Decolonisation of Africa

The decolonisation of Africa is a process that largely took place from mid-
1950s to 1975 during the Cold War, with radical government changes on
the continent as colonial governments made the transition to independent
states. The process was often marred with violence, political turmoil,
widespread unrest, and organised revolts in both northern and sub-Saharan
countries including the Mau Mau rebellion in British Kenya, the Algerian
War in French Algeria, the Congo Crisis in the Belgian Congo, the
Angolan War of Independence in Portuguese Angola, the Zanzibar
Revolution in the Sultanate of Zanzibar, and the Nigerian Civil War in the
secessionist state of Biafra.[1][2][3][4][5]

Background
The "Scramble for Africa" between 1870 and 1914 was a significant period
of European imperialism in Africa that ended with almost all of Africa, and Order of independence of African nations, 1950–2011
its natural resources, being controlled as colonies by a small number of
European states. Racing to secure as much land as possible while avoiding
conflict amongst themselves, the partition of Africa was confirmed in the Berlin Agreement of
1885, with little regard to local differences.[6][7] Almost all the pre-colonial states of Africa had
lost their sovereignty, with the only exceptions being Liberia (which had been settled in the early
19th century by African-American former slaves) and Ethiopia (later occupied by Italy in
1936).[8] Britain and France had the largest holdings, but Germany, Spain, Italy, Belgium, and
Portugal also had colonies.[9] The process of decolonisation began as a direct consequence of
World War II. By 1977, 50 African countries had gained independence from European colonial Comparison of the scramble for
powers.[10] Africa in the years 1880 and 1913,
the year before the start of the First
World War
External causes

During the world wars, African soldiers were conscripted into imperial militaries.[11] Some
African soldiers also volunteered.[12][13] Veterans from over 1.3 million African troops
participated in World War II and fought in both European and Asian theatres of war.[14] This led
to a deeper political awareness and the expectation of greater respect and self-determination,
which was left largely unfulfilled.[15] During the 1941 Atlantic Conference, the British and the
US leaders met to discuss ideas for the post-war world. One of the provisions added by
President Roosevelt was that all people had the right to self-determination, inspiring hope in
British colonies.[10]

On February 12, 1941, United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt and British Prime
Minister Winston Churchill met to discuss the post-war world. The result was the Atlantic
Charter.[16] It was not a treaty and was not submitted to the British Parliament or the Senate of European control in 1939, the year
the United States for ratification, but it turned out to be a widely acclaimed document.[17] One the Second World War began
of the clauses, Clause Three, referred to the right to decide what form of government people
wanted, and to the restoration of self-government.

Prime Minister Churchill argued in the British Parliament that the document referred to "the States and nations of Europe now under the
Nazi yoke".[18] President Roosevelt regarded it as applicable across the world.[19] Anticolonial politicians immediately saw it as
relevant to colonial empires.[20] The United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, three years after the end of World
War II, recognised all people as being born free and equal.[21]

After World War II, the US and the African colonies put pressure on Britain to abide by the terms of the Atlantic Charter. After the war,
some Britons considered African colonies to be childish and immature; British colonisers introduced democratic government at local
levels in the colonies. Britain was forced to agree but Churchill rejected universal applicability of self-determination for subject nations.

Italy, a colonial power, lost its African Empire, Italian East Africa, Italian Ethiopia, Italian Eritrea, Italian Somalia and Italian Libya, as a
result of World War II.[22] Furthermore, colonies such as Nigeria, Senegal and Ghana pushed for self-governance as colonial powers
were exhausted by war efforts.[23]
The United Nations 1960 Declaration on the granting of independence to colonial countries and peoples stated that colonial exploitation
is a denial of human rights and that power should be transferred back to the countries or territories concerned.[24]

Internal causes

Colonial economic exploitation involved the siphoning off of resource extraction (such as mining) profits to European shareholders at
the expense of internal development, causing major local socioeconomic grievances.[25] For early African nationalists, decolonisation
was a moral imperative around which a political movement could be assembled.[26][27]

In the 1930s, the colonial powers had cultivated, sometimes inadvertently, a small elite of local African leaders educated in Western
universities, where they became familiar with and fluent in ideas such as self-determination. Although independence was not
encouraged, arrangements between these leaders and the colonial powers developed,[9] and such figures as Jomo Kenyatta (Kenya),
Kwame Nkrumah (Gold Coast, now Ghana), Julius Nyerere (Tanganyika, now Tanzania), Léopold Sédar Senghor (Senegal), Nnamdi
Azikiwe (Nigeria), Patrice Lumumba (DR Congo) and Félix Houphouët-Boigny (Côte d'Ivoire) came to lead the struggles for African
nationalism.

During the second world war, some local African industries and towns expanded when U-boats patrolling the Atlantic Ocean reduced
raw material transportation to Europe.[10]

Over time, urban communities, industries, and trade unions grew, improving literacy and education, and leading to pro-independence
newspaper establishments.[10]

By 1945 the Fifth Pan-African Congress demanded the end of colonialism, and delegates included future presidents of Ghana, Kenya,
Malawi and national activists.[28]

Economic legacy
There is an extensive body of literature that has examined the legacy of colonialism and colonial institutions on economic outcomes in
Africa, with numerous studies showing disputed economic effects of colonialism.[29]

The economic legacy of colonialism is difficult to quantify and is disputed. Modernisation theory posits that colonial powers built
infrastructure to integrate Africa into the world economy; however, this was built mainly for extraction purposes. African economies
were structured to benefit the coloniser and any surplus was likely to be ‘drained’, thereby stifling capital accumulation.[30] Dependency
theory suggests that most African economies continued to occupy a subordinate position in the world economy after independence with
a reliance on primary commodities such as copper in Zambia and tea in Kenya.[31] Despite this continued reliance and unfair trading
terms, a meta-analysis of 18 African countries found that a third of countries experienced increased economic growth post-
independence.[30]

Social legacy

Language

Scholars including Dellal (2013), Miraftab (2012) and Bamgbose (2011) have argued that Africa's linguistic diversity has been eroded.
Language has been used by western colonial powers to divide territories and create new identities which has led to conflicts and
tensions between African nations.[32]

Law

In the immediate post-independence period, African countries largely retained colonial legislation. However, by 2015 much colonial
legislation had been replaced by laws that were written locally.[33]

Transition to independence
Following World War II, rapid decolonisation swept across the continent of Africa as many territories gained their independence from
European colonisation.

In August 1941, United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill met to discuss their post-
war goals. In that meeting, they agreed to the Atlantic Charter, which in part stipulated that they would, "respect the right of all peoples
to choose the form of government under which they will live; and they wish to see sovereign rights and self-government restored to
those who have been forcibly deprived of them."[34] This agreement became the post-WWII stepping stone toward independence as
nationalism grew throughout Africa.
Consumed with post-war debt, European powers were no longer able to afford the resources needed to maintain control of their African
colonies. This allowed African nationalists to negotiate decolonisation very quickly and with minimal casualties. Some territories,
however, saw great death tolls as a result of their fight for independence.

Historian James Meriweather argues that American policy towards Africa was characterized by a middle road approach, which
supported African independence but also reassured European colonial powers that their holdings could remain intact. Washington
wanted the right type of African groups to lead newly independent states, which tended to be noncommunist and not especially
democratic. Meriweather argues that nongovernmental organizations influenced American policy towards Africa. They pressured state
governments and private institutions to disinvest from African nations not ruled by the majority population. These efforts also helped
change American policy towards South Africa, as seen with the passage of the Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act of 1986.[35]
 African countries that have gained independence
Colonial Independence First head of
Country[a] Colonial name Independence won through
power[b] date[c] state[d]
Joseph Jenkins
Liberia Liberia
United [e] Roberts[f] Liberian Declaration of
States 26 July 1847 Independence
William
Tubman

Cape Colony
Colony of Natal
South Africa[g] Orange River Colony 31 May 1910[h] Louis Botha South Africa Act 1909
United
Transvaal Colony
Kingdom
28 February
Egypt[i] Sultanate of Egypt Fuad I[k] Egyptian revolution of 1919
1922[j]
Italy 31 January 1942
Ethiopian Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement
Italian East Africa United 19 December Haile Selassie
Empire (East African campaign)
Kingdom 1944

