Parasitology

LABORATORY 1

1. Structure of a Free-Living Amoeba -> Amoeba proteus single-celled organisms

2. Locomotory Organelles of the Amoeba

pseudopodia extensions of the cytoplasm allow the amoeba to move and capture food

3. Structures of E. histolytica Trophozoites and Cysts

Trophozoites:

• Shape: Irregular, amoeboid.

• Size: 15-20 micrometers.
• Nucleus: 1, with a central karyosome.
• Cytoplasm: Granular, may contain ingested red blood cells.
Cysts:

• Shape: Spherical to oval.

• Size: 10-20 micrometers.
• Nucleus: 4
• Cytoplasm: Contains chromatoid bodies + glycogen vacuoles

4. Organs Where E. histolytica Resides

large intestine (colon) of humans

In severe infections, spread to the liver, cause abscesses.

5. Transmission of Amoebiasis
Ingestion of E. histolytica cysts in contaminated food or water. It can also spread via direct contact with fecal
matter from an infected person.
6.Infective Stage of E. histolytica -> mature cyst which can survive in the external environment.
7. Pathogenic Stage of E. histolytica ->trophozoite. invade the intestinal lining and cause tissue
destruction and disease.

8. Manifestation of Acute Amoebiasis -> trophozoites invade the intestinal mucosa

symptoms: bloody diarrhea, abdominal pain, fever, and general malaise.

9. Cyst Carriers
"Cyst carriers" individuals infected with E. histolytica BUT symptoms X

They shed cysts in their feces, spreading the infection.

10. Possible Complications of Amoebiasis

• Liver abscesses: Pus-filled cavities
• Peritonitis
• Amoeboma: Tumor-like masses in the intestines
• Dissemination: Spread to other organs like lungs or brain

11. Diagnosis of Amoebiasis

• Microscopic examination: Detects trophozoites or cysts in stool samples.
• Serological tests: Detect antibodies.
• Imaging: Ultrasound or CT scans for liver abscesses.
• PCR: Detects E. histolytica DNA.

12. Prophylactic Measures Against Amoebiasis

• Improved sanitation: Clean water and proper sewage disposal.
• Personal hygiene: Regular hand washing.
• Food safety: Properly cooking food.
• Public health education: Awareness of transmission and prevention.
13. Characteristics of Ciliated Protozoans Balantidium coli -Protozoa
• Cilia: movement and feeding.
• Two types of nuclei: Macronucleus and micronuclei.
• Cytostome: Cell mouth for ingesting food.
• Reproduction: Binary fission and sometimes conjugation.

14. Structures of B. coli Trophozoite and Cyst

Trophozoites:

• Shape: Oval or bell-shaped.

• Size: 50-100 micrometers.
• Cilia: Cover the surface.
• Nuclei: Macronucleus and micronucleus.
• Cytostome: Prominent cell mouth.
Cysts:

• Shape: Spherical or ovoid.

• Size: 40-60 micrometers.
• Wall: Thick protective wall.
• Nuclei: Macronucleus and micronucleus.

15.Infective Stage of B. coli ->Cyst: can survive environmental conditions and are ingested through
contaminated food or water.
16. Pathogenic Stage of B. coli -> trophozoite, invades the large intestine's mucosal lining (symtoms)

17. Symptoms of Balantidiasis

• Diarrhea
• Abdominal pain
• Weight loss
• Nausea and vomiting
• Fever
18. Diagnosis of Balantidiasis
• Microscopic examination: Detects trophozoites or cysts in stool samples.
• Endoscopy: Observes the intestinal mucosa and biopsy.
• Culture: Growing the organism from stool samples (less common).

19. Prophylactic Measures Against Balantidiasis

• Improved sanitation: Clean water and waste disposal.
• Personal hygiene: Regular hand washing.
• Food safety: Properly cooking food.
• Public health education: Awareness of transmission and prevention.

LABORATORY 2
1. Characteristics of the Structure of Euglena
• Eyespot (Stigma): Detects light for phototaxis.
• Contractile Vacuole: Expels excess water.
• Reservoir: Expels water and waste.

2. Morphological Forms of Parasitic Flagellates

• Trypomastigote: Elongated with a flagellum and undulating membrane.
• Epimastigote: Similar to trypomastigote, but shorter U.M.
• Promastigote: Flagellum at the front, no undulating membrane.
• Amastigote: Oval, no external flagellum, intracellular.
3. Life Cycles of Trypanosoma brucei gambiense and T. b. rhodesiense
T. b. gambiense & Protoria
Tsetse Fly Stage: Ingests trypomastigotes, transforms in midgut, migrates to salivary glands.
Human Stage: Injects metacyclic trypomastigotes, which transform and multiply in the bloodstream, affecting
the CNS.
T. b. rhodesiense
Similar to T. b. gambiense with the tsetse fly stage and human stage, but faster disease progression.

