Compiled General Physiology

Compiled and arranged by Austen-Best
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COMPILED
GENERAL
PHYSIOLOGY
1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
 GENERAL PYSIOLOGY-------------------------------------------------3
Page | 2  HOMEOSTASIS AND CONTROL SYSTEMS-------------5

 FEEDBACK MECHANISMS---------------------------------7
 CELL STRUCTURE-------------------------------------------10
 CELL ORGANELLES-----------------------------------------27
 TRANSPORT ACROSS CELL MEMBRANE-------------36
 CELL SIGNALLING AND COMMUNICATION-----------49
 TEMPERATURE REGULATION---------------------------54
COMPILED AND ARRANGED

BY
OLUKA AUSTEN [AUSTEN-BEST]

2
GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY
Prof. Eghosa E. IYARE
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Introduction
Physiology as a science
– Definition
– Relationship with other courses
– Cell as the basic physiological unit
– Interrelationship among cells
– The concept of homeostasis
Homeostasis and Control System
• Homeostasis
– Definition
• Claude Bernard
• Walter Cannon
• Control Systems
– Definition
– Distribution
• Within cells
• Within organs
• Throughout entire body
– Components
• Sensor
• Input
• Integration centre
• Output
• Effector
– Organization
• Feedforward
• Feedback
• Positive
– Generation of AP, LH surge, blood clotting, milk ejection reflex,
parturition
– Negative
– Control of cell function by the gene, Control of RBC production,
Control of arterial BP, Control of pulmonary ventilation, Regulation of
plasma calcium ion concentration, Renal regulation of electrolytes,
regulation of blood glucose concentration, Control of body temperature,
Control of synthesis of most hormones etc…
Temperature Regulation
• Core Temperature
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– Average temperature of deeper structures of the body. About 37.8⁰C.

– Temperature/Heat balance
• Heat production = Heat loss
– Heat production – Posterior hypothalamus
– Heat loss – Anterior hypothalamus
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• Heat Production
– Metabolic
– Muscular activities
– Hormonal (thyroxine, adrenaline) activities
– Radiation of heat from the environment
– Shivering
– Brown adipose tissues
• Heat Loss
– Conduction, Convection, Radiation
– Evaporation
– Panting
Mechanism of Temperature Regulation
• Increased Body Temperature
– Promotion of Heat Loss
• Increasing sweat secretion
• Inhibiting sympathetic discharge
– Prevention of Heat Production
• Inhibiting shivering
• Inhibiting metabolic reaction
• Decreased Body Temperature
– Prevent heat loss
– Promote heat production
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HOMOESTASIS AND CONTROL SYSTEM

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Physiology is the study of normal functioning of the body or study of various process
that takes place in the body to ensure the normal functioning of the body
Relationship with other courses
Physiology is related with
-Biochemistry &
-Anatomy
Cell as the basic physiological unit

Cell is the smallest reducible unit of life that is capable of independent existence
-Cell is the basic physiological unit

-Cells are inter-related
-group of cells form tissue
⬇
Organ
⬇
System
-Cells are not independent of each other they communicate with each other for proper
functioning
Homeostasis
It's the maintenance of constant internal environment despite the fluctuations in the
external environment
Claude Bernard a 19th century French physiologist observed that the volume and
compsition of fluids surrounding the cells of living organism are maintained constant
independent of the changes in which the animals live(external environment)
He termed the extracellular fluid (ECF) the internal environment to distinguish it from
the environment outside the body
So he, Claude Bernard is referred as the father of physiology.
In 1929, an American physiologist, Walter cannon introduced the term Homoestasis
_(homoios- like, stasis- standing still)_ a Greek word, to explain the phenomenon of the
maintenance of the constancy of the internal environment
He, Walter cannon introduced the need of control system to ensure homoestasis
However, 60% of the total body weight consists of water,2/3rd of this percentage is
intracellular fluid,1/3rd is the extracellular fluid
The extracellular fluid is further subdivided to interstitial fluid which contains 3/4th of
the extracellular fluid and the remaining 1/4th is the plasma.
The interstitial fluid surrounds the cells of the tissue and the plasma.
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The electrolytic composition of the extracellular fluid resemblance that of a sea water
having rich proportions of sodium and chloride but low in potassium
Control system
Control system are those carefully coordinated physiological processes that ensure that
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the internal environment (ECF) of the cell is maintained relatively constant despite
fluctuations in the external environment
The extracellular fluid (ECF) is the internal environment of the cell,it is the fluid that
governs the activities of the cell and surrounds the cell
ICF determines the functional integrity of the cell.
ECF affects the ICF. At rest,ICF takes the look/shape of the ECF and depends on the
ECF.
Distribution of control system

Distribution occurs
-within cells
-within organs
-the entire body
The system is distributed around the cell,in the internal environment to ensure proper
control of the internal environment.
Same occurs in organs and the whole body
Components of control system

The components include:
Sensor senses the changes in internal environment and sends it to the input pathway
Input pathway carries the information sent by the sensor to integration centre
Integration/control centre/pull/CANS(Central nervous system)

interprets the information and generate appropriate responses to that information and
sends it to the output pathway
Output pathway carries the responses to the effector
Effector effects the responses
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FEEDBACK MECHANISMS
INTRODUCTION
Physiology is the study of the mechanisms by which living systems function. Life itself
is the result of a complex management of energies – the different forms of energies are
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kept within certain predetermined limits in different compartmentalized systems.
Chemical, electrical, heat, mechanical energies etc., are all used to produce and sustain
life in a well-controlled and organized manner.
In physiology, these energies often present themselves as physiological variables, that
is, factors or values that are subject to change. Whatever initiates a change (increase or
decrease) in such variables is called a STIMULUS (input). Such a change is detected,
and the details are sent to the CONTROL CENTRE (integrating centre) where all
decisions are made. Such decisions are packaged in form of a RESPONSE (output) to
the stimulus, which could either be an opposition (negative) to the change or a
promotion (positive)of the change. Therefore, the process whereby an output signal
goes back to affect its input signal either positively or negatively, is called a
FEEDBACK MECHANISM.
TYPES OF FEEDBACK MECHANISMS

It is already obvious from the above that there are two types of feedback mechanisms
which function with the sole aim to maintain a dynamic constancy in the internal
environment of the body. Positive feedback is like praising a person for a task they do.
This praise encourages them to do more of that particular activity. On the other hand,
negative feedback is like reprimanding a person. It discourages them from performing
the said task, and they do the opposite instead. In the end, however, it all leads to
homeostasis – maintaining a balance within the body.
1. Negative Feedback: Negative feedback is one in which the system responds in
such a way as to oppose the change or reverse the direction of change. After
receiving a message, effectors send negative feedback signals back to the
system. Now, the system stabilizes its own function and makes an attempt to
maintain homeostasis.
Characteristics of a Negative Feedback System

a) It is very common in nature.
b) It has no cut-off point.
c)Closely associated with stability and restoring homeostasis
d) Resists change
e) Has a narrower range
f) Does not require external interruption
Examples: In the regulation of carbon dioxide concentration, a high

concentration of carbon dioxide in the extracellular fluid increases pulmonary
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ventilation. This, in turn, decreases the extracellular fluid carbon dioxide

concentration because the lungs expire greater amounts of carbondioxide from
the body.In other words, the high concentration of carbon dioxide initiates
events that decrease the concentration toward normal, which is negative to the
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low results in feedback to increase the concentration. This response is also
negative to the initiating stimulus.
One of these, the baroreceptor system, is a simple and excellent example of a
rapidly acting control mechanism. In the walls of the bifurcation region of the
carotid arteries in the neck, and also in the arch of the aorta in the thorax, are
many nerve receptors called baroreceptorsthat are stimulated by stretch of the
arterial wall. When the arterial pressure rises too high, the baroreceptors send
barrages of nerve impulses to the medulla of the brain. Here these impulses
inhibit the vasomotor centre, which in turn decreases the number of impulses
transmitted from the vasomotor centre through the sympathetic nervous system
to the heart and blood vessels. Lack of these impulses causes diminished
pumping activity by the heart and also dilation of the peripheral blood vessels,
allowing increased blood flow through the vessels. Both of these effects
decrease the arterial pressure, moving it back toward normal. Conversely, a
decrease in arterial pressure below normal relaxes the stretch receptors,
allowing the vasomotor centre to become more active than usual, thereby
causing vasoconstriction and increased heart pumping. The decrease in arterial
pressure also raises arterial pressure, moving it back toward normal.
Other examples include temperature regulation, control of blood glucose levels and so
many more.
2. Positive Feedback: Positive feedback is one in which the system responds in