10 February Haile
Eritrea Italian Eritrea Italy[l] Eritrean War of Independence
1947[m] Selassie[n]
Emirate of British Military United
1 March 1949
Cyrenaica Administration Kingdom

British Military United

Administration Kingdom Idris
United Fezzan-Ghadames France 24 December
Western Desert campaign
Kingdom of Libya 1951
Military Territory Emirate
Emirate of Cyrenaica of Cyrenaica
Treaty of Peace with Italy,
Italy
24 December 1947
Libya[o] Italian Libya[p] United 1951
Idris U.N. General Assembly
Kingdom
Resolution 289[37]

Sudan United
Anglo-Egyptian Ismail al-
Kingdom[q] 1 January 1956[r] –[t]
South Sudan
Sudan
Egypt Azhari[s]

France Muhammad
VIII al-Amin
Tunisia[u] French Tunisia United 20 March 1956 –[v]
Habib
Kingdom Bourguiba

French Morocco 2 March 1956[w]

Tangier International 7 April 1956
Zone France 10 April 1958
Morocco 4 January 1969 Mohammed V Ifni War
Spanish Morocco Spain
14 November
Spanish West Africa
1975
Ifni 27 February 1976

United Kwame 1956 Gold Coast general

Ghana[x] Gold Coast 6 March 1957[y]
Kingdom Nkrumah[z] election

Guinea French West Africa France Ahmed Sékou 1958 Guinean constitutional
2 October 1958
Touré referendum
German Karl Ebermaier
Kamerun 4 March 1916
Empire Ahmadou
1 January
Cameroon French Cameroon France Ahidjo –[ab]
1960[aa] John Ngu
British Cameroon United
1 October 1961
Kingdom Foncha

French Togoland
Sylvanus
Togo 27 April 1960 –
Togoland Olympio

Mali France Modibo Keïta –

French West Africa 20 June 1960[ac] Léopold Sédar
Senegal –
Senghor
Philibert
Madagascar[ad] French Madagascar 26 June 1960 –[ae]
Tsiranana

Democratic
Joseph Kasa- Belgo-Congolese Round Table
Republic of the Belgian Congo Belgium 30 June 1960
Vubu Conference[ag]
Congo[af]
 British Somaliland United Muhammad
[ah] 26 June 1960 Haji Ibrahim
Somalia Trust Territory of Kingdom –
Italy 1 July 1960[ai] Egal
Somaliland Aden Adde

Republic of Dahomey
Republic of France 1 August 1960
Fort of São João Baptista Hubert Maga
Dahomey Portugal 31 July 1961[39]
de Ajudá

Benin[aj] 1 August 1960 Hubert Maga –

Niger 3 August 1960 Hamani Diori –

Burkina Maurice
French West Africa 5 August 1960 –
Faso[ak] Yaméogo

Félix
Ivory Coast 7 August 1960 Houphouët- –
Boigny
France
Chad 11–12 August François
–
1960 Tombalbaye
Central African
13 August 1960 David Dacko –
Republic
French Equatorial Africa
Republic of the 14–15 August
Fulbert Youlou –
Congo 1960

Gabon 16–17 August

Léon M'ba –
1960
1 October 1960
Colonial Nigeria United
Nigeria 1 June 1961 Nnamdi Azikiwe –
British Cameroon Kingdom
1 October 1961[al]
28 November
1957 Moktar Ould
Mauritania French West Africa France –
28 November Daddah
1960

Sierra Leone Colony and

Sierra Leone 27 April 1961 Milton Margai –
Protectorate United
Kingdom
Tanganyika[am] Tanganyika Territory 9 December 1961 Julius Nyerere –

Mwambutsa IV
Burundi[an] –
of Burundi
German East Africa 1 July 1919
Germany Yuhi V Musinga
Ruanda-Urundi 1 July 1962
Rwanda Belgium Grégoire Rwandan Revolution
Kayibanda

Ahmed Ben Algerian War

Algeria French Algeria France 5 July 1962
Bella[ao] Évian Accords

Uganda Protectorate of Uganda United 9 October 1962 Milton Obote –

Kingdom
12 December Jomo
Kenya British East Africa –[aq]
1963[ap] Kenyatta[z]
Sultanate of 10 December Jamshid bin
Sultanate of Zanzibar –[ar]
Zanzibar[am] 1963 Abdullah

Hastings
Malawi Nyasaland 6 July 1964[as] –
Banda[z]

Zambia Kenneth
Northern Rhodesia 24 October 1964 –
Kaunda

Gambia Colony and 18 February Dawda

The Gambia –
Protectorate 1965[at] Jawara[z]

Rhodesia 11 November Rhodesia's Unilateral

Southern Rhodesia Ian Smith
Zimbabwe 1965[au] Declaration of Independence

Bechuanaland 30 September
Botswana Seretse Khama –
Protectorate 1960 – 1966[av]

Leabua
Lesotho Basutoland 4 October 1966 –
Jonathan[aw]

Mauritius Seewoosagur
Mauritius 12 March 1968 –
Ramgoolam
 Eswatini 6 September
Swaziland Sobhuza II –
1968
Karl Ebermaier
German Ahmadou
Kamerun 4 March 1916
Ahidjo
French Cameroon Empire 1 January 1960
Léon M'ba
Equatorial France 16–17 August
French Equatorial Africa John Ngu –
Guinea United 1960 [ax] Foncha
British Cameroon
Kingdom 1 October 1961 Francisco
Spanish Guinea Spain 12 October 1968 Macías
Nguema

24 September Luís Cabral

1973 João Bernardo
10 September Vieira Guinea-Bissau War of
Guinea-Bissau Portuguese Guinea
1974 (recognised) Aristides Independence
Pereira
5 July 1975[ay] Pedro Pires
Portugal
Mozambican War of
Portuguese Mozambique 25 June 1975 Samora Machel
Mozambique[az] Independence

Aristides Guinea-Bissau War of

Cape Verde Portuguese Cape Verde 5 July 1975
Pereira[ba] Independence[bb]

Ahmed 1974 Comorian independence

Comoros French Comoros France 6 July 1975
Abdallah referendum

São Tomé and Portuguese São Tomé Manuel Pinto

12 July 1975 –
Príncipe and Príncipe da Costa
Portugal
11 November
Angola[bc] Portuguese Angola Agostinho Neto Angolan War of Independence
1975

Crown Colony of the United James

Seychelles 29 June 1976 –
Seychelles Kingdom Mancham

French Territory of the Hassan Gouled 1977 Afars and Issas

Djibouti France 27 June 1977
Afars and the Issas Aptidon independence referendum

Spain El-Ouali
Sahrawi Arab Spanish Sahara 27 February 1976 Mustapha
Western Sahara War
Democratic Southern Provinces Morocco independence not Sayed
Western Sahara conflict
Republic[bd] Western Tiris yet effectuated Mohamed
Mauritania Abdelaziz

U.N. Security Council

October 27, 1966 Resolution 269
South
Namibia South West Africa (de jure)[41] Sam Nujoma
Africa
21 March 1990 South African Border War

Modern colonialism
In the Colonial Era, colonialism in this context refers mostly to Western European countries'
colonization of lands mainly in the Americas, Africa, Asia and Oceania. The main European
countries active in this form of colonization included Spain, Portugal, France, the Tsardom of
Russia (later Russian Empire), the Kingdom of England (later Great Britain), the Netherlands,
and the Kingdom of Prussia (now mostly Germany), and, beginning in the 18th century, the
United States. Most of these countries had a period of almost complete power in world trade at World empires and colonies in 1550
some stage in the period from roughly 1500 to 1900. Beginning in the late 19th century,
Imperial Japan also engaged in settler colonization, most notably in Hokkaido and Korea.

