Scribd Logo
Upload

Welcome to Scribd!

  • 9 views

    Periodicity

    Uploaded by

    yuhitsanni

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd

    Periodicity

    Uploaded by

    yuhitsanni
    9 views6 pages

    Copyright

    © © All Rights Reserved

    Available Formats

    PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd

    Did you find this document useful?

    Is this content inappropriate?

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as pdf or txt
    9 views6 pages

    Periodicity

    Uploaded by

    yuhitsanni

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as pdf or txt
    of 6

    Periodicity

    Content

    The structure of the periodic table


    Periodic trend in electron configuration and ionisation energy
    Periodic trend in structure and melting point

    Periodicity testing
    Periodicity summary

    The structure of the periodic table


    Structure of the periodic table

    Arranged in order of increasing atomic number


    Elements are arranged so that atoms with the same number of shells are placed together, and atoms with
    similar electronic configurations in the outer shell are also placed together
    This is achieved as follows
    -> Elements in rows and columns
    -> Elements with one shell are placed in the first row (ie. H and He)
    -> Elements with two shells are placed in the second row (Li to Ne) and so on...

    Period

    Row of elements
    Period number, n, is the outer energy level occupied by electrons

    Group

    Column of elements
    Share similar outer-shell configuration
    Outer electrons shown as valence electrons

    Since electronic configurations of H and He are unusual, they do not fit comfortably into any group. Thus
    allocated a group based on similarities in physical and chemical properties with other members of the
    group.
    He is placed in group 0 on this basis, but hydrogen does not behave like any other element- so placed in
    a group of its own
    Physical and chemical properties of elements in the periodic table show clear patterns related to the
    position of each element in the table
    -> Elements in the same group show similar properties
    -> Properties change gradually as you go across a period
    As atomic number increases, the properties of the elements show trends that repeat themselves in
    each period of the periodic table.
    -> These trends known as periodic trends, and they study of these trends is known as periodicity

    Periodicity: repeating trend in physical and chemical properties across the periods of the periodic table

    Periodic trends in electron configuration


    All elements belong to one of the four main blocks: the s-block, the p-block, d-block and the f-block

    S block elements: only s electrons in outershell


    P block elements: at least one p electron in the outer shell
    D block: at least one d electron and at least one s electron but on f or p electrons in the outer shell (up to
    5d)
    F block: at least one f-electron and at least one s-electron but no d or p electrons in the outer shell

    Trends across a period

    Each period starts with an electron in a new highest energy shell


    -> Across period 2: the 2s sub-shell fills with two electrons, followed by 2p sub shells with six electrons
    -> Across period 3: same pattern of filling repeated for 3s and 3p sub-shells
    For each period, the s and p sub-shells are filled in the same way- a periodic pattern

    Periodic trend in electron configuration and ionisation energy


    First ionisation energy
    -> First ionisation energy is the energy required to remove one mole of electrons from one mole of atoms of an
    element in the gaseous state to form one mole of gaseous ions.

    X (g) -> X+ (g) + e-


    It is the energy needed to carry out this change per mole of X

    Factors affecting ionisation energy


    -> Ionisation energies show periodicity

    The first ionisation energy increases across a period and decreases down a group.
    This is caused by three factors that influence the ionisation energy:
    -> these 3 factors affect attraction between nucleus and outer electrons of atom, therefore, ionisation
    energy

    1. Atomic radius
    electrons in shells that are further away from the nucleus are less attracted to the nucleus so the further
    the outer electron shell is from the nucleus, the lower the ionisation energy.
    2. Nuclear charge
    the nuclear charge increases with increasing atomic number, which means that there are greater
    attractive forces between the nucleus and outer electrons, so more energy is required to overcome these
    attractive forces when removing an electron
    3. Electron shielding
    the shielding effect is when the electrons in full inner shells repel electrons in outer shells preventing
    them to feel the full nuclear charge so the greater the shielding of outer electrons by inner electron shells,
    the lower the ionisation energy.

    Ionisation energy trends across a period and down a group

    Down the group: nuclear charge increases but ionisation energy decreases
    -Atomic radius increases
    -Electron shielding increases
    -Therefore, attraction between nucleus and outer electrons decreases
    Across a period: nuclear charge increases ionisation energy across a period increases
    -Nuclear charge increases. Distance between nucleus and outer electron remains reasonably constant
    (since no significant change in atomic radius)
    Rapid decrease in ionisation energy between the last element in one period and the first element in the
    next period causes by:
    -increased distance between the nucleus and outer electrons
    -increased shielding by inner electrons
    -> these two factors outweigh the increased nuclear charge

    Other trends

    Slight decrease in first ionisation energy between beryllium and boron


    -> Because 5th electron in boron is in the 2p sub shell, which is further away from the nucleus than the 2s
    sub shell of beryllium.
    -Beryllium has first ionisation energy: 900KJ/mol as its electron configuration is 1s2 2s2
    -Boron has first ionisation energy: 801KJ/mol as its electron configuration is 1s2 2s2 2p1
    Slight decrease in first ionisation energy between nitrogen and oxygen
    -> As the paired electrons in the 2p sub shell of oxygen repel each other, making it easier to remove an
    electron in oxygen than nitrogen
    -Nitrogen has first ionisation energy: 1402KJ/mol as its electron configuration is 1s2 2s2 2p3
    -Oxygen has first ionisation energy: 1314JK/mol as its electron configuration 1s2 2s2 2p4