4. Hosts and Specific Vectors of T. b. gambiense and T. b. rhodesiense

T. b. gambiense
• Hosts: Humans.
• Vector: Tsetse fly (Glossina palpalis group).
T. b. rhodesiense
• Hosts: Wild and domestic animals, humans.
• Vector: Tsetse fly (Glossina morsitans group).

5. Clinical Features of Sleeping Sickness

• Hemolymphatic Stage: Fever, headache, joint pain, swollen lymph nodes.
• Neurological Stage: Sleep disturbances, confusion, motor weakness, psychiatric symptoms, coma.

6. Geographic Distribution, Diagnosis, and Prevention of Trypanosomiases

• Geographic Distribution:
T. b. gambiense: West and Central Africa.
T. b. rhodesiense: East and Southern Africa.
• Diagnosis: Microscopy of blood, lymph node aspirates, or CSF.
• Prevention: Avoid tsetse fly bites, control fly populations, screen and treat infected individuals.

7. Natural (Wild) and Synanthropic Foci of Trypanosomiases

• Natural (Wild) Foci: Regions with wild animal reservoirs.
• Synanthropic Foci: Areas where humans and domestic animals interact, leading to higher
transmission rates.
 LABORATORY 3
1. Parasitic Flagellates that Infect Humans through Dirty Hands, Contaminated Food, and
Water
• Giardia lamblia: Causes giardiasis, transmitted via contaminated water or food.
• Trichomonas vaginalis: Although primarily sexually transmitted, poor hygiene can contribute to
transmission.

2. Vector-Borne Parasitic Flagellates Transmitted by Blood-Sucking Insects

• Trypanosoma brucei: Transmitted by tsetse flies, causes African sleeping sickness.
• Trypanosoma cruzi: Transmitted by triatomine bugs, causes Chagas disease.
• Leishmania species: Transmitted by sandflies, causes leishmaniasis. -Protozon

3. Leishmania's Structure and Morphological Forms

LEISMMANID Tropica

4. Pathways of Infection with L. donovani and L. major

• L. donovani: Infects via sandfly bites, leading to visceral leishmaniasis (kala-azar).
• L. major: Infects via sandfly bites, leading to cutaneous leishmaniasis.

7. Area of the Human Body Parasitized by L. donovani and L. major

• L. donovani: Internal organs, particularly the liver, spleen, and bone marrow.
• L. major: Skin and subcutaneous tissues.
8. Clinical Features of Leishmaniases
Cutaneous Leishmaniasis:
• Symptoms: Skin ulcers, lesions, nodules.
• Caused by: L. major...
Visceral Leishmaniasis (Kala-azar):
• Symptoms: Fever, weight loss, hepatosplenomegaly, anemia.
• Caused by: L. donovani.

9. Diagnosis and Prevention of Leishmaniases

Diagnosis: blood changes, low level of white/red cells.
• Microscopic Examination: Detection of amastigotes in tissue samples.
• Serological Tests: Detect antibodies.
• PCR: Detect Leishmania DNA.
• Culture: Growing the parasite in special media.
Prevention:
• Avoid Sandfly Bites: Use insect repellent, wear protective clothing.
• Environmental Control: Reduce sandfly habitats.
• Health Education: Inform at-risk populations about preventive measures.

10. Final, Intermediate, and Reservoir Hosts of L. donovani and L. major

L. donovani:
• Final Host: Humans.
• Intermediate Host: Sandflies (Phlebotomus species).
• Reservoir Hosts: Dogs, rodents.

L. major:
• Final Host: Humans.
• Intermediate Host: Sandflies (Phlebotomus species).
• Reservoir Hosts: Rodents.

11. Characteristics of the Structure of Vegetative and Cyst Forms of G. lamblia

Vegetative (Trophozoite):
• Shape: Pear-shaped.
• Structure: Two nuclei, four pairs of flagella, ventral sucking disk for attachment.
Cyst:
• Shape: Oval.
• Structure: Four nuclei (when mature), thick protective wall.
12. Pathways of Infection with G. lamblia E Protona Food by osmosis.

Infection occurs through ingestion of G. lamblia cysts in contaminated water or food. Direct person-to-person
transmission can occur through fecal-oral route.