While some European colonization focused on shorter-term exploitation of economic

opportunities (Newfoundland, for example, or Siberia) or addressed specific goals such as
settlers seeking religious freedom (Massachusetts), at other times long-term social and economic
planning was involved for both parties, but more on the colonizing countries themselves, based
on elaborate theory-building (note James Oglethorpe's Colony of Georgia in the 1730s and World empires and colonies in 1800
Edward Gibbon Wakefield's New Zealand Company in the 1840s).[42]

Colonization may be used as a method of absorbing and assimilating foreign people into the culture of the imperial country. One
instrument to this end is linguistic imperialism, or the use of non-indigenous colonial languages to the exclusion of any indigenous
languages from administrative (and often, any public) use.[43]
 World empires and colonies in 1936

British Empire

Ghana

On 6 March 1957, Ghana (formerly the Gold Coast) became

the first sub-Saharan African country to gain its
independence from European colonisation.[44] Starting with
the 1945 Pan-African Congress, the Gold Coast's (modern-
day Ghana's) independence leader Kwame Nkrumah made
his focus clear. In the conference's declaration, he wrote, "we
believe in the rights of all peoples to govern themselves. We
affirm the right of all colonial peoples to control their own British Empire by 1959
destiny. All colonies must be free from foreign imperialist
control, whether political or economic."[45]

In 1948, three Ghanaian veterans were killed by the colonial police on a

protest march. Riots broke out in Accra and though Nkrumah and other
Ghanaian leaders were temporarily imprisoned, the event became a
catalyst for the independence movement. After being released from
prison, Nkrumah founded the Convention People's Party (CPP), which
launched a wide-scale campaign in support of independence with the
slogan "Self Government Now!"[46] Heightened nationalism within the
country grew their power and the political party widely expanded. In
February 1951, the CPP gained political power by winning 34 of 38
elected seats, including one for Nkrumah who was imprisoned at the
time. The British government revised the Gold Coast Constitution to
give Ghanaians a majority in the legislature in 1951. In 1956, Ghana
requested independence inside the Commonwealth, which was granted
peacefully in 1957 with Nkrumah as prime minister and Queen
Elizabeth II as sovereign.[47]

Winds of Change

Prime Minister Harold Macmillan gave the famous "Wind of Change"

speech in South Africa in February 1960, where he spoke of "the wind British decolonisation in Africa. By 1980 all were decolonised.
of change blowing through this continent".[48] Macmillan urgently
wanted to avoid the same kind of colonial war that France was fighting
in Algeria. Under his premiership decolonisation proceeded rapidly.[49]

Britain's remaining colonies in Africa, except for Southern Rhodesia, were all granted independence by 1968. British withdrawal from
the southern and eastern parts of Africa was not a peaceful process. Kenyan independence was preceded by the eight-year Mau Mau
Uprising. In Rhodesia, the 1965 Unilateral Declaration of Independence by the white minority resulted in a civil war that lasted until the
Lancaster House Agreement of 1979, which set the terms for recognised independence in 1980, as the new nation of Zimbabwe.[50]

United Kingdom

The British were primarily interested in maintaining secure communication lines to India, which led to initial interest in Egypt and South
Africa. Once these two areas were secure, it was the intent of British colonialists such as Cecil Rhodes to establish a Cape-Cairo
railway and to exploit mineral and agricultural resources. Control of the Nile was viewed as a strategic and commercial advantage.

Egypt
British Cyrenaica (1943-1951, now part of Libya)
 British Tripolitania (1943-1951, now part of Libya)
Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (1899–1956)
British Somaliland (now part of Somalia)
British East Africa
Kenya Colony
Uganda Protectorate
Tanzania Opening of the railway in Rhodesia,
1899
Tanganyika Territory (1919–61)
Zanzibar

British Mauritius
Bechuanaland (now Botswana)
Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe)
Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia)
British Seychelles
British South Africa
Following the Fourth Anglo-Ashanti
South Africa War in 1896, the British proclaimed a
protectorate over the Ashanti
Transvaal Colony Kingdom.
Cape Colony
Colony of Natal
Orange River Colony
South-West Africa (from 1915, now Namibia)

British West Africa

Gambia Colony and Protectorate
British Sierra Leone
Colonial Nigeria
British Togoland (1916–56, today part of Ghana)
Cameroons (1922–61, now part of Cameroon and Nigeria)
Gold Coast (British colony) (now Ghana)
Nyasaland (now Malawi)
Basutoland (now Lesotho)
Swaziland (now Eswatini)
St Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha

Belgium
Belgium controlled several territories and concessions during the colonial era, principally the
Belgian Congo (modern DRC) from 1908 to 1960 and Ruanda-Urundi (modern Rwanda and
Burundi) from 1922 to 1962. It also had small concessions in Guatemala (1843–1854) and in
China (1902–1931) and was a co-administrator of the Tangier International Zone in Morocco.

Roughly 98% of Belgium's overseas territory was just one colony (about 76 times larger than
Belgium itself) – known as the Belgian Congo. The colony was founded in 1908 following the
transfer of sovereignty from the Congo Free State, which was the personal property of
Belgium's king, Leopold II. The violence used by Free State officials against indigenous
Congolese and the ruthless system of economic extraction had led to intense diplomatic pressure Equestrian statue of Leopold II of
on Belgium to take official control of the country. Belgian rule in the Congo was based on the Belgium, the Sovereign of the Congo
"colonial trinity" (trinité coloniale) of state, missionary and private company interests. During Free State from 1885 to 1908,
the 1940s and 1950s, the Congo experienced extensive urbanization and the administration Regent Place in Brussels, Belgium
aimed to make it into a "model colony." As the result of a widespread and increasingly radical
pro-independence movement, the Congo achieved independence, as the Republic of Congo-
Léopoldville in 1960.
Of Belgium's other colonies, the most significant was Ruanda-Urundi, a portion of German East Africa, which was given to Belgium as
a League of Nations Mandate, when Germany lost all of its colonies at the end of World War I. Following the Rwandan Revolution, the
mandate became the independent states of Burundi and Rwanda in 1962.[51]

Colonies
Lado Enclave
Congo Free State and Belgian Congo (today's Democratic Republic of the Congo)
Ruanda-Urundi (comprising modern Rwanda and Burundi, 1922–62)

Courland
St. Andrews Island (in the Gambia)

Denmark–Norway
Danish Gold Coast (coastal settlements in Ghana)

French colonial empire

The French colonial empire began to fall during the Second World
War when the Vichy France regime controlled the Empire. One
after another, most of the colonies were occupied by foreign powers
(Japan in Indochina, Britain in Syria, Lebanon, and Madagascar,
the United States and Britain in Morocco and Algeria, and
Germany and Italy in Tunisia). Control was gradually reestablished
by Charles de Gaulle, who used the colonial bases as a launching
point to help expel the Vichy government from Metropolitan
France. De Gaulle, together with most Frenchmen, was committed
to preserving the Empire in its new form. The French Union,
included in the Constitution of 1946, nominally replaced the former
colonial empire, but officials in Paris remained in full control. The The French Community in 1959
colonies were given local assemblies with only limited local power
and budgets. A group of elites, known as evolués, who were
natives of the overseas territories but lived in metropolitan France emerged.[53][54][55]

De Gaulle assembled a major conference of Free France colonies in Brazzaville, in central

Africa, in January–February 1944. The survival of France depended on support from these
colonies, and De Gaulle made numerous concessions. These included the end of forced labour,
the end of special legal restrictions that applied to natives but not to whites, the establishment of
elected territorial assemblies, representation in Paris in a new "French Federation", and the
eventual representation of Sub-Saharan Africans in the French Assembly. However,
Independence was explicitly rejected as a future possibility:
Geographic distribution of Europeans
The ends of the civilizing work accomplished by France in the colonies excludes
and their descendants on the African
any idea of autonomy, all possibility of evolution outside the French bloc of the
Empire; the eventual Constitution, even in the future of self-government in the continent in 1962.[52]

colonies is denied.[56] Over 100,000

Conflict

After the war ended, France was immediately confronted with the beginnings of the decolonisation movement. In Algeria
demonstrations in May 1945 were repressed with an estimated 6,000 Algerians killed.[57] Unrest in Haiphong, Indochina, in November
1945 was met by a warship bombarding the city.[58] Paul Ramadier's (SFIO) cabinet repressed the Malagasy Uprising in Madagascar in
1947. French officials estimated the number of Malagasy killed from as low as 11,000 to a French Army estimate of 89,000.[59]

In Cameroun, the Union of the Peoples of Cameroon's insurrection which began in 1955 headed by Ruben Um Nyobé, was violently
repressed over two years, with perhaps as many as 100 people killed.[60]

