research:

An Introduction, 4th edition, California, Wadsworth Series in Mass
Communication

ANSWERS
1) The theoretical framework guides and links a study with the larger body of
work available in a specific area. It systematically and logically attempts
to explain the phenomenon being studied.
2) The research objectives need to be stated clearly in behavioural terms so

that they are observable and measurable. Some examples of behavioural
terms are: define, describe, explain, state, compare, differentiate, identify,
distinguish, summarise, illustrate, outline etc.
1) While selecting material for literature review, I shall keep the following
points in mind:
a) The amount of information should be adequate for the study.
b) The level of information should be appropriate for academic work.
c) The information selected should be specific, in-depth and not cursory
or superficial in nature.
2) It is useful to keep a record of the material collected as it may be needed at
the time of writing research report for cross-checking as well as citations.
The date on which the material is retrieved from website, the names of
authors especially the foreign authors, places of publications etc. should
be clearly recorded.
1) I will select a theme-wise classification of material which will include studies
written in a chronological manner. I shall give each theme a sub-head and
proceed chronologically - starting from early studies moving on to the more
recent ones. This way, I shall provide some rationale and justification for
placing the studies under a specific head.
2) While writing review of literature, I shall briefly introduce the subject and
how the material has been classified and presented. Then I shall take up
the studies and outline their major thrust areas, methodological approach
followed, major findings and recommendations. Towards the end, I shall
provide the summary of the various studies – outlining their strengths and
limitations and how my work will try to bridge the gap traced in these studies.
76

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MNM-015

Media Research Methods

PROGRAMME COORDINATOR: Dr. K.S. Arul Selvan

COMMUNICATION RESEARCH METHODS

Unit 2: Classification of Research describes varied research approaches based

Unit 3: Defining and Formulating Research Problems discusses the process of

Unit 4: Sampling Methods looks at sampling as part of the research process

Unit 5: Review of Literature discusses the need and importance of literature

At this stage it is important for you to understand that research is a way of

Sometimes we are asked to conduct research by an organisation. The first question

1.2 RESEARCH: CONCEPT AND ROLE

1.2.2 The Central Concept

There is also a symbiotic relationship between theory and research; each is

The second major force was the Manufacturers’/Advertisers’ Lobby. Mass

Phases of Development: R.D. Wimmer and J.R. Dominick in Mass Media

1.2.4 Importance of Research

• Research is a critical input into the development, design, production, delivery

• Research is an important prerequisite for understanding social order. Social

• Through a systematic interrelation between disparate facts, research allows

• Research generates voluminous social data which help the formulation of

• Research is both cumulative and a self-correcting process. Its importance

1.3 RESEARCH: NATURE AND

1.3.1 Nature of Research

1.3.2 Characteristics of Scientific Research

Since research depends on observations, the factors or variables under study

The basic aim of research is to arrive at an understanding of why a phenomenon

The ‘creative’ part of research is usually limited to the identification and

Objectivity is also ensured by framing operational definitions as mentioned

Another method to ensure objectivity is through ‘triangulation’ - when more than

Research is systematic and cumulative

The public nature of academic research implies responsibility in publication.

3) How is objectivity achieved in research?

1.4 PURPOSE OF RESEARCH

If research has no implication for theory, if it lacks even a minimum of scientific

18 Research can be classified into pure and applied research:

In electronic media, ratings and non-ratings research is conducted to determine

Applied research is also conducted in the areas of advertising and public

In Public Relations, environmental monitoring programmes are conducted to

It is important to mention here that it is not always possible to classify a given

1.5 SCOPE OF COMMUNICATION RESEARCH

In the previous section, we have seen how communication research encompasses

Communication researchers study three things: Firstly, communication

When we link communication research to other social sciences, new areas or

2) What are the three things communication research studies?

3) Mention some research methods used in communication.

1.6 LET US SUM UP

The relationship of communication research to other disciplines was explored

1.7 FURTHER READINGS

2) Kumar, Ranjit (2008), Research Methodology, Pearson Education. New

3) Neuman, W.L., (2007), Social Research Methods – Qualitative and

4) Westley, Bruce H and Stempel, Guido H (1981), Research Methods in Mass

5) Wimmer, R.D and Dominick, J.R, (2010), Mass Media Research – An

1.8 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS: POSSIBLE

5) Research is important for the evolution of civilisation, for promoting a

2) Empiricism is derived from ‘experience’ - something that can be observed

2) Communication researchers study the following:

2.2 CLASSIFICATION OF COMMUNICATION

2.2.1 Based on Design

2.2.2 Based on Stages

2) Kumar, Ranjit (2008), Research Methodology, Pearson Education. New

3) Neuman, W.L., (2007), Social Research Methods – Qualitative and

4) Westley, Bruce H and Stempel, Guido H (1981), Research Methods in Mass

5) Wimmer, R.D and Dominick, J.R, (2010), Mass Media Research – An

2) Berger Arthur Asa (2015), Media and Communication Research Methods:

3) Kubitschko S and Anne Kaun (2016), editors, Innovative Methods in Media

4) Plooy GM Du (2001), Communication Research: Techniques, Methods and

5) Treadwell Donald (2017), An Introduction to Communication Research-

6) Wimmer R D and J R Dominick (2010), Mass Media Research: An

3) Neuman, W.L., (2007), Social Research Methods – Qualitative and

4) Wimmer, R.D and Dominick, J.R, (2010), Mass Media Research – An