13. Clinical Features of Giardiasis (Lambliasis)

• Symptoms: Diarrhea, abdominal cramps, bloating, nausea, weight loss, fatigue.
• Chronic Infection: Can lead to malabsorption and nutrient deficiencies.

14. Diagnosis and Prevention of Giardiasis (Lambliasis)

Diagnosis:
• Stool Examination: Detects cysts or trophozoites.
• Antigen Tests: Detect Giardia antigens in stool.
• PCR: Detects Giardia DNA.
Prevention:
• Safe Drinking Water: Treat and filter water.
• Personal Hygiene: Wash hands thoroughly.
• Food Safety: Properly wash and cook food.

Trichomona
15. Characteristics of the Structure of Trichiminas vaginalis
• Shape: Pear-shaped. ↑
• Size: 7-23 micrometers.
Protora
• Structure: Single nucleus, five flagella (four anterior and one
forming the undulating membrane), axostyle (support structure).

16. The Area of Human Body Parasitized by T. vaginalis

T. vaginalis primarily parasitizes the urogenital tract (vagina in females and urethra in males).

17. Pathways of Infection with T. vaginalis

Infection is primarily through sexual contact. Non-sexual transmission is rare but possible through
contaminated objects.
18. Clinical Features and Complications of Trichomoniasis
Symptoms:
• Females: Vaginal discharge, itching, irritation, painful urination.
• Males: Often asymptomatic, but may have urethral discharge and irritation.
Complications:
•Increased risk of other sexually transmitted infections.
•Potential pregnancy complications (e.g., preterm delivery).

19. Diagnosis and Prevention of Trichomoniasis

Diagnosis:
• Microscopic Examination: Detects trophozoites in vaginal or urethral samples.
• Culture: Growing the parasite.
• PCR: Detects T. vaginalis DNA.
Prevention:
• Safe Sex Practices: Use condoms.
• Regular Screening: Particularly for sexually active individuals.
• Treatment of Infected Partners: Prevents reinfection and transmission.

LABORATORY 4

1. Characteristics of the Structure of Sporozoans

• Unicellular Eukaryotes: Single-celled organisms with complex cellular structures.
• Apical Complex: Specialized organelles (rhoptries, micronemes) at one end for host cell invasion.
• No Locomotory Organelles
• Complex Life Cycles: Often involving multiple hosts and stages, including sexual and asexual
reproduction.

2. Reproduction of Sporozoans
• Asexual Reproduction: schizogony (multiple fission) + merogony, production of merozoites.
• Sexual Reproduction: gametogony, where gametes fuse to form a zygote, then undergoes
sporogony to produce sporozoites.
3. Species of Plasmodium - Protozia
• Plasmodium falciparum
• Plasmodium vivax
• Plasmodium ovale
• Plasmodium malariae
• Plasmodium knowlesi (primarily infects primates but can infect humans)

4. Morphological Forms of Plasmodium

• Sporozoites: Infective form injected by the mosquito.
• Trophozoites: Ring stage found inside red blood cells.
• Schizonts: Mature form, undergoes schizogony, release merozoites.
• Merozoites: Released from schizonts to infect new red blood cells.
• Gametocytes: Sexual forms (male microgametocytes / female
macrogametocytes) taken up by mosquitoes.

5. Definitive and Intermediate Hosts of Plasmodium

• Definitive Host: Anopheles mosquito (where sexual reproduction occurs).
• Intermediate Host: Humans (where asexual reproduction occurs).

6. Exo-erythrocytic Development of Plasmodium in Humans

• Infection: Sporozoites enter the bloodstream via a mosquito bite.
• Liver Stage: Sporozoites invade liver cells (hepatocytes) and develop into schizonts.
• Release: Schizonts rupture, releasing merozoites into the bloodstream.

7. Endo-erythrocytic Development of Plasmodium in Humans

• Invasion: Merozoites invade red blood cells.
• Trophozoite Stage: Merozoites develop into ring-stage trophozoites.
• Schizogony: Trophozoites mature into schizonts, which then release new merozoites.
• Gametocyte Formation: Some merozoites differentiate into gametocytes.