Algeria
French involvement in Algeria stretched back a century. Ferhat Abbas and Messali Hadj's movements marked the period between the
two wars, but both sides radicalised after the Second World War. In 1945, the Sétif massacre was carried out by the French army. The
Algerian War started in 1954. Atrocities characterized both sides, and the number killed became highly controversial estimates that were
made for propaganda purposes.[61] Algeria was a three-way conflict due to the large number of "pieds-noirs" (Europeans who had
settled there in the 125 years of French rule). The political crisis in France caused the collapse of the Fourth Republic, as Charles de
Gaulle returned to power in 1958 and finally pulled the French soldiers and settlers out of Algeria by 1962.[62][63] Lasting more than
eight years, the estimated death toll typically falls between 300,000 and 400,000 people.[64] By 1962, the National Liberation Front was
able to negotiate a peace accord with French President Charles de Gaulle, the Évian Accords[65] in which Europeans would be able to
return to their native countries, remain in Algeria as foreigners or take Algerian citizenship. Most of the one million Europeans in
Algeria poured out of the country.[66]

French Community

The French Union was replaced in the new Constitution of 1958 by the French Community.
Only Guinea refused by referendum to take part in the new colonial organisation. However, the
French Community dissolved itself amid the Algerian War; almost all of the other African
colonies were granted independence in 1960, following local referendums. Some colonies chose
instead to remain part of France, under the status of overseas départements (territories). Critics
of neocolonialism claimed that the Françafrique had replaced formal direct rule. They argued
that while de Gaulle was granting independence, on one hand, he was creating new ties with the
help of Jacques Foccart, his counsellor for African matters. Foccart supported in particular the The special territories of the
Nigerian Civil War during the late 1960s.[67] European Union c. 2011

Robert Aldrich argues that with Algerian independence in 1962, it appeared that the Empire
practically had come to an end, as the remaining colonies were quite small and lacked active nationalist movements. However, there
was trouble in French Somaliland (Djibouti), which became independent in 1977. There also were complications and delays in the New
Hebrides Vanuatu, which was the last to gain independence in 1980. New Caledonia remains a special case under French
suzerainty.[68] The Indian Ocean island of Mayotte voted in referendum in 1974 to retain its link with France and forgo
independence.[69]

French colonies in Africa

French North Africa
French Algeria (1830-1962; was administered as an integral part of France
itself from 1848)
French Protectorate of Tunisia (1881–1956)
French Protectorate of Morocco (1912–1956)
Fezzan-Ghadames (1943–1951) (administration given by the UNO after its
conquest by Charles de Gaulle)
Egypt (ownership 1798–1801; Condominium of France and the United
Kingdom 1876–1882)[70]

French West Africa

Ivory Coast (1843–1960) Map of French colonies in Africa (in
Dahomey or French Dahomey (now Benin) (1883–1960) green)

Independent of Dahomey, under French protectorate in 1889

Porto-Novo (protectorate) (1863–1865, 1882)
Cotonou (protectorate) (1868)
French Sudan (now Mali) (1883–1960)
Senegambia and Niger (1902–1904)
Guinea or French Guinea (1891–1958)
Mauritania (1902–1960)
Adrar emirate (protectorate) (1909)
The Taganit confederation's emirate (protectorate) (1905) The Foureau-Lamy military
Brakna confederation's emirate (protectorate) expedition sent out from Algiers in
Emirate of Trarza (protectorate) (1902) 1898 to conquer the Chad Basin and
unify all French territories in West
Niger (1890–1960) Africa.
Sultanate of Damagaram (Zinder) (protectorate) (1899)
 Senegal (1677–1960)
French Upper Volta (now Burkina Faso) (1896–1960)
French Togoland (1918–1960) (formerly a German colony, mandate became a French colony) (now Togo)
Nigeria
The Enclaves of Forcados and Badjibo (territory under a lease of 30 years) (1900–1927)
The Emirate of Muri (Northeast of Nigeria) (1892–1893)
Gambia
Albreda (1681–1857)
Kunta Kinteh Island (1695–1697, 1702)

French Equatorial Africa

Chad (1900–1960)
Oubangui-Chari (currently Central African Republic) (1905–1960)
Dar al Kuti (protectorate) (1897) (in 1912 its sultanate was suppressed by the French)
Sultanate of Bangassou (protectorate) (1894)
Present-day The Republic of Congo, then French Congo (1875–1960)
Gabon (1839–1960)
French Cameroon (91% of current Cameroon) (1918–1960) (formerly a German colony, Mandate, Protectorate
then French Colony)
São Tomé and Príncipe (1709)

French East Africa and Indian Ocean

French Madagascar (1896–1960)
Kingdom of Imerina (protectorate; 1896)
Isle de France (1715–1810; now Mauritius)
Djibouti (French Somaliland) (the French Territory of the Afars and the Issas;
French Somalia; 1862–1977)
French Egypt (1798–1801, 1858–1882, 1956)
Mayotte (1841–present)
Seychelles (1756–1810)
Chagos Archipelago (1721–1745, 1768–1814)
The Senegalese Tirailleurs, led by
The Scattered Islands (Banc du Geyser, Bassas da India, Europa Island, Juan
Colonel Alfred-Amédée Dodds,
de Nova Island, Glorioso Islands, Tromelin Island)
conquered Dahomey (present-day
Comoros (1866–1975)
Benin) in 1892
Réunion (1710–present)

German Empire
German Kamerun (now Cameroon and part of Nigeria, 1884–1916)
German East Africa (now Rwanda, Burundi and most of Tanzania, 1885–1919)
German South-West Africa (now Namibia, 1884–1915)
German Togoland (now Togo and eastern part of Ghana, 1884–1914)

After the First World War, Germany's possessions were partitioned among Britain (which took a sliver of western Cameroon, Tanzania,
western Togo, and Namibia), France (which took most of Cameroon and eastern Togo) and Belgium

Africa

The following were German African protectorates:

German South West Africa, 1884 to 1915

German West Africa, 1884 to 1915
Togoland, 1884 to 1916
Kamerun, from 1884 to 1916
Kapitaï and Koba, 1884 to 1885
 Mahinland, March 11, 1885 to October 24, 1885
German East Africa, 1885 to 1918
Witu Protectorate, 1885 to 1890
German Somali Coast, 1885 to 1888
German Congo, 1884 to 1885
German Katanga, 1886
Gando Protectorate, 1895 to 1897
Gulmu Protectorate, 1895 to 1897
German South Africa, 1884 to 1885

German colonies in Africa, 1914

List of German colonies (as of 1912)

Total German Current

Territory Capital Established Disestablished Area[71]
population[71] population[71] countries

Cameroon
Nigeria
Kamerun Chad
Kamerun
Jaunde 1884 1916 495,000 km2 2,540,000 1,359
Guinea
Central
African
Republic

Bagida (1884–87) Ghana

Togoland
Togo
Sebeab (1887–97) 1884 1914 87,200 km2 1,003,000 316
Togo
Lomé (1897–1916)
German
South West
Africa Windhuk (from 1891) 1884 1915 835,100 km2 86,000 12,135 Namibia
Deutsch-
Südwestafrika

Burundi
Kenya
German East Bagamoyo (1885–1890)
Africa Dar es Salaam (1890–1916)
Deutsch- Tabora (1916, 1891 1918 995,000 km2 7,511,000 3,579 Mozambique
Rwanda
Ostafrika temporary)[72]
Tanzania

German Empire
German East Africa (Burundi, Rwanda, Tanzania)
German South-West Africa (Namibia)
Kamerun (split between Cameroon and Nigeria)
Togoland (split between Togo and Ghana)
Wituland (Lamu Island, owned by Kenya)

Hospitaller Malta
Tripoli

Italian Empire
Italian East Africa
Italian Eritrea
Italian Somaliland (now Somalia)
Italian Ethiopia
Amhara Governorate
Galla-Sidamo Governorate
Harar Governorate
Scioa Governorate
 Italian Libya

Former colonies, protectorates and occupied areas

Italian Eritrea (1882–1947)
Italian Somalia (1889–1947)
Trust Territory of Somaliland (1950–1960)
Libya (1911–1947)
Italian Tripolitania & Cyrenaica (1911–1934)
Italian Libya (1934–1943)
Italian East Africa (1936–1941)
Italian Ethiopia (1936–1941)
TunisSweden42–1943