such a way as to increase the intensity of the change in the same direction.
Characteristics of a Positive Feedback System
a) It is not so common in nature.
b) It has a cut-off point.
c) It is explosive, closely associated with instability, vicious cycle and even
death.
d) Enhances change.
e) Has a wider range.
f) May require external interruption.
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Examples: The heart of a healthy human being pumps about 5 litres of blood per
minute. If a person is suddenly bled 2 litres,the amount of blood in the body is
decreased to such allow level that not enough blood is available for the heart to
pump effectively. As a result, the arterial pressure falls and the flow of blood to
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in weakening of the heart, further diminished pumping,a further decrease in
coronary blood flow, and still more weakness of the heart; the cycle repeats
itself again and again until death occurs. Note that each cycle in the feedback
results in further weakening of the heart. In other words, the initiating stimulus
causes more of the same ,which is positive feedback.
Positive feedback can sometimes be useful. Childbirth is one instance in which
positive feedback is valuable. When uterine contractions become strong enough
for the baby’s head to begin pushing through the cervix, stretching of the cervix
sends signals through the uterine muscle back to the body of the uterus, causing
even more powerful contractions. Thus the uterine contractions stretch the
cervix and the cervical stretch causes stronger contractions. When this
process becomes powerful enough, the baby is born. If it is not powerful
enough, the contractions usually die out and a few days pass before they
begin again.
Other examples where positive feedback can be valuable are generation of nerve
signals, formation of blood clot, LH surge etc
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GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY.
DEFINITION OF A CELL.
Cell can be defined as the basic structural, functional, and biological unit of living
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organism capable of existing independently. All the living things are composed of cells.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CELL
Each cell in the body:
1. Needs nutrition and oxygen.
2. Produces its own energy necessary for its growth ,repair and other activities.
3. Eliminates carbon dioxide and other metabolic wastes.
4. Maintains the medium, i.e. the environment for its survival.
5. Shows immediate response to the entry of invaders like bacteria or toxic substances
into the body.
6. Reproduces by division. There are some exceptions like neuron, which do not
reproduce.
STRUCTURE OF THE CELL

Each cell is formed by a cell body and a membrane covering the cell body called the
cell membrane. Cell body has two parts, namely nucleus and cytoplasm surrounding
the nucleus.
Thus, the structure of the cell is studied under three headings:
1. Cell membrane
2. Cytoplasm
3. Nucleus.
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CELL ORGANELLES.
Components of cell organelles includes:
 Cell membrane.
 Nucleus.
 Endoplasmic Reticulum.
 Golgi Apparatus.
 Mitochondrion.
 Lysosome/Peroxisome.
 Microtubules.
 Microfilaments.
 Intercellular Connections.
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CELL MEMBRANE:
The cell membrane, also known as the plasma membrane, is a double layer of lipids
and proteins that surrounds a cell and separates the cytoplasm (the contents of the cell)
(ICF) from its surrounding environment (ECF). It is selectively permeable, which
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means that it only lets certain molecules enter and exit. It can also control the amount of
some substances that go into or out of the cell. All cells have a cell membrane.It is a
protective sheath.Thickness of the cell membrane varies from 75 to111Å.
COMPOSITION OF CELL MEMBRANE

Cell membrane is composed of three types of substances:
1. Lipids (40%)
2. Proteins (55%)
3. Carbohydrates (5%).
STRUCTURE OF CELL MEMBRANE.
LIPID LAYERS
The central lipid layer is a bilayered structure. This is formed by a thin film of lipids.
The characteristic feature of lipid layer is that, it is fluid in nature and not a solid
structure.
Major lipids are:

1. Phospholipids
2. Cholesterol.
Functions of Lipid Layer in Cell Membrane

Lipid layer of the cell membrane is a semi-permeable membrane and allows only the
fat-soluble substances to pass through it. Thus, the fat-soluble substances like oxygen,
carbonIVoxide and alcohol can pass through this lipid layer. The water-soluble
substances such as glucose, urea and electrolytes cannot pass through this layer.
Protein Layers of the Cell Membrane

Protein layers of the cell membrane are electron-dense layers. These layers cover the
two surfaces of the central lipid layer. Protein layers give protection to the central lipid
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layer. The protein substances present in these layers are mostly glyco-proteins.
Protein molecules are classified into two categories:

1. Integral proteins or trans-membrane proteins.
2. Peripheral proteins or peri-peripheral membrane
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proteins.
Functions of Proteins in Cell Membrane

1. Integral proteins provide the structural integrity of the cell membrane
2. Channel proteins help in the diffusion of water soluble substances like glucose and
electrolytes
3. Carrier or transport proteins help in the transport of substances across the cell
membrane by means of active or passive transport
4. Pump: Some carrier proteins act as pumps, by which ions are transported actively
across the cell membrane.
5. Receptor proteins serve as the receptor sites for hormones and neurotransmitters
6. Enzymes: Some of the protein molecules form the enzymes and control chemical
(metabolic) reactions within the cell membrane.
7. Antigens: Some proteins act as antigens and induce the process of antibody
formation
8. Cell adhesion molecules or the integral proteins are responsible for attachment of
cells to their neighbors or to basal lamina.
Carbohydrates of the Cell Membrane

Some of the carbohydrate molecules present in cell membrane are attached to proteins
and form
Glyco-proteins (proteoglycans). Some carbohydrate molecules are attached to lipids
and form glycolipids. Carbohydrate molecules form a thin and loose covering over the
entire surface of the cell membrane called glycocalyx.
Functions of Carbohydrates in Cell Membrance
1. Carbohydrate molecules are negatively charged and do not permit the negatively
charged substances to move in and out of the cell.
2. Glycocalyx from the neighboring cells helps in the tight fixation of cells with one
another
3. Some carbohydrate molecules function as the receptors for some hormones.
FUNCTIONS OF CELL MEMBRANE

1. Protective function: Cell membrane protects the cytoplasm and the organelles
present in the cytoplasm.
2. Selective permeability: Cell membrane acts as a semi permeable membrane, which
allows only some substances to pass through it and acts as a barrier for other substances
3. Absorptive function: Nutrients are absorbed into the
cell through the cell membrane
4. Excretory function: Metabolites and other waste products from the cell are excreted
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out through the cell membrane.

5. Exchange of gases: Oxygen enters the cell from the blood and carbon IV oxide leaves
the cell and enters the blood through the cell membrane.
6. Maintenance of shape and size of the cell: Cell membrane is responsible for the
maintenance of shape and size of the cell.
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CYTOPLASM
Cytoplasm of the cell is the jelly like material formed by80% of water. It contains a
clear liquid portion called cytosol and various particles of different shape and size.
These particles are proteins, carbohydrates, lipids or electrolytes in nature. Cytoplasm
also contains many organelles with distinct structure and function.
Cytoplasm is made up of two zones:
1. Ectoplasm: Peripheral part of cytoplasm, situated just beneath the cell membrane
2.Endoplasm: Inner part of cytoplasm, interposed between the ectoplasm and the
nucleus.
ORGANELLES IN CYTOPLASM
Cytoplasmic organelles are the cellular structures embedded in the cytoplasm.
Organelles are considered as small organs of the cell. Some organelles are bound by
limiting membrane and others do not have limiting membrane. Each organelle is having
a definite structure and specific functions„
ORGANELLES WITH LIMITING MEMBRANE
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
Endoplasmic reticulum is a network of tubular and microsomal vesicular structures
which are interconnected with one another. It is covered by a limiting membrane which
is formed by proteins and bilayered lipids. The lumen between nucleus and cell
membrane by connecting the cell membrane with the nuclear membrane.
FIG: STRUCTURE OF ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM.
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Types of Endoplasmic Reticulum

Endoplasmic reticulum is of two types, namely rough endoplasmic reticulum and
smooth endoplasmic reticulum. Both the types are interconnected and continuous with
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one another. Depending upon the activities of the cells, the rough endoplasmic
reticulum changes to smooth endoplasmic reticulum and vice versa.
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

It is the endoplasmic reticulum with rough, bumpy or bead-like appearance. Rough
appearance is due to the attachment of granular ribosomes to its outer surface. Hence, it
is also called the granular endoplasmic reticulum. Rough endoplasmic reticulum is
vesicular or tubular in structure.
Functions of Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

1.Synthesis of proteins: Rough endoplasmic reticulum is concerned with the synthesis
of proteins in the cell. It is involved with the synthesis of mainly those proteins which
are secreted
from the cells such as insulin from β cells of islets of Langerhans in pancreas and
antibodies from B lymphocytes. Ribosomes arrange the amino acids into small units of
proteins and transport them into the rough endoplasmic reticulum. Here, the
carbohydrates are added to the protein units forming the glycosylated proteins or
glycoproteins, which are arranged in the form of reticular vesicles. These vesicles are
transported mainly to Golgi apparatus for further modification and processing. Few
vesicles are transported to other cytoplasmic organelles.
2. Degradation of worn-out organelles:

Rough endoplasmic reticulum also plays an important role in the degradation of
worn-out cytoplasmic organelles like mitochondria. It wraps itself around the worn out
organelles and forms a vacuole which is often called the autophagosome.
Autphagosome is digested by Lysosomal enzymes.
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

It is the endoplasmic reticulum with smooth appearance. It is also called agranular
reticulum. It is formed by many interconnected tubules. So, it is also called tubular
endoplasmic reticulum.
Functions of Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