8. Development of Plasmodium in Anopheles Mosquito

• Gametocytes: Ingested by the mosquito during a blood meal.
• Gamete Formation: Male and female gametocytes fuse to form a zygote (ookinete).
• Oocyst Formation: Ookinete penetrates the mosquito's midgut wall, forming an oocyst.
• Sporogony: Oocyst undergoes sporogony to produce sporozoites.
• Migration: Sporozoites migrate to the mosquito's salivary glands, ready to infect a new host.
9. Forms of Malaria
• Uncomplicated Malaria: Mild form with cyclic symptoms.
• Severe Malaria: involve cerebral malaria, severe anemia, respiratory distress, multi-organ failure.
• Relapsing Malaria: Caused by P. vivax and P. ovale, which can remain dormant in the liver.

10. Clinical Features of Malaria

• Fever and Chills
• Headache
• Nausea and Vomiting
• Muscle Pain and Fatigue
• Anemia: Due to destruction of red blood cells.
• Jaundice: In severe cases due to liver involvement.
• Complications: Such as cerebral malaria, kidney failure, and acute respiratory distress.

11. Ways of Malaria Transmission

• Mosquito Bite: Primary transmission via infected Anopheles mosquitoes.
• Blood Transfusion: Transfusion of infected blood.
• Congenital Transmission: From mother to fetus.
• Needle Sharing: Among intravenous drug users.

12. Diagnosis, Prevention, and Geographic Distribution of Malaria

Diagnosis:
• Microscopy: Blood smears to detect Plasmodium.
• Rapid Diagnostic Tests (RDTs): Detect antigens.
• PCR: Molecular detection of Plasmodium DNA.
Prevention:
• Insecticide-Treated Nets (ITNs).
• Indoor Residual Spraying (IRS).
• Antimalarial Drugs: Prophylactic treatment for travelers.
• Vaccine: RTS,S/AS01 (Mosquirix) for children in endemic areas.
• Geographic Distribution: Primarily in tropical and subtropical regions
13. Morphological Forms of Toxoplasma gondii E Protoco
• Tachyzoites: Rapidly dividing form, responsible for acute infection.
• Bradyzoites: Slow-dividing form, encysted in tissues during chronic infect
• Oocysts: Shed in the feces of definitive hosts (cats).

14. Definitive and Intermediate Hosts of T. gondii

• Definitive Host: Cats and other felids (sexual reproduction).
• Intermediate Hosts: Humans, livestock, birds, and other mammals (asexual reproduction)

15. Structure and Formation of T. gondii

Pseudocysts:
• Structure: Formed by a collection of tachyzoites surrounded by a host cell membrane.
• Formation: During acute infection, tachyzoites multiply rapidly and can form pseudocysts within various
host tissues.

Tissue Cysts:
• Structure: Contain bradyzoites encased within a thick cyst wall, mainly found in muscle + neural tissues
• Formation: Develop from tachyzoites that convert to bradyzoites during chronic infection, forming cysts
to evade the immune response.

Oocysts:
• Structure: Spherical to ellipsoidal, containing sporozoites within two sporocysts.
• Formation: Produced by sexual reproduction in the intestines of the definitive host (cats), oocysts are
shed in feces and become infectious after sporulation in the environment.

16. Ways to Become Infected with Toxoplasmosis

• Ingestion of Oocysts: From contaminated soil, water, or food (e.g., unwashed fruits and vegetables).
• Consumption of Tissue Cysts: In undercooked or raw meat (especially pork, lamb, and venison)
containing tissue cysts.
• Vertical Transmission: From an infected mother to her fetus during pregnancy.
• Organ Transplantation or Blood Transfusion: Rare, but possible from an infected donor.
19. Clinical Features of Toxoplasmosis
Acute Toxoplasmosis Often asymptomatic; when present, symptoms include flu-like illness with swollen
lymph nodes, muscle aches, and fatigue.
Chronic Toxoplasmosis: Generally asymptomatic, but tissue cysts can cause persistent infection in the brain
and muscles.

20. Congenital Toxoplasmosis

• Transmission: From an infected mother to her fetus during pregnancy.
• Symptoms: Can range from mild to severe, including miscarriage, stillbirth, hydrocephalus,
intracranial calcifications, chorioretinitis, and neurological deficits.
• Risk Factors: Higher risk if the mother acquires infection during the first trimester.
 22. Diagnosis, Prevention, and Geographic Distribution of Toxoplasmosis
• Diagnosis: Serological Tests, PCR, Histopathology
• Prevention: Food Safety, Cook meat thoroughly, wash fruits and vegetables; Personal Hygiene,
Wash hands after handling raw meat, soil, or cat litter; Pregnancy Precautions, Pregnant women should
avoid handling cat litter and consuming undercooked meat.
• Geographic Distribution: Worldwide, with higher prevalence in tropical and subtropical regions and
areas with high rates of cat ownership and outdoor farming practices.