Netherlands
Arguin Island (in Mauritania)
Dutch Cape Colony
Dutch Gold Coast (settlements along coast of Ghana, including El Mina)
Dutch Loango-Angola (Luanda, Sonyo and Cabinda)
Gorée (Senegal)
Moçambique (Delagoa Bay)
São Tomé
South Africa
Mauritius

Portugal
Countries that have gained independence from Portugal
Colonial First head of Independence won
Country Colonial name Independence date
power state through

Republic of Dahomey France

Republic of 1 August 1960
Fort of São João Hubert Maga
Dahomey 31 July 1961[73]
Baptista de Ajudá Portugal
Luís Cabral
24 September 1973 João Bernardo
10 September 1974 Vieira Guinea-Bissau War of
Guinea-Bissau Portuguese Guinea
(recognised) Aristides Independence
5 July 1975[be] Pereira
Pedro Pires

Portuguese Mozambican War of

Mozambique[bf] 25 June 1975 Samora Machel
Mozambique Independence

Portugal 24 September 1973

Portuguese Cape 10 September 1974 Aristides Guinea-Bissau War of
Cape Verde
Verde (recognised) Pereira[bh] Independence[bi]
5 July 1975[bg]

São Tomé and Portuguese São Manuel Pinto da

12 July 1975 –
Príncipe Tomé and Príncipe Costa

Angolan War of
Angola[bj] Portuguese Angola 11 November 1975 Agostinho Neto
Independence

Portuguese Angola (now Angola)

Mainland Angola
Portuguese Congo
(now Cabinda Province of Angola)
Portuguese Mozambique
(now Mozambique)
Portuguese Guinea
(now Guinea-Bissau)
 Portuguese Gold Coast now part of Ghana
Portuguese Cape Verde
Portuguese São Tomé and Príncipe
São Tomé Island
Príncipe Island
Fort of São João Baptista de Ajudá
(now Ouidah, in Benin)
Marracuene in Portuguese
Mozambique was the site of a
Portugal Empire decisive battle between Portuguese
and Gaza king Gungunhana in 1895
Ajuda (Whydah, in Benin)

Angola
Annobón
Cabinda
Cape Verde (Cabo Verde)
Ceuta
Fort of São João Baptista de Ajudá
Gorée (in Senegal)
Malindi
Mombasa
Algarve Ultramar (Morocco)
Agadir
Alcacer Ceguer
Arzila
Azamor
Mazagan
Mogador
Safim
Nigeria (Lagos area)
Mozambique
Portuguese Gold Coast (settlements along coast of Ghana)
Portuguese Guinea (Guinea-Bissau)
Quíloa
São Tomé and Príncipe
Tangier
Zanzibar
Ziguinchor

Russia
Sagallo (6 January 1889–5 February 1889)

Spain
Northern Spanish Morocco
Chefchaouen (Chauen)
Jebala (Yebala)
Kert
Loukkos (Lucus)
Rif

Spanish West Africa

Ifni
Southern Spanish Morocco (Cape Juby)
Spanish Sahara (now Western Sahara)
 Saguia el-Hamra
Río de Oro

Spanish Guinea
(now Equatorial Guinea)
Fernando Pó
Río Muni
Annobón

Countries that have gained independence from Spain

Country Pre-independence name Independence date

Morocco Spanish protectorate in Morocco 7 April 1956

Equatorial Guinea Spanish Guinea 12 October 1968

Morocco
Ifni 30 June 1969
Sidi Ifni Province

Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic Spanish Sahara 26 February 1976

Sweden
Sweden temporarily controlled several settlements on the Gold Coast (present Ghana) from 22 April
1650, and soon lost its last on 20 April 1663, when Fort Carlsborg and the capital Fort Christiansborg
were seized by Denmark.

Cape Coast

In 1652, the Swedes took Cape Coast (in modern Ghana) which had previously been under the control
of the Dutch and before that the Portuguese. Cape Coast was centered on the Carolusburg Castle which
was built in 1653 and named after King Charles X Gustav of Sweden but is now known as the Cape
Coast Castle.

United States

The Swedish are invited by

Colony of Liberia
the Akan King of Futu to
erect a "stony house" for
The Colony of Liberia, later the Commonwealth of Liberia, was a private colony of the American the purpose of trade.
Colonization Society (ACS) beginning in 1822. It became an independent nation—the Republic of
Liberia—after declaring independence in 1847.

Countries that have gained independence from United States

Country Colonial name Colonial power Independence date First head of state Independence won through

Joseph Jenkins Roberts[bl]

Liberia Liberia United States 26 July 1847[bk] Liberian Declaration of Independence
William Tubman

Female independence leaders in Africa

Nationalist and Independence movements throughout Africa have been predominantly led by men, however, women also held
important roles. These roles included organizing at the local and national levels, tending to the wounded, and even being on the front
lines of war.[74] Women’s roles in independence movements were diverse and varied by each country. Many women believed that their
liberation was directly linked to the liberation of their countries.[74]

Nigeria

Nigeria was granted independence from the British Empire on 1 October 1960. Before this, various forms and demonstrations against
colonial rule took place. Women in Nigeria played a significant role during the movement for national independence. Before
independence, women organized through movements like the Abeokuta Women's Revolt and the Women's War.
Margaret Ekpo was one of the most important female independence leaders in Nigeria. She worked toward more equitable civil rights
and Nigerian independence.

Margaret Ekpo

Margaret Ekpo was a chief, a politician, and a nationalist independence leader. In 1945, Ekpo became involved in politics after her
husband, Dr. John Udo Ekpo, became dissatisfied with the colonial administration's treatment of indigenous Nigerian doctors.[75] In
British-ruled Nigeria, colonial rulers had concentrated the power on male chiefs. After the Women's War, she and other women were
appointed to replace warrant chiefs. Ekpo was later appointed to the Eastern House of Chiefs in 1954. As a chief, she rallied women of
different ethnic identities to demand women's rights and independence. She was arrested multiple times for instigating these rallies
against British colonization. As a warrant chief, Ekpo passed a law that required police to employ more women in Enugu and Lagos.

Before WWII, Ekpo led the Aba Market Women Association in mobilizing women against colonial rule and patriarchal oppression.
Following WWII, Ekpo and the Aba Market Women Association continued to mobilize using tactics such as buying up large quantities
of scarce commodities and selling them only to registered members of the association who attended meetings regularly. She used this as
an opportunity to educate women on the importance of independence and decolonisation.[76]

I would tell the women, do you know that your daughter can be the matron of that hospital? Do you know that your
husband can be a District Officer (D.O.) or Resident? Do you know that if you join hands with us in the current political
activities, your children could one day live in European quarters? I used to tell them these things every time and so they
became interested…[77]

After being granted independence in 1960, Ekpo participated in the Constitutional Conferences in Lagos and London. Ekpo would also
serve as a member of parliament in Nigeria from 1960 to 1966.[76] Ekpo’s work also transcended national politics. She travelled out of
Nigeria to represent Nigerian women at several international conferences such as the Inter-Parliamentary Union Conference (1964) and
the World Women’s International Domestic Federation Conference (1963).[76]

Along with her work in advocating civil and political rights, Ekpo left a legacy that notably lacked ethnic bias in a country where many
forms of ethnicism and nepotism existed in politics.[78]

Tanzania

Late in 1961, the predecessor state of Tanganyika was established through the Tanganyika Independence Act of 1961. This act ended
British rule and established self-government.[79] A new republican constitution was adopted one year later, in December of 1962. This
abolished the remaining role of the British monarchy in Tanganyika. A union with the neighbouring state of Zanzibar in 1964 led to the
formation of the Republic of Tanzania.[80]

Bibi Titi Mohamed

Bibi Titi Mohamed was a prominent figure in African women's politics and the independence movement in Tanganyika, mobilizing
women to join the Tanganyika African National Union (TANU) political party.[79]

Born in Dar es Salaam, Bibi Titi rose to prominence unexpectedly. Having only four years of primary school education before her
political career, she was a housewife and lead singer in a “Bamba'' group.[81] However, as the struggle for freedom amplified, Bibi Titi
found a more active role in politics. She joined the Tanganyika African National Union (TANU) in 1954.[79] Doing so, Bibi Titi
became TANU’s first female member.[81] She advocated for political freedom as well as the autonomy of women. By the end of the
1950s, Bibi Titi had become a prominent and powerful voice in politics, campaigning on behalf of freedom and development.[79] After
gaining popularity, her voice became a powerful source of African feminist and anti-colonial sentiment.