    Predicting ionisation energy

    The successive ionisation energies of an element increase as removing an electron from a positive ion is
    more difficult than from a neutral atom
    As more electrons are removed the attractive forces increase due to decreasing shielding and an increase
    in the proton to electron ratio
    The increase in ionisation energy, however, is not constant and is dependent on the atom's electronic
    configuration
    Eg. Ionisation energies of calcium

    First electron removed: low ionisation energy


    it is easily removed from atom due to the repulsion of the paired electrons in the 4s orbital
    Second electron: higher ionisation energy
    as it is removal of electron from a positively charged ion
    Third electron: even higher ionisation energy
    due to the fact that third electron in shell is closer to the nucleus (3p)
    Graph shows large increase in successive ionisation energy as the electrons are being removed from an
    increasingly positive ion
    The big jumps on the graph show the change of shell and the small jumps are change in sub-shell

    Periodic trend in structure and melting point


    Metallic bonding and structure

    Metal atoms are tightly packed together in lattice structures. When in this structure: the electrons in their
    outer shells are free to move throughout the structure (delocalised electrons).
    Delocalised electrons are not bound to their atom.
    When the electrons are delocalised, the metal atoms become positively charged ions. The positive
    charges repel each other and this keeps the neatly arranged lattice in place.
    There are very strong electrostatic forces of attraction between the positive metal centres and the "sea"
    of delocalised electrons.

    Giant covalent lattices


    ==Covalent bonding

    Covalent bonds are bonds between non metals where there is a shared pair of electrons between the
    atoms.
    Giant covalent substances

    In some cases, where it is not possible to satisfy the bonding capacity of a substance in the form of a
    molecule.
    -The bonds between atoms continue indefinitely, and a large lattice is formed.
    -There are no individual molecules and covalent bonding exists between all adjacent atoms
    Examples: carbon allotropes of diamond, graphite, graphene and silicon (IV) oxide

    Giant covalent Structure


    substance
    Diamond - Giant covalent lattice (macromolecule) of carbon atoms
    - Each carbon is covalently bonded to four others in a tetrahedral arrangement with a
    bond angle of 109.5
    -Result: giant lattice structure with strong bonds in all directions
    Graphite - Giant covalent lattice
    - Each carbon is bonded to three others in a layered structure
    - Layers are made of hexagons with a bond angle of 120
    - Spare electrons are delocalised and occupy the space between the layers
    - All atoms in the same layer are held together by strong covalent bonds. However, the
    layers are held together by weak intermolecular forces- which allow the layers to slide
    over each other.
    Graphene - Giant covalent lattice
    - Has 3 strong covalent bonds per atom
    - Made of a single layer of carbon atoms that are bonded together in a repeating
    pattern of hexagons
    Silicon (IV) - Giant covalent lattice
    oxide SiO2 - Same structure as diamond: tetrahedral units (109.5 bond angle) all bonded by strong
    covalent bonds
    - Each silicon is shared by four oxygens and each oxygen is shared by two silicons

    Periodic trends in physical properties


    Properties of metallic substances

    High melting and boiling points


    As a lot of energy is required to overcome the strong electrostatic forces of attraction between the
    positive ions and the "sea" of delocalised electrons
    Metals are insoluble in all solvents except liquid metals
    Metals do not dissolve in solvents because metallic bonds are very strong. There is some interaction
    between polar solvents and charges in the metallic lattice but these lead to reactions, rather than
    dissolving e.g. sodium and water.
    Metals can conduct electricity and heat
    They can conduct electricity in both solid and liquid states. This is due to the delocalised electrons which
    are free to move/carry charge around the structure.

    Properties of giant covalent substances

    Very high melting and boiling points


    These compounds have a large number of covalent bonds linking the whole structure, therefore, a lot of
    energy is required to break the lattice.
    Compounds can be hard or soft
    -Graphite is soft: intermolecular forces between the carbon layers are weak
    -Diamond and silicon (IV) oxide are hard: difficult to break their 3D network of strong covalent bonds
    -Graphene is strong, flexible and transparent: potentially very useful material
    Most compounds are insoluble with water
    Most covalent substances do not conduct electricity
    Eg. diamond and silicon (IV) oxide do not conduct electricity as all four outer electrons on every carbon
    atom is involved in a covalent bond, so there are no free electrons available.
    There are some covalent substances that are exceptions because they do conduct electricity
    -Graphite has delocalised electrons between the carbon layers, which can move along the layers when a
    voltage is applied.
    -Graphene is an excellent conductor of electricity due to the delocalised electrons.

    Periodic trend in melting points


    -> Across period 2 and period 3

    The melting point increases from group 1 to group 4


    The melting point sharply decreases from group 4 to group 5

    Explanation

    groups 1-3: metallic bonding which increases in strength due to increased forces of attraction between
    more electrons in the outer shell that are released to the sea of electrons and a smaller positive ion.
    group 4: has a giant covalent structure with many strong covalent bonds requiring a lot of energy to
    overcome
    groups 5-8: have simple molecular structures with weak London forces between molecules requiring little
    energy to overcome.

    You might also like