LABORATORY 5
1. Structure of Flukes:
Similarities:

• Body Shape: Flattened, leaf-like or elongated.

• Outer Surface: Covered by a protective tegument with microvilli.
• Suckers: Possess oral and ventral suckers for attachment.
• Internal Organs: Digestive, reproductive, and excretory systems are present.
Differences:

• Size: Varies among species, ranging from a few millimeters to several centimeters.
• Shape and Color: May differ based on species; liver flukes (Fasciola hepatica) are leaf-shaped, while
lancet flukes (Dicrocoelium dendriticum) are slender.
• Habitat: Liver flukes reside in bile ducts, while cat flukes (Opisthorchis spp.) inhabit the bile ducts
and lancet flukes reside in the liver parenchyma.

2. Structure of Flukes' Nervous System:

• Nerve Plexus: Flukes possess a nerve network (nerve plexus) spread throughout the body.
• Nerve Ganglia: Clustered nerve cell bodies (ganglia) are present, primarily around the oral sucker
and pharynx.
• Sensory Structures: Sensory organs, such as auricles and papillae, are found on the body surface,
assisting in detection of environmental cues.

3. Functioning of Flukes' Digestive System:

• Incomplete Digestive System: Flukes lack a true digestive system.
• Nutrient Absorption: Nutrients are absorbed through the tegument via microvilli.
• Extracellular Digestion: Digestive enzymes released from oral and ventral suckers aid in
extracellular digestion of host tissues.

4. Functioning of Flukes' Excretory System:

• Excretory Pores: Excretory pores on the body surface expel metabolic wastes.
• Flame Cells: Found in protonephridia, flame cells facilitate osmoregulation and excretion of
nitrogenous wastes.
5. Female Reproductive System:
Liver Fluke (Fasciola hepatica):

• Ovary: Paired ovaries for egg production.

• Oviduct: Transports eggs to the genital atrium.
• Uterus: Stores and releases eggs.
Cat Fluke (Opisthorchis spp.):

•Similar to liver flukes, with slight variations in structure and arrangement.

Lancet Fluke (Dicrocoelium dendriticum):

•Female reproductive system is similar to liver flukes but adapted to the specific environment within liver
parenchyma.

6. Male Reproductive System:

Liver Fluke (Fasciola hepatica):

• Testes: Paired testes for sperm production.

• Vas Deferens: Transports sperm to the genital atrium.
• Copulatory Organ: Specialized structure for transferring sperm to the female.
Cat Fluke (Opisthorchis spp.):

•Similar to liver flukes, with variations in size and arrangement.

Lancet Fluke (Dicrocoelium dendriticum):

•Male reproductive system resembles liver flukes but adapted to the unique environment within liver
parenchyma.

7. Life Cycle:
Liver Fluke (Fasciola hepatica):

• Intermediate Host: Aquatic snails.

• Final Host: Grazing mammals, including sheep and cattle.
• Infective Stage: Metacercariae on vegetation are ingested by the final host.
Cat Fluke (Opisthorchis spp.):

• Intermediate Host: Freshwater snails.

• Final Host: Fish-eating mammals, including cats and humans.
• Infective Stage: Metacercariae in raw or undercooked fish are ingested by the final host.
Lancet Fluke (Dicrocoelium dendriticum):

• Intermediate Host: Land snails.

• Final Host: Grazing mammals, including sheep and cattle.
• Infective Stage: Metacercariae on vegetation are ingested by the final host.
8. Infective Stages:
• Liver Fluke: Metacercariae on vegetation are ingested by the final host, where they develop into
adults in the bile ducts.
• Cat Fluke: Metacercariae in fish are ingested by the final host, where they mature in the bile ducts.
• Lancet Fluke: Metacercariae on vegetation are ingested by the final host, where they develop into
adults in the liver.

9. Comparison of Fascioliasis, Opisthorchiasis, and Dicrocoeliasis:

Aspect Fascioliasis Opisthorchiasis Dicrocoeliasis
Ways of Ingestion of Ingestion of Ingestion of
Infection metacercariae on metacercariae in raw or metacercariae on
vegetation. undercooked fish. vegetation.
Clinical Liver enlargement, Biliary tract inflammation, Liver damage, biliary
Features abdominal pain, jaundice. hepatomegaly. obstruction.
Diagnosis Serological tests, Serological tests, imaging Serological tests,
imaging (ultrasound, (ultrasound, CT). imaging (ultrasound,
CT). CT).
Prevention Cooking vegetables Cooking fish thoroughly, Cooking vegetables
thoroughly, avoiding raw proper sanitation. thoroughly, proper
watercress. sanitation.
Geographic
Distribution
Worldwide, prevalent in
sheep/cattle-raising
Endemic in regions where
raw fish consumption is
Worldwide, common
in grazing areas.
↓lelminth
regions. common. ↓
 Helminth >
-

LABORATORY 6
1 Size of T. saginata and Parasitized Area: The beef tapeworm, T. saginata, can reach lengths of up
to 25 meters. It primarily parasitizes the small intestine of humans.