1. Synthesis of non-protein substance:
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Smooth endoplasmic reticulum is responsible for synthesis of non-protein substances

such as cholesterol and steroid. This type of endoplasmic reticulum is abundant in cells
that are involved in the synthesis of lipids, phospholipids, lipoprotein substances,
steroid hormones, sebum, etc. In most of the other cells, smooth endoplasmic reticulum
is less extensive than the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
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2. Role in cellular metabolism:

Outer surface of smooth endoplasmic reticulum contains many enzymes which are
involved in various metabolic processes of the cell.
3. Storage and metabolism of calcium:

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum is the major site of storage and metabolism of calcium.
In skeletal muscle fibers, it releases calcium which is necessary to trigger the muscle
contraction.
4. Catabolism and detoxification:

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum is also concerned with catabolism and detoxification of
toxic substances like some drugs and carcinogens (cancer-producing substances) in the
liver.
„
GOLGI APPARATUS
Golgi apparatus or Golgi body or Golgi complex is a membrane-bound organelle,
involved in the processing of proteins. It is present in all the cells except red blood cells.
It is named after the discoverer Camillo Golgi. Usually, each cell has one Golgi
apparatus. Some of the cells may have more than one Golgi apparatus. Each Golgi
apparatus consists of 5 to 8 flattened membranous sacs called the cisternae. Golgi
apparatus is situated near the nucleus. It has
two ends or faces, namely cis face and trans face. The cis face is positioned near the
endoplasmic reticulum. Reticular vesicles from endoplasmic reticulum enter
the Golgi apparatus through cis face. The trans face is situated near the cell membrane.
The processed substances make their exit from Golgi apparatus through trans face.
STRUCTURE OF GOLGI APPARATUS.
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Functions of Golgi Apparatus

Major functions of Golgi apparatus are processing, packing, labeling and delivery of
proteins and other molecules like lipids to different parts of the cell.
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1. Processing of materials:
Vesicles containing glycoproteins and lipids are transported into Golgi apparatus. Here,
the glycolprotein sand lipids are modified and processed.
2. Packaging of materials:
All the processed materials are packed in the form of secretory granules, secretory
vesicles and lysosomes, which are transported either out of the cell or to another part of
the cell. Because of this, Golgi apparatus is called the ‘post office of the cell’.
3. Labeling and delivery of materials:
Finally, the Golgi apparatus sorts out the processed and packed materials and labels
them (such as phosphate group), depending upon the chemical content for
delivery(distribution) to their proper destinations. Hence, the Golgi apparatus is called
‘shipping department of the cell’.
„
LYSOSOMES
Lysosomes are the membrane-bound vesicular organelles found throughout the
cytoplasm. The lysosome sare formed by Golgi apparatus. The enzymes synthesized in
rough endoplasmic reticulum are processed and packed in the form of small vesicles in
the Golgi apparatus. Then, these vesicles are pinched off from Golgi apparatus and
become the lysosomes. Among the organelles of the cytoplasm, the lysosomes have the
thickest covering membrane. The membrane is formed by a bilayered lipid material. It
has many small granules which contain hydrolytic enzymes.
Types of Lysosomes
Lysosomes are of two types:
1.Primary lysosome: This is pinched off from Golgi apparatus. It is inactive in spite of
having hydrolytic enzymes.
2. Secondary lysosome: This is the active lysosome.It is formed by the fusion of a

primary lysosome with phagosome or endosome.
Lysosomes are often called ‘garbage system’ of the cellbecause of their degradation
activity. About 50 different hydrolytic enzymes, known as acid hydroxylases are
present in the lysosomes, through which lysosomes execute their functions.
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Lysosomal enzymes which are vital:

1. Proteases: Hydrolyze the proteins into amino acids
2. Lipases: Hydrolyze the lipids into fatty acids and glycerides
3. Amylases: Hydrolyze the polysaccharide sinto glucose
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4. Nucleases: Hydrolyze the nucleic acids into mononucleotides.
Mechanism of lysosomal function

Lysosomal functions involve two mechanisms:
1. Heterophagy: Digestion of extracellular materials engulfed by the cell via
endocytosis
2. Autophagy: Digestion of intracellular materials such as worn-out cytoplasmic
organelles.
Functions of lysosomes.
1. Degradation of macromolecules:
Macromolecules are engulfed by the cell by means of endocytosis (phagocytosis,
pinocytosis or receptor-mediated endocytosis). The macro molecules such as bacteria,
engulfed by the cell via phagocytosis are called phagosomes or vacuoles. The other
macromolecules taken inside via pinocytosis or receptor-mediated endocytosis are
called endosomes.
The primary lysosome fuses with the phagosome or endosome to form the secondary
lysosome. The pH in the secondary lysosome becomes acidic and the lysosomal
enzymes are activated. The bacteria and the other macromolecules are digested and
degraded by these enzymes. The secondary lysosome containing these degraded waste
products moves through cytoplasm and fuses with cell membrane. Now the waste
products are eliminated by exocytosis.
2. Degradation of worn-out organelles:

The rough endoplasmic reticulum wraps itself around the worn-out organelles like
mitochondria and form the vacuoles called autophagosomes. One primary lysosome
fuses with one autophagosome to form the secondary lysosome. The enzymes in the
secondary lysosome are activated. Now, these enzymes digest the contents of
autophagosome.
3. Removal of excess secretory products in the cells:

Lysosomes in the cells of the secretory glands remove the excess secretory products by
degrading the secretory granules.
4. Secretory function – secretory lysosomes:

Recently, lysosomes having secretory function called secretory lysosomes are found in
some of the cells, particularly in the cells of immune system. The conventional
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lysosomes are modified into secretory lysosomes by combining with secretory granules
(which contain the particular secretory product of the cell).
Examples of secretory lysosomes:
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I. Lysosomes in the cytotoxic T lymphocytes and natural killer (NK) cells secrete
perforin and granzymes, which destroy both viral-infected cells and tumor cells.
Perforin is a pore-forming
protein that initiates cell death. Granzymes belong to the family of serine proteases
(enzymes that dislodge the peptide bonds of the proteins) and cause the cell death by
apoptosis.
II. Secretory lysosomes of melanocytes secretemelanin
III. Secretory lysosomes of mast cells secrete serotonin, which is a vasoconstrictor

substance
and inflammatory mediator.
PEROXISOMES
Peroxisomes or micro bodies are the membrane limited vesicles like the lysosomes.
Unlike lysosomes, peroxisomes are pinched off from endoplasmic reticulum and not
from the Golgi apparatus. Peroxisomes contain some oxidative enzymes such as
catalase, urate oxidase
and Daminoacid oxidase.
Functions of Peroxisomes includes:
I. Breakdown the fatty acids by means of a process called betaoxidation:This is the

major function of peroxisomes.
II.Degrade the toxic substances such as hydrogen peroxide and other metabolic
products by means of detoxification: A large number of peroxisomes are present in
the cells of liver, which is the major organ for detoxification. Hydrogen peroxide is
formed from poisons or alcohol, which enter the cell. Whenever hydrogen peroxide is
produced in the cell, the peroxisomes are ruptured and the oxidative enzymes are
released. These oxidases destroy hydrogen peroxide and the enzymes which are
necessary for the production of hydrogen peroxide.
III. Form the major site of oxygen utilization in the cells
IV. Accelerate gluconeogenesis from fats
V. Degrade purine to uric acid
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VI. Participate in the formation of myelin
VII. Play a role in the formation of bile acids.
CENTROSOME AND CENTRIOLES.

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Centrosome is the membrane-bound cellular organelle situated almost in the center of
cell, close to nucleus.It consists of two cylindrical structures called centrioles which are
made up of proteins. Centrioles are responsible for the movement of chromosomes
during cell division.
„
SECRETORY VESICLES.
Secretory vesicles are the organelles with limiting membrane and contain the secretory
substances. These vesicles are formed in the endoplasmic reticulum and
are processed and packed in Golgi apparatus. Secretory vesicles are present throughout
the cytoplasm. When necessary, these vesicles are ruptured and secretory substances
are released into the cytoplasm.
MITOCHONDRION
Mitochondrion (plural = mitochondria) is a membrane-bound cytoplasmic organelle
concerned with production of energy. It is a rod-shaped or oval-shaped structure with a
diameter of 0.5 to 1 μ. It is covered by a bilayered membrane. The outer membrane is
smooth and encloses the contents of mitochondrion. This membrane contains various
enzymes such as acetyl-CoA synthetase and glycerolphosphate acetyltransferase.The
inner membrane is folded in the form of shelf-like inward projections called cristae and
it covers the inner matrix space. Cristae contain many enzymes and other protein
molecules which are involved in respiration an dsynthesis of adenosine triphosphate
(ATP). Because of these functions, the enzymes and other protein molecules in cristae
are collectively known as respiratory chain or electron transport system.
STRUCTURE OF MITOCHONDRION.
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Enzymes and other proteins of respiratory chain includes:

i. Succinic dehydrogenase
ii. Dihydronicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH)
dehydrogenase
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iii. Cytochrome oxidase
iv. Cytochrome C
v. ATP synthase.
Inner cavity of mitochondrion is filled with matrix which contains many enzymes.
Mitochondrion moves freely in the cytoplasm of the cell. It is capable of reproducing
itself. Mitochondrion contains its own deoxyribonucleicacid (DNA), which is
responsible for many enzymatic actions. In fact, mitochondrion is the only organelle
other than nucleus, which has its own DNA.
Functions of Mitochondrion.
1. Production of energy:
Mitochondrion is called the ‘power house’ or ‘powerplant’ of the cell because it
produces the energy required for cellular functions. The energy is produced during the
oxidation of digested food particles like proteins, carbohydrates and lipids by the
oxidative enzymes in cristae.
During the oxidative process, water and carbondioxide are produced with release of
energy. The released energy is stored in mitochondria and used later for synthesis of
ATP.
2. Synthesis of ATP:
The components of respiratory chain in mitochondrionare responsible for the synthesis
of ATP by utilizing the energy by oxidative phosphorylation. ATP molecules diffuse
throughout the cell from mitochondrion. Wheneverenergy is needed for cellular activity,
the ATP molecules are broken down.
3. Apoptosis:
Cytochrome C and second mitochondria-derived activatorof caspases (SMAC)/diablo
secreted in mitochondria are involved in apoptosis.
4. Other functions:
Other functions of mitochondria include storage of calcium and detoxification of
ammonia in liver.
„
NUCLEUS
Nucleus is the most prominent and the largest cellular organelle. It has a diameter of 10
μ to 22 μ and occupies about 10% of total volume of the cell. Nucleus is present in all
the cells in the body except the red blood cells. The cells with nucleus are called
eukaryotes and those without nucleus are known as prokaryotes. Presence of nucleus
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is necessary for cell division.

Most of the cells have only one nucleus (uninucleated cells). Few types of cells like
skeletal muscle cells have many nuclei (multinucleated cells). Generally, the nucleus
is located in the center of the cell. It is mostly spherical in shape. However, the shape
and situation of nucleus vary in some cells.
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STRUCTURE OF NUCLEUS.
STRUCTURE OF NUCLEUS
Nucleus is covered by a membrane called nuclear membrane and contains many
components. Major componentsof nucleus are nucleoplasm, chromatin and
nucleolus.
Nuclear Membrane
Nuclear membrane is double layered and porous in nature. This allows the nucleoplasm
to communicate with the cytoplasm. The outer layer of nuclear membrane is continuous
with the membrane of endoplasmic reticulum. The space between the two layers of
nuclear membrane
is continuous with the lumen of endoplasmic reticulum. Pores of the nuclear membrane
are guarded (lined) by protein molecules. Diameter of the pores is about 80 to 100 nm.
However, it is decreased to about 7 to 9 nm because of the attachment of protein
molecules with the periphery of the pores. Exchange of materials between nucleoplasm
and cytoplasm occurs through these pores.
Nucleoplasm
Nucleoplasm is a highly viscous fluid that forms the ground substance of the nucleus. It
is similar to cytoplasm present outside the nucleus. Nucleoplasm surrounds chromatin
and nucleolus. It contains dense fibrillar network of proteins called the nuclear matrix
22
and many substances such as nucleotides and enzymes. The nuclear matrix forms the
structural framework for organizing chromatin. The soluble liquid part of nucleoplasm
is known as nuclear hyaloplasm.
Chromatin
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Chromatin is a thread-like material made up of large molecules of DNA. The DNA
molecules are compactly packed with the help of a specialized basic protein called
histone. So, chromatin is referred as DNA-histonecomplex. It forms the major bulk of
nuclear material. DNA is a double helix which wraps around central core of eight
histone molecules to form the fundamental
packing unit of chromatin called nucleosome. Nucleosomes are packed together tightly
with the help of a histone molecule to form a chromatin fiber. Just before cell division,
the chromatin condenses to form chromosome.
Chromosomes
Chromosome is the rod-shaped nuclear structure that carries a complete blueprint of all
the hereditary characteristics of that species. A chromosome is formed from a single
DNA molecule coiled around histone molecules. Each DNA contains many genes.
Normally, the chromosomes are not visible in the nucleus under microscope. Only
during cell division, the chromosomes are visible under microscope. This is because
DNA becomes more tightly packed just before
cell division, which makes the chromosome visible during cell division. All the
dividing cells of the body except reproductive cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes.
Each pair consists of one chromosome inherited from mother and one from father. The
cells with 23 pairs of chromosomes are called diploid cells. The reproductive cells
called gametes or sex cells contain only 23 single chromosomes. These cells are called
haploid cells.
Nucleolus
Nucleolus is a small, round granular structure of the nucleus. Each nucleus contains one
or more nucleoli. The nucleolus contains RNA and some proteins, which are similar to
those found in ribosomes. The RNA is synthesized by five different pairs of
chromosomes and stored in the nucleolus. Later, it is condensed to form the subunits of
ribosomes. All the subunits formed in
the nucleolus are transported to cytoplasm through the pores of nuclear membrane. In
the cytoplasm, these subunits fuse to form ribosomes, which play an essential role in
the formation of proteins.
FUNCTIONS OF NUCLEUS
Major functions of nucleus are the control of cellular activities and storage of hereditary
material. Several processes are involved in the nuclear functions.
FUNCTIONS OF NUCLEUS:
1. Control of all the cell activities that include metabolism, protein synthesis, growth
23
and reproduction (cell division).
2. Synthesis of RNA.
3. Formation of subunits of ribosomes.

Page | 24
4. Sending genetic instruction to the cytoplasm for protein synthesis through messenger
RNA (mRNA).
5. Control of the cell division through genes.
6. Storage of hereditary information (in genes) and transformation of this information

from one
generation of the species to the next.
„
ORGANELLES WITHOUT LIMITING MEMBRANE.
RIBOSOMES
Ribosomes are the organelles without limiting membrane. These organelles are
granular and small dot-like structures with a diameter of 15 nm. Ribosomes are made
up of 35% of proteins and 65% of ribonucleic acid(RNA). RNA present in ribosomes is
called ribosomal RNA (rRNA). Ribosomes are concerned with protein synthesis in the
cell.
Types of Ribosomes
Ribosomes are of two types:
I. Ribosomes that are attached to rough endoplasmicreticulum

II. Free ribosomes that are distributed in the cytoplasm.
Functions of Ribosomes
Ribosomes are called ‘protein factories’ because of their role in the synthesis of
proteins.
Messenger RNA(mRNA): carries the genetic code for protein synthesis from nucleus
to the ribosomes. The ribosomes, in turnarrange the amino acids into small units of
proteins.
Ribosomes attached to rough endoplasmic reticulum: are involved in the synthesis

of proteins such as the enzymatic proteins, hormonal proteins, lysosomal proteins and
the proteins of the cell membrane.
24
Free ribosomes: are responsible for the synthesis of proteins in hemoglobin,

peroxisome and mitochondria.
CYTOSKELETON
Cytoskeleton is the cellular organelle present throughout the cytoplasm. It determines
Page | 25
the shape of the cell and gives support to the cell. It is a complex network of structures
with varying sizes. In addition to determining the shape of the cell, it is also essential
for the cellular movements and
the response of the cell to external stimuli.
Cytoskeleton consists of three major protein components:
1. Microtubule
2. Intermediate filaments
3. Microfilaments.
1. Microtubules
Microtubules are the straight, hollow and tubularstructures of the cytoskeleton. These
organelles withoutthe limiting membrane are arranged in different bundles.Each tubule
has a diameter of 20 to 30 nm. Length ofmicrotubule varies and it may be 1000 times
more thanthe thickness.Structurally, the microtubules are formed by bundlesof globular
protein called tubulin . Tubulin hastwo subunits, namely α-subunitand β-subunit.
Functions of microtubules.
Microtubules may function alone or join with otherproteins to form more complex
structures like cilia,flagella or centrioles and perform various functions.
Microtubules:
i. Determine the shape of the cell
ii. Give structural strength to the cell
iii. Act like conveyer belts which allow the movementof granules, vesicles, protein
molecules andsome organelles like mitochondria to differentparts of the cell.
iv. Form the spindle fibers which separate thechromosomes during mitosis
v. Are responsible for the movement of centriolesand the complex cellular structures
like cilia.
2. Intermediate Filaments.
Intermediate filaments are the structures that form anetwork around the nucleus and
extend to the peripheryof the cell. Diameter of each filament is about 10 nm.
Theintermediate filaments are formed by ropelikepolymers,which are made up of
fibrous proteins.
Subclasses of intermediate filaments

Intermediate filaments are divided into five subclasses:
25
i. Keratins (in epithelial cells)

ii. Glial filaments (in astrocytes)
iii. Neurofilaments (in nerve cells)
iv. Vimentin (in many types of cells)
v. Desmin (in muscle fibers).
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Functions of intermediate filaments.