After the establishment of the Republic of Tanzania in 1964, she represented the constituency of Rufiji in Parliament. She also served as
a member of TANU’s Central Committee and Executive Committee.[79] There, she continued to advocate for greater freedom and
women’s rights.

Bibi Titi left a legacy that calls on women to have greater self-respect and encourages women to strive for more education and equal
treatment.[81] In a speech, Bibi Titi implored women to take advantage of their latent political influence saying:
 I told you [women] that we want independence. And we can’t get independence if you don’t want to join the party. We
have given birth to all these men. Women are the power in this world. We are the ones who give birth to the world…[81]

Acquisition of sovereignty
Date of acquisition of
Country Acquisition of sovereignty
sovereignty

Algeria 3 July 1962 French recognition of Algerian referendum on independence held two days earlier

Angola 11 November 1975 Independence from Portugal

Benin 1 August 1960 Independence from France

Botswana 30 September 1966 Independence from the United Kingdom

Burkina Faso 5 August 1960 Independence from France

Burundi 1 July 1962 Independence from Belgium

24 September 1973
10 September 1974
Cabo Verde Independence from Portugal
(recognised)
5 July 1975[bm]
Cameroon 1 January 1960 Independence from France

Central African
13 August 1960 Independence from France
Republic

Chad 11 August 1960 Independence from France

Comoros 6 July 1975 Independence from France declared

Democratic Republic
30 June 1960 Independence from Belgium
of the Congo
Republic of Congo 15 August 1960 Independence from France

Djibouti 27 June 1977 Independence from France

Egypt 28 February 1922 The UK ends its protectorate, granting independence to Egypt

Equatorial Guinea 12 October 1968 Independence from Spain

1 June 1936
5 May 1941
19 May 1941
Eritrea Abyssinian campaign Independence from Ethiopia declared
10 February 1947
19 February 1951
15 September 1952

Eswatini 6 September 1968 Independence from the United Kingdom

Ethiopia 5 May 1941 Abyssinian campaign

Gabon 17 August 1960 Independence from France

Gambia 18 February 1965 Independence from the United Kingdom

Ghana 6 March 1957 Independence from the United Kingdom

Guinea 2 October 1958 Independence from France

24 September 1973
10 September 1974
Guinea-Bissau Independence from Portugal declared
(recognised)
5 July 1975[bn]
Ivory Coast 4 December 1958 Autonomous republic within French Community

Ivory Coast 7 August 1960 Independence from France

Kenya 12 December 1963 Independence from the United Kingdom

Lesotho 4 October 1966 Independence from the United Kingdom

Liberia 26 July 1847 Independence from American Colonization Society

Independence from UN Trusteeship (British and French administration after Italian

Libya 24 December 1951
governance ends in 1947)
 The Malagasy Republic was created as autonomous state within French
14 October 1958
Madagascar Community
26 June 1960 France recognizes Madagascar's independence

Malawi 6 July 1964 Independence from the United Kingdom

25 November 1958 French Sudan gains autonomy

24 November 1958
Mali 4 April 1959
20 June 1960 Independence from France
20 August 1960
22 September 1960

Mauritania 28 November 1960 Independence from France

Mauritius 12 March 1968 Independence from the United Kingdom

Morocco 7 April 1956 Independence from France and Spain

Mozambique 25 June 1975 Independence from Portugal

Namibia 21 March 1990 Independence from South African rule

4 December 1958 Autonomy within French Community

23 July 1900
13 October 1922
13 October 1946
26 July 1958
Niger
20 May 1957
Independence from France
25 February 1959
25 August 1958
3 August 1960
8 November 1960
10 November 1960

Nigeria 1 October 1960 Independence from the United Kingdom

Rwanda 1 July 1962 Independence from Belgium

São Tomé and

12 July 1975 Independence from Portugal
Príncipe

25 November 1957
24 November 1958
4 April 1959
4 April 1960
Senegal 20 August 1960 Independence from France
20 June 1960
22 September 1960
18 February 1965
30 September 1989
Seychelles 29 June 1976 Independence from the United Kingdom
Sierra Leone 27 April 1961 Independence from the United Kingdom

20 July 1887
26 May 1925
1 June 1936
3 August 1940
19 August 1940
Somalia Union of Trust Territory of Somalia (former Italian Somaliland) and State of
8 April 1941
Somaliland (formerly British Somaliland)
25 February 1941
10 February 1947
1 April 1950
26 June 1960
1 July 1960

Statute of Westminster, which establishes a status of legislative equality between

11 December 1931
the self-governing dominion of the Union of South Africa and the UK
South Africa
Creation of the autonomous Union of South Africa from the previously separate
31 May 1910
colonies of the Cape, Natal, Transvaal and Orange River

South Sudan 1 January 1956 Independence from Egyptian and British joint rule

Sudan 1 January 1956 Independence from Egyptian and British joint rule

Tanzania 9 December 1961 Independence of Tanganyika from the United Kingdom

30 August 1958 Autonomy within French Union

Togo
27 April 1960 Independence from France
 Tunisia 20 March 1956 Independence from France

1 March 1962 Self-government granted

Uganda
9 October 1962 Independence from the United Kingdom

Zambia 24 October 1964 Independence from the United Kingdom

11 November 1965 Unilateral declaration of independence by Southern Rhodesia

Zimbabwe
18 April 1980 Recognized independence from the United Kingdom as Zimbabwe