2 Characteristics of T. saginata Scolex: The scolex of T. saginata is small and has four muscular
suckers but lacks hooks or a rostellum. It attaches to the intestinal wall of the host using these suckers.

3 Differences between Hermaphrodite and Gravid Segments: Hermaphroditic segments contain

both male and female reproductive organs, allowing for self-fertilization. Gravid segments are posterior
segments filled with fertilized eggs and are shed from the tapeworm's body.

4 Life Cycle of T. saginata:

• Eggs are passed in feces of the infected human host.

• Cattle ingest eggs from contaminated pasture or water.
• Oncosphere larvae hatch from eggs in the cow's intestine and penetrate the intestinal wall.
Helminth -
>
• Larvae migrate to muscles and develop into cysticerci.
• Human ingests raw or undercooked beef containing cysticerci.
• Cysticerci attach to the small intestine and mature into adult tapeworms.

5. Infective Stage for Humans: -> cysticercus (larval stage) found in raw or undercooked beef.

6. Pathogenic Stage for Humans: -> adult tapeworm inhabiting the small intestine, where it can cause
symptoms such as abdominal discomfort, diarrhea, and weight loss.

7.Structure of C. bovis Cysticercus (Bladder Stage): The cysticercus of C. bovis is a fluid-filled bladder
containing the larval tapeworm, scolex invaginated, and encased in a translucent cyst wall.

8.Diagnosis and Prevention of Taeniarhynchiasis: Diagnosis involves identifying characteristic proglottids or

eggs in fecal samples. Prevention includes proper cooking of beef and adequate sanitation measures to
prevent contamination.
-

9 Size of T. solium and Parasitized Area: can grow up to 7 meters long. It primarily parasitizes the small intestine
of humans.

10 Characteristics of T. solium Scolex: 4 suckers + 1 rostellum armed with hooks, which it uses to attach to the
intestinal wall of the host.
 Differences between Hermaphrodite and Gravid Segments: Similar to T. saginata, hermaphroditic
segments contain both male and female reproductive organs, while gravid segments are posterior
segments filled with fertilized eggs.
Helminth- >

Definitive and Intermediate Hosts: Humans are the definitive hosts, while pigs serve as intermediate host

Infective Stage for Humans -> the cysticercus found in undercooked pork.
↑ Helminth
Pathogenic Stage for Humans -> the adult tapeworm inhabiting the small

intestine, which can cause symptoms similar to T. saginata.

Structure of C. cellulosae Cysticercus (Bladder Stage): Similar to C. bovis, the cysticercus of C.

cellulosae is a fluid-filled bladder containing the larval tapeworm encased in a translucent cyst wall.

Diagnosis and Prevention of Taeniasis: Diagnosis involves identifying characteristic proglottids or eggs in
fecal samples. Prevention includes proper cooking of pork and adequate sanitation measures.

Personal and Public Prevention of Taeniasis: Personal prevention includes avoiding consumption of raw
or undercooked meat, especially pork. Public prevention involves meat inspection, proper waste disposal,
and health education.

Ways of Human Becoming Infected with Cysticercosis: Humans can become infected by ingesting eggs
shed in the feces of a tapeworm carrier or through autoinfection. Ingesting food or water contaminated
with fecal matter containing eggs can also lead to infection.

Locations of Cysticerci in the Human Body: Cysticerci can localize in various tissues, including the
muscles, brain, eyes, and other organs.

Diagnosis and Prevention of Cysticercosis: Diagnosis involves imaging studies (CT, MRI) to detect
cysticerci in tissues. Prevention includes proper sanitation, hygiene practices, and meat inspection to
prevent tapeworm infection and subsequent cysticercosis.
 Helmnth LABORATORY 7
Size and Structure of D. latum: Diphyllobothrium latum, broad tapeworm, 10 meters in the human intestine. Its
body is composed of a series of segments called proglottids.