Intermediate filaments help to maintain the shape of thecell. These filaments also
connect the adjacent cellsthrough desmosomes.
3. Microfilaments
Microfilaments are long and fine thread-likestructureswith a diameter of about 3 to 6
nm. These filaments aremade up of non-tubular contractile proteins called actinand
myosin. Actin is more abundant than myosin.Microfilaments are present throughout the
cytoplasm.The microfilaments present in ectoplasm contain only actin molecules and
those present inendoplasm contain both actin and myosin molecules.
Functions of microfilaments.
Microfilaments:
i. Give structural strength to the cell
ii. Provide resistance to the cell against the pullingforces
iii. Are responsible for cellular movements likecontraction, gliding and cytokinesis
(partition of
cytoplasm during cell division).
26
CELL ORGANELLES.
DEFINITION OF A CELL.
 Cell can be defined as the basic structural, functional, and biological unit of
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living organism
capable of existing independently. All the living things are composed of cells.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CELL
Each cell in the body:
1. Needs nutrition and oxygen.
2. Produces its own energy necessary for its growth, repair and other activities.
3. Eliminates carbon dioxide and other metabolic wastes.
4. Maintains the medium, i.e. the environment for its survival.
5. Shows immediate response to the entry of invaders like bacteria or toxic substances
into the body.
6. Reproduces by division. There are some exceptions like neuron, which do not
reproduce.
STRUCTURE OF THE CELL

1. Cell membrane.
2. Cytoplasm.
3. Nucleus
CELL ORGANELLES
 Cell membrane.
 Nucleus.
 Endoplasmic Reticulum.
 Golgi Apparatus.
 Mitochondrion.
 Lysosome/Peroxisome.
 Microtubules.
 Microfilaments.
 Intercellular Connections.
27
Page | 28
CELL MEMBRANE:
The cell membrane, also known as the plasma membrane, is a double layer of
lipids and proteins that surrounds a cell and separates the cytoplasm (the
contents of the cell) (ICF) from its surrounding environment
STRUCTURE OF CELL MEMBRANE.
LIPID LAYER.
28
Major lipids are:

1. Phospholipids
2. Cholesterol.
Functions of Lipid Layer in Cell Membrane

Page | 29
Lipid layer of the cell membrane is a semi-permeable membrane and allows only the
fat-soluble substances to pass through it.
Thus, the fat-soluble substances like oxygen, carbonIVoxide and alcohol can pass
through this lipid layer. The water-soluble substances such as glucose, urea and
electrolytes cannot pass through this layer.
 Protein Layers of the Cell Membrane

Protein layers of the cell membrane are electron-dense layers. These layers
cover the two surfaces of the central lipid layer.
Protein molecules are classified into two categories:
1. Integral proteins or trans-membrane proteins.
2. Peripheral proteins or peri-peripheral membrane
proteins.
FUNCTIONS OF INTEGRAL PROTEINS.

 Structural intergrity.
 Diffusion of water soluble substances.
 Transport of substances.
 Pump: some carrier proteins acts as pumps.
 Receptor sites.
 Enzymes
 Antigens.
 Attachment of cells to their neighbors or to basal lamina.
 Carbohydrates of the Cell Membrane

Some of the carbohydrate molecules present in cell membrane are attached to proteins
and form Glyco-proteins (proteoglycans).
Some carbohydrate molecules are attached to lipids and form glycolipids
Carbohydrate molecules form a thin and loose covering over the entire surface of the
cell membrane called glycocalyx.
Functions of Carbohydrates in Cell Membrane.

1.Carbohydrate molecules are negatively charged and do not permit the negatively
charged substances to move in and out of the cell.
2. Glycocalyx from the neighboring cells helps in the tight fixation of cells with one
another
3. Some carbohydrate molecules function as the receptors for some hormones.
29
Functions of the cell membrane.

1.Protective function.
2. Selective permeability.
3. Absorptive function.
4. Excretory function.
Page | 30
5. Exchange of gases.
6. Maintenance of shape and size of the cell.
CYTOPLASM.
 Cytoplasm of the cell is the jellylike material formed by 80% of water. It
contains a clear liquid portion called cytosol and various particles of different
shape and size.
 Cytoplasm is made up of two zones:
1. Ectoplasm: Peripheral part of cytoplasm, situated just beneath the cell membrane
2. Endoplasm: Inner part of cytoplasm
 ORGANELLES WITH LIMITING MEMBRANE

 ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
Endoplasmic reticulum is a network of tubular and microsomal vesicular
structures which are interconnected with one another.
STRUCTURE OF ENDOPLASMIC
RETICULUM.
30
Functions of Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

1. Synthesis of proteins.
2. Degradation of worn-out organelles.
Functions of Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
1:Synthesis of non-protein substance.
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2. Role in cellular metabolism.
3. Storage and metabolism of calcium.
4. Catabolism and detoxification.
 GOLGI APPARATUS
Golgi apparatus or Golgi body or Golgi complex is a membrane-bound
organelle, involved in the processing of proteins.
 FUNCTIONS OF GOLGI APPARATUS.

1. Processing of materials:
2. Packaging of materials:
3. Labeling and delivery of materials:
STRUCTUREOF GOLGI APPARATUS.
 LYSOSOMES
Lysosomes are the membrane-bound vesicular organelles found throughout the
cytoplasm. The lysosomes are formed by Golgi apparatus.
It has many small granules which contain hydrolytic enzymes.
 Types of Lysosomes.
Primary lysosome.
Secondary lysosome.
31
 Functions of Lysosomes
Lysosomes are often called ‘garbage system’ of the cell because of their
degradation activity.
1. Degradation of macromolecules.
Page | 32
2. Degradation of worn-out organelles.
3. Removal of excess secretory products in the cells.
4. Secretory function – secretory lysosomes.
 PEROXISOMES
Peroxisomes or microbodies are the membrane limited vesicles like the
lysosomes. Unlike lysosomes, peroxisomes are pinched off from endoplasmic
reticulum and not from the Golgi apparatus. Peroxisomes contain some
oxidative enzymes such as catalase, urate oxidase and Damino acid oxidase.
Functions of perixosomes.
Breakdown the fatty acids by means of a process called betaoxidation.
II. Degrade the toxic substances such as hydrogen peroxide and other metabolic
products by means of detoxification.
III. Form the major site of oxygen utilization in the cells
IV. Accelerate gluconeogenesis from fats
V. Degrade purine to uric acid
VI. Participate in the formation of myelin
VII. Play a role in the formation of bile acids.
 CENTROSOME AND CENTRIOLES.

Centrosome is the membrane-bound cellular organelle situated almost in the
center of cell, close to nucleus.
It consists of two cylindrical structures called centrioles which are made up of
proteins.
Centrioles are responsible for the movement of chromosomes during cell
division.
 SECRETORY VESICLES.
Secretory vesicles are the organelles with limiting membrane and contain the
secretory substances.
These vesicles are formed in the endoplasmic reticulum and are processed and
packed in Golgi apparatus.
Secretory vesicles are present throughout the cytoplasm. When necessary,
these vesicles are ruptured and secretory substances are released into the
cytoplasm.
32
MITOCHONDRION
Mitochondrion (plural = mitochondria) is a membrane-bound cytoplasmic
organelle concerned with production of energy.
It is a rod-shaped or oval-shaped structure with a diameter of 0.5 to 1 μ. It is
covered by a bilayered membrane.
Page | 33
The outer membrane is smooth and encloses the contents of mitochondrion.
This membrane contains various enzymes such as acetyl-CoA synthetase and
glycerolphosphate acetyltransferase.
 The inner membrane is folded in the form of shelf-like inward projections

called cristae and it covers the inner matrix space.
 Cristae contain many enzymes and other protein molecules which are involved
in respiration and synthesis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Because of these
functions, the enzymes and other protein molecules in cristae are collectively
known as respiratory chain or electron transport system.
 NOTE: Mitochondrion is the only organelle other than nucleus, which has its
own DNA.
Functions of Mitochondrion.
 Production of energy.
 2. Synthesis of ATP.
 3. Apoptosis
 4. Other functions:
 Other functions of mitochondria include storage of calcium and detoxification
of ammonia in liver.
STRUCTURE OF MITOCHONDRION
33
NUCLEUS
Nucleus is the most prominent and the largest cellular organelle. It has a
diameter of 10 μ to 22 μ and occupies about 10% of total volume of the cell.
Nucleus is present in all the cells in the body except the red blood cells. The
cells with nucleus are called eukaryotes and those without nucleus are known
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as prokaryotes. Presence of nucleus is necessary for cell division.
Most of the cells have only one nucleus (uninucleated cells). Few types of cells
like skeletal muscle cells have many nuclei (multinucleated cells). Generally,
the nucleus is located in the center of the cell. It is mostly spherical in shape.
However, the shape and situation of nucleus vary in some cells.
STRUCTURE OF NUCLEUS.
FUNCTIONS OF NUCLEUS
Major functions of nucleus are the control of cellular activities and storage of
hereditary material. Several processes are involved in the nuclear
functions.
Functions of nucleus:
1. Control of all the cell activities that include metabolism, protein synthesis,
growth and reproduction (cell division).
2. Synthesis of RNA.
3. Formation of subunits of ribosomes.
4. Sending genetic instruction to the cytoplasm for protein synthesis through
messenger RNA (mRNA).
5. Control of the cell division through genes.
6. Storage of hereditary information (in genes) and transformation of this
information from one generation of the species to the next.
34
ORGANELLES WITHOUT LIMITING MEMBRANE.
RIBOSOMES
Ribosomes are the organelles without limiting membrane. These organelles are
granular and small dot-like structures with a diameter of 15 nm. Ribosomes are
Page | 35
made up of 35% of proteins and 65% of ribonucleic acid (RNA). RNA present
in ribosomes is called ribosomal RNA (rRNA). Ribosomes are concerned with
protein synthesis in the cell.
Types of Ribosomes
Ribosomes are of two types:
I. Ribosomes that are attached to rough endoplasmic reticulum
II. Free ribosomes that are distributed in the cytoplasm.
Functions of Ribosomes
Ribosomes are called ‘protein factories’ because of their role in the synthesis of
proteins.
CYTOSKELETON
 Cytoskeleton is the cellular organelle present throughout the cytoplasm. It
determines the shape of the cell and gives support to the cell. It is a complex
network of structures with varying sizes. In addition to determining the shape of
the cell, it is also essential for the cellular movements and the response of the
cell to external stimuli.
 Cytoskeleton consists of three major protein components:

1. Microtubule
2. Intermediate filaments
3. Microfilaments.
35
TRANSPORT ACROSS CELL MEMBRANE
INTRODUCTION:
Page | 36 CELL MEMBRANE

All cells is encircled by a cell membrane
Most cells contain an extensive intracellular membrane system
Membranes fence off the cell interior from its surroundings
Functions to control what enters and exits the cell (selectively permeable) to
maintain the internal balance called HOMEOSTASIS.
Cell membranes has pores/holes in it
Also provides protection and support for the cell because without a membrane
the cell content would diffuse into the surroundings, informations containing
molecules would be lost and many metabolic pathways would cease to work.
THE CELL WOULD DIE.
--Cell membrane
What is their structure?
It is a lipid trilayer
A hydrophilic (polar, water-loving) head
A hydrophobic (non-polar, water-fearing)tail
It is elastic (7.5-10nm)
Contains protein called membrane proteins
36
Page | 37
Functions of cell membrane

 Protection
 Selective permeability
 Absorption
 Exchange of gases
 Excretory functions
 Maintenance of shape and size of cell
MEMBRANE PROTEINS
 INTEGRAL PROTEIN
Part and parcel of membrane structure
Consists of 70% of cell membrane protein
37
 PUMPS
Transfer particles against concentration/electrical gradients
 CHANEL PROTEIN
Page | 38
Opened and closed gated
 CARRIER PROTEINS
Transport of substances by binding with them
 ENZYME PROTEINS
Takes place in membrane reaction
 RECEPTOR PROTEIN
Bear appropriate site for recognition of specific ligands
CARRIER TYPES
 Uniport carriers:
Transports only one substance from one side of the membrane to the
other
 Symport carriers:
Transports two or more substances from one side of the membrane to the
other, transport of Na+ and glucose from intestinal lumen to cells
Also called co-transport
 Antiport carriers:
Transports substances in opposite direction, one substance from inside
the cell another from inside to outside. Eg Na+-k+ pump
38
Page | 39
TYPES OF TRANSPORT
 ACTIVE TRANSPORT
 PASSIVE TRANSPORT
CHARACTERISTICS OF PASSIVE TRANSPORT

 Downhill transport
 No metabolic energy (no ATP)
SIMPLE DIFFUSION
 Oxygen, CO2, urea, ammonia, ions are all examples of substances tahat pass
through cell membranes by diffusion.
 Factors determining rate of diffusion across cell membrane

1) Properties of Substance (concentration and permeability)Concentration-chemical
39
concentrations or electrical potential difference

2)Permeability- lipid solubility(O2,CO2,alcohol has high lipid solubility), molecular
size, presence of charge on molecule
3) Properties of the Membrane
4) Distance- the shorter the distance the more quickly gradients are eliminated
Page | 40
5) Temperature- temperature leads to motion of particles
6) membrane surface area- larger the area, faster the diffusion
40
OSMOSIS
Page | 41
OSMOTIC PRESSURE
 This is the exact amount of energy required to stop osmosis
 MOLE:
 Molecular weight (MW)of a substance in gram (gram molecular weight)
Its an SI unit
 E.g MW of glucose=180gm, NaCL= 58.5gm
41
OSMOLE/MILLIMOLE
A unit describing the concentration of osmotically active particles.
Mole of substance/no of freely moving particles which each molecule liberates in
solution
Physiologic solutions are expressed in milliosmol per litre (mosm/L)
Page | 42
 1 molecule of glucose =1 osmolar active particles=1 osmole

 1 molecule of NaCl = 2 osmolar active particles = 2 osmoles
 1 molecule of CaCl2 = 3 osmolar active particles = 3 osmoles
1millimole = 1000 osmole
 Osmolality : No of osmole dissolved in 1kg of water
Total sum of all particles in plasma determines its osmolality
>90% of plasma osmolality is due to NaCl
 Osmolarity : No of osmole in 1litre of plasma

-Value is affected by volume of
other solute in the solution
 NB- Most important determinant of osmotic pressure of a solution is the conc
of the particles released in solution(i.e the osmole)- size, shape and charge of
the particles is not important
Osmotic pressure is measured by:

 Freezing point depression
 Van’t Hoff equation
 Measuring the equivalent hydrostatic pressure
 Filtration and bulk flow
TONICITY
This is the ability of a solution to affect fliud volume and pressure with cell
Depends on concentration and permeability of solute
Hypotonic
Low concentration of non-permeable solute than that of cytosol.(high water
concentration)
Cell swell (lysis)
Isotonic
Solution with same solute concentration as that of cytosol. e.g. Normal saline
Cell neither swell nor shrinks
E.g 5% glucose solution or 0.9%NaCl solution
Hypertonic
High concentration of non permeable solute than that of cytosol. (low water
concentration).Cell shrinks (crenation)
42
E.g Saline solution,or 0.45% sodium chloride is hypertonic. extremely common
 TONICITY
Page | 43
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
 Active transport requires energy. It is most commonly accomplished by having

a transport protein which changes shape when it binds with the cell’s “fuel,” a
molecule called ATP.
 One type of active transport channel will bind to something it is supposed to
transport – for example, a sodium ion – and hold onto it until a molecule of ATP
comes along and binds to the protein.
 The energy stored in ATP then allows the channel to change shape, spitting the
43
sodium ion out on the opposite site of the cell membrane.
Page | 44
44
CHARACTERISTICS OF ACTIVE TRANSPORT

 Uphill transport
 Metabolic energy required
 Exhibit saturation kinetics
Types of Active transport
Page | 45
 Carrier mediated transport – primary
 - secondary
 vesicular transport – endocytosis - Pinocytosis
-phagocytosis
- exocytosis
Primary active transport
Eg - sodium-potassium pump,
- calcium channel pump,
- hydrogen pump
Secondary active transport
the protein pump does not use ATP itself, but the cell must expend ATP in order
to keep it functioning
Exocytosis:
 A cell moves particles outside of itself in large quantities by wrapping it in a
membrane called a vesicle and “spitting out” the vesicle.
Endocytosis
 In endocytosis, a cell “eats” large no of particles by wrapping and re-forming its
membrane around the substance or item, transporting it into the cell
If material is liquid the process is Pinocytosis
If material is solid, its phagocytosis
45
 Pinocytosis
“Cell drinking” of substances in solution in ECF
More rapid in cell like macrophages
Macro molecules attach to receptors on membrane surface >>invagination of
entire pit >>vesicles detaches from cell membrane >> fusion of pinocytic
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vesicle with one or more lysosomes >> undigested materials are removed via
exocytosis
46
Page | 47
BULK FLOW/ SOLVENT DRAG

The movement of ions across cell membranes by bulk transport following the
movement of water rather than being facilitated by ion channels or cellular pumps.
It generally occurs in the paracellular, rather than transcellular, pathway between
the tubular cells e.g., NaCl transport in the jejunum via the paracellular route
Solvent drag is responsible for the reabsorption of approximately 60% of previously
filtered potassium in the proximal tubule.
47
Page | 48
48
CELL SIGNALLING AND COMMUNICATION
INTRODUCTION
Homeostasis is the basis of physiology, and achieving homeostasis is the goal of all
Page | 49
control systems. However, the various control systems cannot operate without the
ability of cells to communicate with one another. This illustrates the general principle
of physiology that information flow between cells, tissues, and organs is an essential
feature of homeostasis and allows for integration of physiological processes. The
function of communicating with the environment is achieved through a number of
pathways that receive and process signals originating from the external environment,
from other cells within the organism and also from different regions within the cell.
A signal is coded information that initiates or prompts a consequent response.
Therefore, cell signalling is the process and mechanism by which cells generate and
transmit coded information for the control and coordination of various physiological
processes. Cell signalling allows a single cell to influence the behaviour of other cells in
a specific manner. It helps in the control of metabolic changes, cell division, growth,
differentiation, development, processing of sensory information etc.
SIGNAL GENERATION
All physiological signals are generated as a result of changes that may happen within
the cell, in the internal environment of the cell, or the external environment. Not all
physical or chemical changes are strong enough to trigger physiological signals. The
point at which a stimulus is just strong enough to be detected by the cell is called
threshold. For example, electromagnetic waves with wavelength shorter than 380
nanometres or longer than 760 nanometres are undetectable by the photoreceptor cells
of the human eyes, and the range of wavelength that stimulates the photoreceptor cells
is called the visible spectrum.
RECEPTORS
To perceive a signal, the target cell must have a receptor for it. A receptor is a
specialized molecule (protein or glycoprotein) or complex of molecules that is capable
of recognizing a specific signal and triggering the chain of events that produces a
characteristic response. Interaction with a signal is thought to change the configuration
of the receptor and thereby change the way the receptor molecule interacts with nearby
molecules in the response pathway. On the other hand, a ligand is a bio-molecule or ion
that specifically and selectively binds and, forms a complex with a receptor to elicit a
biological response. It could be a hormone, organic or inorganic substances; while a
target cell is any cell that specifically and selectively binds a given ligand using
receptors irrespective of whether a biochemical or physiological response has been
determined.
Types of Receptors
Plasma Membrane Receptors: Plasma membrane receptors are