Notes
a. Explanatory notes are added in cases where decolonisation was achieved jointly by multiple countries or where the
current country is formed by the merger of previously decolonised countries. Although Ethiopia was administered as a
colony in the aftermath of the Second Italo-Ethiopian War and was recognized by the international community as such
at the time, it is not listed here as its brief period under Italian rule (which lasted for a little more than five years and
ended with the return of the previous native government) is now usually seen as a military occupation.
b. Some territories changed hands multiple times, so only the last colonial power is mentioned in the list. In addition, the
mandatory or trustee powers are mentioned for territories that were League of Nations mandates and UN Trust
Territories.
c. The dates of decolonisation for territories annexed by or integrated into previously decolonised independent countries
are given in separate notes, as are dates when a Commonwealth realm abolished its monarchy.
d. For countries that became independent either as a Commonwealth realm, a monarchy with a strong Prime Minister, or
a parliamentary republic, the head of government is listed instead.
e. Liberia would later annex the Republic of Maryland, another settler colony made up of former African-American
slaves, in 1857. Liberia would not be recognized by the United States until 5 February 1862.
f. Stephen Allen Benson was President on the date of the United States' recognition.
g. As Union of South Africa.
h. The Union of South Africa was constituted through the South Africa Act entering into force on 31 May 1910. On 11
December 1931 it got increased self-governance powers through the Statute of Westminster which was followed by
transformation into a republic after the 1960 referendum. Afterwards, South Africa was under apartheid until elections
resulting from the negotiations to end apartheid in South Africa on 27 April 1994 when Nelson Mandela became
president.
i. As the Kingdom of Egypt. Transcontinental country, partially located in Asia.
j. On 28 February 1922 the British government issued the Unilateral Declaration of Egyptian Independence. Through
this declaration, the British government unilaterally ended its protectorate over Egypt and granted it nominal
independence except four "reserved" areas: foreign relations, communications, the military and the Anglo-Egyptian
Sudan.[36] The Anglo-Egyptian treaty of 1936 reduced British involvement, but still was not welcomed by Egyptian
nationalists, who wanted full independence from Britain, which was not achieved until 23 July 1952. The last British
troops left Egypt after the Suez Crisis of 1956.
k. Although the leaders of the 1952 revolution (Mohammed Naguib and Gamal Abdel Nasser) became the de facto
leaders of Egypt, neither would assume office until September 17 of that year when Naguib became Prime Minister,
succeeding Aly Maher Pasha who was sworn in on the day of the revolution. Nasser would succeed Naguib as Prime
Minister on 25 February 1954.
l. From 1 April 1941 to its eventual transfer to Ethiopia, Italian Eritrea was occupied by the United Kingdom.
m. Date marking the de jure end of Italian rule. The transfer of Eritrea to the Ethiopian Empire occurred on 15 September
1952. On 24 May 1993, after decades of fighting starting from 1 September 1961, Eritrea formally seceded from
Ethiopia.
n. Emperor of Ethiopia on the date of the transfer. Isaias Afwerki became President of Eritrea upon independence.
o. As the United Kingdom of Libya.
p. From 1947, Libya was administrated by the Allies of World War II (the United Kingdom and France). Part of the British
Military Administration originally gained independence as the Cyrenaica Emirate; it was only recognized by the
United Kingdom. The Cyrenaica Emirate also merged to form the United Kingdom of Libya.
q. Anglo-Egyptian Condominium Agreement of 1899, stated that Sudan should be jointly governed by Egypt and Britain,
but with real power remaining in British hands.[38]
r. Before Sudan even gained its independence, on 18 August 1955 the southern area of Sudan began fighting for
greater autonomy. After the signing of the Addis Ababa Agreement on 28 February 1972, South Sudan was granted
autonomous rule. On 5 June 1983, however, the Sudan government revoke this autonomous rule, igniting a new war
for control of South Sudan. (The main non-government combatant of the Second Sudanese Civil War largely claimed
to be fighting for a united, secular Sudan rather than South Sudan's independence.) On 9 July 2005, following the
Comprehensive Peace Agreement signed on 9 January of that year, the Southern Sudan Autonomous Region was
restored; exactly six years later, in the aftermath of the 9–15 January 2011 South Sudanese independence
referendum, South Sudan became independent.
 s. Salva Kiir Mayardit became President of South Sudan upon independence. Abel Alier was the first President of the
High Executive Council of the Southern Sudan Autonomous Region, while John Garang became its President
following its restoration.
t. Sudan's independence is indirectly linked to the Egyptian revolution of 1952, whose leaders eventually denounced
Egypt's claim over Sudan. (This revocation would force the British to end the condominium.)
u. As the Kingdom of Tunisia.
v. See Tunisian independence.
w. Cape Juby was ceded by Spain to Morocco on 2 April 1958. Ifni was returned from Spain to Morocco on 4 January
1969.
x. As the Dominion of Ghana.
y. The British Togoland mandate and trust territory was integrated into Gold Coast colony on 13 December 1956. On 1
July 1960 Ghana formally abolished its Commonwealth monarchy and became a republic.
z. Originally as Prime Minister; became President upon the monarchy's abolition.
aa. After the French Cameroun mandate and trust territory gained independence it was joined by part of the British
Cameroons mandate and trust territory on 1 October 1961. The other part of British Cameroons joined Nigeria.
ab. Minor armed insurgency from Union of the Peoples of Cameroon.
ac. Senegal and French Sudan gained independence on 20 June 1960 as the Mali Federation, which dissolved a few
months later into present-day Senegal and Mali.
ad. As the Malagasy Republic.
ae. The Malagasy Uprising was an earlier armed uprising that failed to gain independence from France.
af. As the Republic of the Congo.
ag. The Congo Crisis occurred after independence.
ah. As the Somali Republic.
ai. The Trust Territory of Somalia (former Italian Somaliland) united with the State of Somaliland (former British
Somaliland) on 1 July 1960 to form the Somali Republic (Somalia).
aj. As the Republic of Dahomey.
ak. As Upper Volta.
al. Part of the British Cameroons mandate and trust territory on 1 October 1961 joined Nigeria. The other part of British
Cameroons joined the previously decolonised French Cameroun mandate and territory.
am. After both gained independence Tanganyika and Zanzibar merged on 26 April 1964 as Tanzania.
an. As the Kingdom of Burundi.
ao. Assumed office on September 27, 1962, as Prime Minister. From the date of independence to Ben Bella's
inauguration, Abderrahmane Farès served as President of the Provisional Executive Council.
ap. Abolished its commonwealth monarchy exactly one year later; Jamhuri Day ("Republic Day") is a celebration of both
dates.
aq. The Mau Mau Uprising was an earlier armed uprising that failed to gain independence from the United Kingdom.
ar. The Sultanate of Zanzibar would later be overthrown within a month of sovereignty by the Zanzibar Revolution.
as. Abolished its commonwealth monarchy exactly two years later.
at. Abolished its commonwealth monarchy on 24 April 1970.
au. Due to Rhodesia's unwillingness to accommodate the British government's request for black majority rule, the United
Kingdom (along with the rest of the international community) refused to recognize the white-minority led government.
The former self-governing colony would not be recognized as an independent state until the aftermath of the
Rhodesian Bush War, under the name Zimbabwe.
av. Botswana Day Holiday is the second day of the two-day celebration of Botswana's independence. The first day is
also referred to as Botswana Day.
aw. Moshoeshoe II became King upon independence.
ax. After the French Cameroun mandate and trust territory gained independence it was joined by part of the British
Cameroons mandate and trust territory on 1 October 1961. The other part of British Cameroons joined Nigeria.
ay. Not celebrated as a holiday. The date 24 September 1973 (when the PAIGC formally declared Guinea's
independence) is celebrated as Guinea-Bissau's date of independence.
az. As the People's Republic of Mozambique
ba. Pedro Pires was sworn in as Prime Minister three days after independence.
bb. Although the fight for Cape Verdean independence was linked to the liberation movement occurring in Guinea-
Bissau, the island country itself saw little fighting.
bc. As the People's Republic of Angola
bd. The Spanish colonial rule de facto terminated over the Western Sahara (then Spanish Sahara), when the territory was
passed on to and partitioned between Mauritania and Morocco (which annexed the entire territory in 1979). The
decolonisation of Western Sahara is still pending, while a declaration of independence has been proclaimed by the
Saharawi Arab Democratic Republic, which controls only a small portion east of the Moroccan Wall. The UN still
considers Spain the legal administrating country of the whole territory,[40] awaiting the outcome of the ongoing
Manhasset negotiations and resulting election to be overseen by the United Nations Mission for the Referendum in
Western Sahara. However, the de facto administrator is Morocco (see United Nations list of non-self-governing
territories).
be. Not celebrated as a holiday. The date 24 September 1973 (when the PAIGC formally declared Guinea's
independence) is celebrated as Guinea-Bissau's date of independence.
bf. As the People's Republic of Mozambique
bg. Not celebrated as a holiday. The date 24 September 1973 (when the PAIGC formally declared Guinea's
independence) is celebrated as Guinea-Bissau's date of independence.
bh. Pedro Pires was sworn in as Prime Minister three days after independence.
bi. Although the fight for Cape Verdean independence was linked to the liberation movement occurring in Guinea-
Bissau, the island country itself saw little fighting.
bj. As the People's Republic of Angola
bk. Liberia would later annex the Republic of Maryland, another settler colony made up of former African-American
slaves, in 1857. Liberia would not be recognized by the United States until 5 February 1862.
bl. Stephen Allen Benson was President on the date of the United States' recognition.
bm. Not celebrated as a holiday. The date 24 September 1973 (when the PAIGC formally declared Guinea's
independence) is celebrated as Guinea-Bissau's date of independence.
bn. Not celebrated as a holiday. The date 24 September 1973 (when the PAIGC formally declared Guinea's
independence) is celebrated as Guinea-Bissau's date of independence.