Gravid Segment of D. latum: The gravid segment/mature proglottid, most distal part of
the parasite. It is filled with fertilized eggs and is the segment that is shed from the
parasite's body to be passed in the host's feces.

Intermediate + Final H. of D. latum: Freshwater fish -> intermediate h; humans, other carnivorous mammals ->
definitive hosts. Humans become infected consuming raw/undercooked fish containing D. latum larvae.

Infective + Pathogenic Stages of D. latum in Humans: larvae of the parasite, procercoids, in raw or
undercooked fish. Adult worm in human intestine, symptoms abdominal pain, diarrhea, nutritional deficiencies.

Diphyllobothriasis: Diagnosis is identifying characteristic eggs of the parasite in the patient's stool samples.

Personal and Public Prevention of Diphyllobothriasis: Personal prevention avoiding consumption of raw or
undercooked fish and ensuring that fish is properly cooked before consumption. Public measures food
inspection, education on proper food preparation, and awareness of the risks of diphyllobothriasis.

Echinococcus granulosus: Eleminth

• Definitive Host: Dogs and other canids.
• Intermediate Host: Herbivores such as sheep, goats, cattle, and occasionally humans.
• Accidental Host: Humans, when they accidentally ingest the eggs of E. granulosus.
Echinococcus multilocularis:

• Definitive Host: Foxes, coyotes, and domestic dogs.

• Intermediate Host: Rodents such as voles and mice.
• Accidental Host: Humans, when they accidentally ingest the eggs of E. multilocularis.
Structure of the Hydatid Cyst and its Location in the Human Body:

The hydatid cyst is a fluid-filled structure formed by the larvae of Echinococcus species. It typically
develops in organs such as the liver and lungs but can also occur in other organs.

Diagnosis of Echinococcoses:

• Echinococcus granulosus: imaging techniques ultrasound, CT scan, or MRI to visualize the

characteristic cysts in affected organs. Serological tests, like ELISA, detect specific antibodies against E.
granulosus.

• Echinococcus multilocularis: Diagnosis is similar to E. granulosus and includes imaging studies

and serological tests. However, due to the invasive nature of E. multilocularis and its tendency to mimic
tumors, diagnosis may require biopsy and histopathological examination.

Prevention of Echinococcoses:

• Echinococcus granulosus: Prevention strategies include deworming dogs, proper disposal of

infected animal carcasses, and education on hygienic food practices to minimize human exposure to
contaminated food and water.

• Echinococcus multilocularis: Prevention measures are similar to E. granulosus and focus on

controlling the definitive hosts (foxes, dogs), preventing access to contaminated food sources, and
promoting awareness of the risks associated with handling potentially infected animals.

14 Geographic Distribution of Echinococcoses:

• Echinococcus granulosus: Found worldwide, with high prevalence in regions where livestock
husbandry practices are common, such as parts of South America, Central Asia, the Mediterranean, and
Australia.

• Echinococcus multilocularis: Predominantly found in the Northern Hemisphere, including Europe,

Asia, and North America, with endemic foci in rural areas where fox populations are abundant.
 LABORATORY 8
1 Differences Between Male and Female Ascaris lumbricoides: -Helminth

• Size: Female A. lumbricoides are larger, typically measuring 20-35 cm; males are smaller, 15-30 cm.
• Shape: Males have a curved posterior end with two spicules, females have a straight posterior end.
• Reproductive System: Females have a more developed reproductive system with paired ovaries,
oviducts, and a uterus. Males have a single testis and vas deferens.

2 Life Cycle of Human Ascaris lumbricoides:

• Egg Stage: Eggs are released in the feces of an infected person -> become embryonated in soil.
• Larval Stage: eggs hatch in the small intestine, releasing larvae.
• Migration: Larvae penetrate the intestinal wall, enter the bloodstream and migrate to the lungs. They
ascend the respiratory tract and are swallowed back into the intestine.
• Adult Stage: In the intestine, larvae mature into adults and reproduce, completing the cycle.

4 Definitive and Non-Specific (Accidental) Hosts:

Toxocara canis (Dog Helminths):

• Definitive Host: Dogs.
• Non-Specific (Accidental) Host: Humans.
Toxocara cati (Cat Helminths):
• Definitive Host: Cats.
• Non-Specific (Accidental) Host: Humans.