transmembrane proteins; that is, they span the entire membrane thickness. Like
other transmembrane proteins, a plasma membrane receptor has hydrophobic
49
segments within the membrane, one or more hydrophilic segments extending

out from the membrane into the extracellular fluid, and other hydrophilic
segments extending into the intracellular fluid. Arriving chemical messengers
(ligands) bind to the extracellular parts of the receptor; the intracellular regions
Page | 50 of the receptor are involved n signal transduction events (to be discussed
later).Examples include polypeptide hormones (prolactin, growth hormone,
insulin, parathormone etc.) and neurotransmitters (acetylcholine,
norepinephrine).
Intracellular Receptors:By contrast, intracellularreceptors are not located

in membranes but exist in either thecytosol or the cell nucleus and have a very
different structure. Like plasma membrane receptors, however, they have a
segment that binds the messenger and other segmentsthat act as regulatory sites.
In addition, they have a segment thatbinds to DNA, unlike plasma membrane
receptors. This is one key distinction between the two general types of
receptors; plasmamembrane receptors can transduce signals without
interactingwith DNA, whereas all intracellular receptors transduce
signalsthrough interactions with genes. Examples include steroid hormones
(cortisol, oestrogen, testosterone, aldosterone etc.) and thyroxin.
Ligand-Receptor Interactions
 Specificity: Although a given chemical messenger may come into contact

with many different cells, it influences certain cell types and not others. This is
because cells differ in the types of receptors they possess. Only certain cell
types—sometimes just one—express the specific receptor required to bind a
given chemical messenger.
 Affinity:The degree to which a particular messenger binds to its receptor is

determined by the affinity of the receptor for the messenger. A receptor with
high affinity will bind at lower concentrations of a messenger than will a
receptor of low affinity.
 Saturation: Acell’s response to a messenger increases as the extracellular

concentration of the messenger increases, because the number of receptors
occupied by messenger molecules increases. There is an upper limit to this
responsiveness, however, because only a finite number of receptors are
available, and they become fully saturated at some point.
50
 Competition:Competition refers to the ability of a molecule tocompete with

a natural ligand for binding to its receptor. Competitiontypically occurs with
messengers that have a similarity in part oftheir structures, and it also underlies
Page | 51 the action of many drugs.
TYPES OF CELL SIGNALLING

Depending on the destination of the chemical messenger and the distance between
inducer cell and target cell, there are five major types of cell signalling.
1. Juxtacrine Signalling: Juxtacrine signalling are reactions when proteins from
the inducing cell interact with receptor proteins of adjacent responding cells.
The inducer does not diffuse from the cell producing it. There are three types of
juxtacrine interactions. In the first type, a protein on one cell binds to its
receptor on the adjacent cell. In the second type, a receptor on one cell binds to
its ligand on the extracellular matrix secreted by another cell. In the third type,
the signal is transmitted directly from the cytoplasm of one cell through small
conduits into the cytoplasm of an adjacent cell.
2. Paracrine Signalling:Paracrine signalling is a form of cell signalling in which
the target cell is near the signal-releasing cell. Some signalling molecules
degrade very quickly, limiting the scope of their effectiveness to the immediate
surroundings. Others affect only nearby cells because they are taken up quickly,
leaving few to travel further, or because their movement is hindered by the
extracellular matrix. Growth factors and clotting factors are paracrine signalling
agents.
3. Autocrine Signalling: Interaction of the hormone with the very cell that
produces it as well as cells of its type occurs, after contact must have been made
with the interstitial fluid. When contact with the interstitial fluid is not made, it
is termed intracrine communication. Typical examples are the role of
cytokines and growth factors in the development and differentiation of cells.
4. Neurocrine Signalling: This occurs when nerves produce chemical substances
that are released through the axons (axoplasmic flow) to their target cells. The
axo-axonal and the neuromuscular transmissions are typical examples.
5. EndocrineSignalling: This is signalling at a distance. Chemical substances are
released directly to the extracellular spaces and enter the blood from where they
are transported to the distal sites (target tissues). Examples include pituitary and
adrenal hormones.
51
SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION
Generally speaking, transduction means the conversion or transformation of one form
of energy to another. As it relates to cell signaling, signal transduction is the process by
which a physiological signal is transformed into a specific cellular response. The
diverse sequences of events that link receptor activation to cellular responses are
Page | 52
termed signal transduction pathways. “Pathways” denotes the cell-specific
mechanisms linked with different messengers. Signal transduction pathways follow a
broadly similar course or sequence that can be viewed as a molecular circuit. The
sequence is as follows:
 Membrane receptors transfer information from the environment to the cell's
interior:
Such a receptor is an intrinsic membrane protein that has both extracellular and
intracellular domains. A binding site on the extracellular domain specifically
recognizes the signal molecule (often referred to as the ligand). The interaction
of the ligand and the receptor alters the tertiary or quaternary structure of the
receptor, including the intracellular domain. These structural changes are not
sufficient to yield an appropriate response, because they are restricted to a small
number of receptor molecules in the cell membrane. The information embodied
by the presence of the ligand, often called the primary messenger, must be
transduced into other forms that can alter the biochemistry of the cell.
 Second messengers relay information from the receptor-ligand complex:
Changes in the concentration of small molecules, called second messengers,
constitute the next step in the molecular information circuit. Particularly
important second messengers include cyclic AMP and cyclic GMP, calcium
ion, inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate, (IP3), and diacylglycerol (DAG).The use of
second messengers has several consequences. First, second messengers are
often free to diffuse to other compartments of the cell, such as the nucleus,
where they can influence gene expression and other processes. Second, the
signal may be amplified significantly in the generation of second messengers.
Enzymes or membrane channels are almost always activated in
second-messenger generation; each activated macromolecule can lead to the
generation of many second messengers within the cell. Thus, a low
concentration of signal in the environment, even as little as a single molecule,
can yield a large intracellular signal and response.
 Protein phosphorylation is a common means of information transfer:
Many second messengers elicit responses by activating protein kinases.Protein
kinases and are the link that transduces changes in the concentrations of free
second messengers into changes in the covalent structures of proteins.
 The signal is terminated:
Protein phosphatases are one mechanism for the termination of a signalling
52
process. After a signalling process has been initiated and the information has
been transduced to affect other cellular processes, the signalling processes must
be terminated.
Page | 53
53
TEMPERATURE REGULATION
Body Temperature:
 Normal Body Temperature (NBT) – 98.60F(370C)
Page | 54  Range of Normal Body Temperature ----- (970F to 990F)[36.3-37.7]
 Rectal (anal)Temperature ----- (0.50F to 10F) above
 Rectal Temperature reflects the internal body Temp (Core Body Temperature)
 Skin Temp (Shell Temp)-----Variable
54
Page | 55
Core Body Temperature
The core body temperature i.e. temperature of deep tissues of the body is relatively
constant. It remains constant except in febrile illness.
Core temperature can still be maintained when an individual is exposed to a
temperature as low as 55 or as high as 130.
Skin temperature rise and falls with temperature of the environment.
Body temperature is regulated by balancing heat production against heat loss.
When rate of heat production is greater than heat loss there is heat buildup and increase
on body temperature occurs.
Also when heat loss is greater than heat gain, both body heat and body temperature
decrease.
Temperature Homeostasis
Keep the body temp within a very narrow range.
 Temperatures above this:
denature enzymes and block metabolic pathways, affects the brain.
 Temperatures below this:
slow down metabolism and affect the brain.
Heat Balance
 Heat balance maintains the body temperature
 Balance between heat production & heat loss (Heat Balance)
55
 Heat Balance
 Heat production= Heat loss
 Heat production is called thermogenesis
 Heat loss is called as thermolysis
Page | 56
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK REGULATION OF BODY TEMPERATURE
Thermoregulation is vey vital because most chemical reactions in the body depend
on enzyme catalysis which is temperature dependent, therefore thermoregulation is
very vital.
When there is an elevation of plus or minus two of normal core temperature (which is
370C),the body can tolerate but when it increases more (hyperthermia), can cause brain
damage, up to 44C can lead to death.
Decrease body temperature below 34C (hypothermia) has a severe damaging effect on
the nerve and heart functions. But when it decreases down to 28C, can lead to death.
Maintenance of the core body temperature is an example of homeostatic regulation.
This shows identifiable receptors [thermorecptors], modulator [hypothalamus], and
effectors[skin]
Feedback system:
1) Receptor
 Sensor that responds to changes (stimuli)
 2) Control Center
 Sets range of values
 Evaluates input and
 Sends output
2) Effector
 Receives output from control centre
 Produces a response
 They are the Blood vessels, sweat gland, subcutaneous fat of the skin,
56
inhibits heat
generating
center activities, Sweat gland
Activates heat stimulation Cutaneous
loss center in the
hypothalamus vasodilatation
Page | 57
Sensed by
thermoreceptors Evaporation of
in skin and sweat
hypothalamus
Lower the
body
Increase in body temperature
temperature
Thermoreptors
They are receptors sensitive to temperature changes.