See also
Africa portal

Colonialism
Decolonization
Economic history of Africa
Indépendance Cha Cha
Scramble for Africa
List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Africa
States and Power in Africa
Africa–United States relations
Wars of national liberation
Year of Africa

References
1. John Hatch, Africa: The Rebirth of Self-Rule (1967)
2. William Roger Louis, The transfer of power in Africa: decolonization, 1940-1960 (Yale UP, 1982).
3. Birmingham, David (1995). The Decolonization of Africa. Routledge. ISBN 1-85728-540-9.
4. John D. Hargreaves, Decolonization in Africa (2014).
5. for the viewpoint from London and Paris see Rudolf von Albertini, Decolonization: the Administration and Future of the
Colonies, 1919-1960 (Doubleday, 1971).
6. Appiah, Anthony; Gates Jr., Henry Louis Gates (2010). Berlin Conference of 1884-1885 (http://www.oxfordreference.co
m/view/10.1093/acref/9780195337709.001.0001/acref-9780195337709-e-0467). ISBN 978-0-19-533770-9. Retrieved
11 January 2015. {{cite book}}: |website= ignored (help)
7. "A Brief History of the Berlin Conference" (https://web.archive.org/web/20180215122624/http://teacherweb.ftl.pinecres
t.edu/snyderd/MWH/Projects/mun-bc/history.htm). teacherweb.ftl.pinecrest.edu. Archived from the original (http://teach
erweb.ftl.pinecrest.edu/snyderd/MWH/Projects/mun-bc/History.htm) on 15 February 2018. Retrieved 11 January 2015.
8. Evans, Alistair. "Countries in Africa Considered Never Colonized" (https://web.archive.org/web/20150222035121/htt
p://africanhistory.about.com/od/eracolonialism/tp/AfricaNotColon.htm). africanhistory.about.com. Archived from the
original (http://africanhistory.about.com/od/eracolonialism/tp/AfricaNotColon.htm) on 22 February 2015. Retrieved
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Further reading
Birmingham, David (1995). The Decolonization of Africa. Routledge. ISBN 1-85728-540-9.
Brennan, James R. "The Cold War battle over global news in East Africa: decolonization, the free flow of information,
and the media business, 1960-1980." Journal of Global History 10.2 (2015): 333+.
Brown, Judith M. and Wm. Roger Louis, eds. The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume IV: The Twentieth
Century (2001) pp 515–73. online (https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofthebritishempirevol.4oxford1999)
Burton, Antoinette. The Trouble with Empire: Challenges to Modern British Imperialism (2015)
Chafer, Tony. The end of empire in French West Africa: France's successful decolonization (Bloomsbury Publishing,
2002).
Chafer, Tony, and Alexander Keese, eds. Francophone Africa at fifty (Oxford UP, 2015).
Clayton, Anthony. The wars of French decolonization (Routledge, 2014).
Cohen, Andrew. The politics and economics of decolonization in Africa: the failed experiment of the Central African
Federation (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2017).
Cooper, Frederick. Decolonization and African society: The labor question in French and British Africa (Cambridge
University Press, 1996).
Gordon, April A. and Donald L. Gordon, Lynne Riener. Understanding Contemporary Africa (London, 1996). online (htt
ps://archive.org/details/understandcon00gord)
Hargreaves, John D. Decolonization in Africa (2014).
Hatch, John. Africa: The Rebirth of Self-Rule (1967)
Horne, Alistair. (1977). A Savage War of Peace: Algeria, 1954-1962. Viking Press.
James, Leslie, and Elisabeth Leake, eds. Decolonization and the Cold War: Negotiating Independence (Bloomsbury
Publishing, 2015).
Jeppesen, Chris, and Andrew W.M. Smith, eds. Britain, France and the Decolonization of Africa: Future Imperfect?
(UCL Press, 2017) online (https://archive.org/details/BritainFranceAndTheDecolonizationOfAfrica).
Jerónimo, Miguel Bandeira, and António Costa Pinto, eds. The Ends of European Colonial Empires: Cases and
Comparisons (Springer, 2016).
Khapoya, Vincent B. The African Experience (1994) online (https://archive.org/details/africanexperienc00khap)
Louis, William Roger. The transfer of power in Africa: decolonization, 1940–1960 (Yale UP, 1982).
Louis, Wm Roger, and Ronald Robinson. "The imperialism of decolonization." Journal of Imperial and
Commonwealth History 22.3 (1994): 462–511.
Manthalu, Chikumbutso Herbert, and Yusef Waghid, eds. Education for Decoloniality and Decolonisation in Africa
(Springer, 2019).
MacQueen, Norrie. The Decolonization of Portuguese Africa: Metropolitan Revolution and the Dissolution of Empire
(1997) online (https://archive.org/details/portugueseafrica)
Mazrui, Ali A. ed. "General History of Africa" vol. VIII, UNESCO, 1993
McDougall, James. (2017). A History of Algeria. Cambridge University Press.
McDougall, James. (2006). History and the culture of nationalism in Algeria. Cambridge University Press.
Meriwether, James Hunter. Tears, Fire, and Blood: The United States and the Decolonization of Africa (University of
North Carolina Press, 2021). online review (http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=57430)
Michalopoulos, Stelios; Papaioannou, Elias (2020-03-01). "Historical Legacies and African Development." Journal of
Economic Literature. 58#1: 53–128. online (https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/jel.20181447) Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20220301170714/https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257%2Fjel.20181447) 1 March
2022 at the Wayback Machine
Milford, Ismay. African Activists in a Decolonising World: The Making of an Anticolonial Culture, 1952–1966
(Cambridge University Press, 2023). ISBN 978-1009276993
Muschik, Eva-Maria. "Managing the world: the United Nations, decolonization, and the strange triumph of state
sovereignty in the 1950s and 1960s." Journal of Global History 13.1 (2018): 121-144.
Ndlovu‐Gatsheni, Sabelo J. "Decoloniality as the future of Africa." History Compass 13.10 (2015): 485-496. online (htt
ps://www.blacfoundation.org/pdf/Ndlovu-Gatsheni-14.pdf) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210515025331/htt
ps://www.blacfoundation.org/pdf/Ndlovu-Gatsheni-14.pdf) 15 May 2021 at the Wayback Machine
Rothermund, Dietmar. The Routledge companion to decolonization (Routledge, 2006), comprehensive global
coverage; 365pp excerpt (https://www.amazon.com/Routledge-Companion-Decolonization-Companions-History/dp/0
415356326/) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160519235250/http://www.amazon.com/Routledge-Companion
-Decolonization-Companions-History/dp/0415356326) 19 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine
 Sarmento, João. "Portuguese tropical geography and decolonization in Africa: the case of Mozambique." Journal of
Historical Geography 66 (2019): 20-30.
Seidler, Valentin. "Copying informal institutions: the role of British colonial officers during the decolonization of British
Africa." Journal of Institutional Economics 14.2 (2018): 289-312. online (https://web.archive.org/web/2022071704224
7/https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/63060428/Seidler_2018_Joie20200423-116195-hsgh2i-libre.pdf?1587631921
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DLoLlrcxwPozmSrdZcEod~Lmt69FIeWkM6aQfqIUZBsMMlOhpqe19EyzZUSMijrmVvFxxtiMxQzMyKdZocGPCP02kH
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Strang, David. "From dependency to sovereignty: An event history analysis of decolonization 1870-1987." American
Sociological Review (1990): 846–860. online (https://www.jstor.org/stable/2095750) Archived (https://web.archive.org/
web/20210805220351/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2095750) 5 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine
Thomas, Martin, Bob Moore, and Larry Butler. Crises of Empire: Decolonization and Europe's imperial states
(Bloomsbury Publishing, 2015).
von Albertini, Rudolf. Decolonization: the Administration and Future of the Colonies, 1919-1960 (Doubleday, 1971) for
the viewpoint from London and Paris.
White, Nicholas. Decolonization: the British experience since 1945 (Routledge, 2014).
Wilder, Gary. Freedom time: negritude, decolonization, and the future of the world (Duke University Press, 2015).
excerpt (https://www.amazon.com/Freedom-Time-Negritude-Decolonization-Future/dp/0822358506/) Archived (https://
web.archive.org/web/20160607090755/http://www.amazon.com/Freedom-Time-Negritude-Decolonization-Future/dp/0
822358506) 7 June 2016 at the Wayback Machine
Winks, Robin, ed. The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume V: Historiography (2001) ch 29–34, pp 450–557.
How historians covered the history online (https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofthebritishempirevol.5oxford1999_
201911)
Wood, Sarah L. "How Empires Make Peripheries: 'Overseas France' in Contemporary History." Contemporary
European History (2019): 1-12. online (https://www.academia.edu/download/59871105/how_empires_make_peripher
ies_overseas_france_in_contemporary_history20190626-117738-uca67y.pdf)

External links
Africa: 50 years of independence (http://www.english.rfi.fr/africa/20100212-africa-50-years-independence) Radio
France Internationale in English
"Winds of Change or Hot Air? Decolonization and the Salt Water Test" (https://archive.today/20121211060056/http://w
ww.legalfrontiers.ca/2010/11/winds-of-change-or-hot-air-decolonization-and-the-salt-water-test/) Legal Frontiers
International Law Blog

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