They are located peripherally under the skin and centrally in the hypothalamus.
Central thermoreptors located in anterior hypothalamus.
Cold receptors are greater than warm receptors [4:1]
Extremely sensitive to changes as low as 0.5-1.0C in warmth or cold direction.
For responses to a rise in temperature, central thermoreceptors are the main sensors
For cold responses, both peripheral and central thermoreceptors are needed.
Thermoeffectors
They are the Blood vessels, sweat gland, subcutaneous fat of the skin,
They are the main tissue that produce, conserve heat or make heat to be lost from the
body.
Hypothalamus
 Acts as a thermostat
 Receives nerve impulses from cutaneous thermoreceptors
 Thermoreceptors Cold &Heat
 Hypothalamus- also has thermoreceptors called central thermoreceptors
 These detect changes in blood temperature
57
Page | 58
THERMOREGULATORY CENTRES OF THE HYPOTHALAMUS

 The hypothalamus contains the thermal control centre or centres.
It consists of the heat-generating and heat-dissipating centres.
 Transection of the CNS below the hypothalamus will cause the animal to loose
its thermoregulation [poikilothermic], and the body temperature varies with that
of the sorroundings.
 While it remains homeothermic if transection is above the hypothalamus.
When a discrete lesion is placed in the preoptic area of the anterior
hypothalamus, the animal becomes unable to regulate body temperature if
placed in a warm environment and dies of hyperthermia. Though the animal can
regulate temperature in a cold environment.
 When the anterior hypothalamus is stimulated either electrically or by heating,

it excites the body responses which increase heat loss by cutaneous
vasodilation, sweating and panting.
 Cooling the anterior hypothalamus causes shivering and cutaneous
vasoconstriction [heat generation and conservation]
 Also stimulation of the posterior hypothalamus will cause shivering and
cutaneous vasoconstriction [heat generation and conservation] and does not
provoke responses associated with heat loss.
 Heating the posterior hypothalamus does not abolish shivering developed in the
cold room
58
 [summarily, there is a heat-dissipating centre at the anterior hypothalamus

while there is a heat generation and conservation centre at the posterior
hypothalamus
Page | 59  It is believed that there is a pathway from the heat-dissipating preoptic area
passing caudally through the posterior hypothalamus since damage in the
posterior hypothalamus also damages the control of heat loss while stimulation
does not.
 Shivering is mediated by hypothalamic fibres which relay in a reticular
formation reaching the alpha motor neurons via reticulospinal and
reticulobulbar tract.
59
Page | 60
Heat Production(Thermogenesis)
 Heat production is a principal by product of metabolism
 Body Mass Index
 Specific Dynamic Action of food (thermogenic effect of food)- digestion,
absorption.
 Activity of skeletal muscle
Shivering
Exercise
 Chemical Thermogenesis
Epinephrine &Norepinephrine
Thyroxin
60
Brown Fat-
Source of considerable heat production
Abundant in infants
Hot environment
Page | 61 Hot food
Heat Loss (Thermolysis)

 Radiation
 Conduction
 Convection
 Evaporation
 Insensible Perspiration
 Respiration
 Loss through urine & feces
Thermoregulatory regulatory responses

 Activated by Exposure to Cold
1. Shivering
2. Increase voluntary activity
3. Increase TSH(thyroid stimulating hormone) secretion
4. Increase Catecholamines
5. Vasoconstriction
6. Horripilation – goose bumps
7. Curling up
61
Thermoregulatory regulatory responses

 Activated by Exposure to Heat
1. Vasodilatation
Page | 62 2. Sweating
3. Increase in Respiration
4. Anorexia (loss of appetite)
5. Apathy
6. Decrease TSH(thyroid stimulating hormone) secretion
DISORDERS OF THERMOREGULATION
Most times the thermoregulatory mechanisms may fail under conditions of extreme
heat or extreme cold therefore leading to heat exhaustion and heat stroke or frost bite
and gangrene(rotting of flesh due to lack of blood supply) respectively
Fever may also occur in certain illnesses, this is not necessarily due to failure of
thermoregulatory mechanisms
Examples of disorders of thermoregulation are:
 Hypothermia
 Frostbite
 Heat stroke [heat hyperpyrexia](elevation of set body temperature greater than
41oC)
 Heat exhaution
 Hypothermia:This is when the core temperature falls below 34C.Also mental
62
confusion and visual disturbances occur.

When its below 28C, death may occur from- ventricular fibrillation, reduced heart rate
and low cardiac output.
Those at risk of this are the elderly and neaonates because some physically fit
individuals may survive a body temp as low as 18C for some ours.
Page | 63
Frost bite:
 There is freezing of the skin and peripheral tissues in the hand and feet which
may extend to muscles and bones due to prolonged exposure to dry cold below
zero degree
Heat stroke:
 Prolonged exposure to extreme heat may overcome the heat loss mechanism
As the temp rises, there is failure of sweating, which results from degeneration
of CNS neurons particularly the hypothalamus.
When core temp rises to 42C or more there is severe irritability, convulsion, loss
of consciousness.
When temp is above 44C death may occur.
 FEVER:
Can be caused by abnormalities in the brain, or by substances that affect temp
regulating centres e.g, bacterial diseases, brain tumor, environmental
conditions.
The cause of fever is the release of the endogenous pyrogens(any substance that
produces fever or rise in temperature within the body) such as interleukin 1frpm
monocytes and macrophages.
The pyrogens act at the preoptic areas of the hypothalamus
63
Page | 64
64
AUSTEN-BEST WISHES
Page | 65
YOU ALL THE BEST

THIS SESSION AND
BEYOND
65

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Page | 2  HOMEOSTASIS AND CONTROL SYSTEMS-------------5

COMPILED AND ARRANGED

OLUKA AUSTEN [AUSTEN-BEST]

– Average temperature of deeper structures of the body. About 37.8⁰C.

HOMOESTASIS AND CONTROL SYSTEM

Cell as the basic physiological unit

-Cell is the basic physiological unit

Distribution of control system

Components of control system

Integration/control centre/pull/CANS(Central nervous system)

Output pathway carries the responses to the effector

Effector effects the responses

TYPES OF FEEDBACK MECHANISMS

Characteristics of a Negative Feedback System

Examples: In the regulation of carbon dioxide concentration, a high

ventilation. This, in turn, decreases the extracellular fluid carbon dioxide

2. Positive Feedback: Positive feedback is one in which the system responds in

STRUCTURE OF THE CELL

COMPOSITION OF CELL MEMBRANE

STRUCTURE OF CELL MEMBRANE.

Major lipids are:

Functions of Lipid Layer in Cell Membrane

Protein Layers of the Cell Membrane

Protein molecules are classified into two categories:

Functions of Proteins in Cell Membrane

Carbohydrates of the Cell Membrane

FUNCTIONS OF CELL MEMBRANE

out through the cell membrane.

ORGANELLES WITH LIMITING MEMBRANE

FIG: STRUCTURE OF ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM.

Types of Endoplasmic Reticulum

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

Functions of Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

2. Degradation of worn-out organelles:

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

Functions of Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum is responsible for synthesis of non-protein substances

2. Role in cellular metabolism:

3. Storage and metabolism of calcium:

4. Catabolism and detoxification:

STRUCTURE OF GOLGI APPARATUS.

Functions of Golgi Apparatus

3. Labeling and delivery of materials:

2. Secondary lysosome: This is the active lysosome.It is formed by the fusion of a

Lysosomal enzymes which are vital:

Mechanism of lysosomal function

2. Degradation of worn-out organelles:

3. Removal of excess secretory products in the cells:

4. Secretory function – secretory lysosomes:

Examples of secretory lysosomes:

II. Secretory lysosomes of melanocytes secretemelanin

III. Secretory lysosomes of mast cells secrete serotonin, which is a vasoconstrictor

Functions of Peroxisomes includes:

I. Breakdown the fatty acids by means of a process called betaoxidation:This is the

III. Form the major site of oxygen utilization in the cells

IV. Accelerate gluconeogenesis from fats

V. Degrade purine to uric acid

VI. Participate in the formation of myelin

VII. Play a role in the formation of bile acids.