5 Life Cycle of Dog and Cat Helminths in the Human Body:

Toxocara canis (Dog Helminths):

When humans ingest T. canis eggs, larvae hatch and migrate
through various tissues, but not complete life cycle in humans.
Toxocara cati (Cat Helminths):
T. cati larvae migrate through human tissues without developing
into adults, causing visceral larva migrans.
6 Ways Humans Become Infected with T. canis/T. cati:

• Ingestion of soil contaminated with feces from infected dogs or cats.

• Consumption of raw or undercooked meat containing larvae.
• Poor hygiene practices, such as not washing hands after handling pets or contaminated soil.

7 Clinical Features of Toxocariasis:

• Visceral Larva Migrans (VLM): Fever, coughing, wheezing, hepatomegaly, and abdominal pain due
to larval migration through organs.
• Ocular Larva Migrans (OLM): Visual impairment or blindness caused by larvae migrating to the eye.
• Neurological Symptoms: Rarely, larvae can migrate to the brain, causing neurological symptoms
such as seizures or behavioral changes.
Helminth
~
8 Structure of Pinworm, Enterobius vermicularis, and the Area it Parasitizes in the Human Body:

• Structure: E. vermicularis are small, white, thread-like worms. Females (8-13 mm); males (2-5 mm).
• Parasitized Area: cecum and appendix, and females migrate to the perianal area to lay eggs.
typically at night, to lay their eggs on the skin around the anus. This causes intense itching.

9 Ways Humans Become Infected with Pinworms:

• Ingesting pinworm eggs from contaminated hands, surfaces, or food.

• Eggs can be transferred from hands to mouth after scratching the perianal area.
• Inhalation of airborne eggs that settle on surfaces such as bedding or clothing.
 LABORATORY 9
1 Structure of Trichinae, Trichinella spiralis: = Helmintu
• Small, cylindrical worms.
• Females 2.2 mm; males 1.2 mm.
• Larvae are coiled and about 0.1 mm long.

2 Ways of Infection with Trichinae, Trichinella spiralis:

• Eating raw or undercooked meat, especially pork and wild game.

• Cross-contamination from handling infected meat.
• Using contaminated kitchen utensils or surfaces.

3 Trichinae, Trichinella spiralis Life Cycle in the Human Body:

• Ingestion: Encysted larvae are ingested in contaminated meat.

• Release: Larvae are released in the stomach and small intestine.
• Maturation: Larvae mature into adults in the small intestine.
• Migration: Newborn larvae penetrate intestinal wall, enter the bloodstream, and migrate to skeletal m.
• Encystment: Larvae encyst in muscle tissues, causing muscle pain and inflammation.
• Clinical Symptoms: Nausea, diarrhea, muscle pain, fever, and swelling.

4 Personal and Public Prevention of Trichinellosis:

• Personal Prevention:
• Cook meat to at least 160°F (71°C).
• Freeze pork at -5°F (-20°C) for 20 days.
• Practice good kitchen hygiene.
• Public Prevention:
• Rigorous meat inspection.
• Regulations on livestock feeding practices.
• Public education on safe meat handling and cooking.
• Safe hunting and meat preparation practices for wild game.
 LABORATORY 10
1. Structural Characteristics of Arachnids
Body Segmentation: Arachnids have two main segments: the cephalothorax and abdomen.

Limb Differentiation: They have eight legs and no antennae. The first pair of appendages (chelicerae) are for
feeding, and the second pair (pedipalps) vary in function.

Respiratory Organs: Arachnids breathe through book lungs or tracheae.

2. Internal Organs of Arachnids

Arachnids have a central nervous system, a digestive system with foregut, midgut, and hindgut, and excretory
organs like Malpighian tubules. Their reproductive organs are usually in the abdomen, and they have an open
circulatory system with hemolymph.

3. Medical Significance of Arachnids

• Spiders: Some have venom that can be harmful.
• Scorpions: Venomous species can be dangerous.
• Ticks: Vectors for diseases such as Lyme disease and tick-borne encephalitis.

4. Structural Characteristics of Ticks

Body Shape: Flattened and oval.

Leg Structure: Eight legs with claws and pads for gripping.

Mouth Apparatus: Specialized for cutting skin and anchoring to feed on blood.

5. Stages of the Sheep Tick Life Cycle

• Egg: Tiny and round.
• Larva: Six-legged, very small.
• Nymph: Eight-legged, larger than larvae.
• Adult: Eight-legged, larger, especially when engorged with blood.
6. Tick-borne Encephalitis
Causative Agent: Tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV).

Clinical Features: Fever, headache, neurological issues.

Diagnosis: Antibody tests, PCR.

Prevention: Avoiding tick bites, vaccination.

Immunity: Long-lasting post-infection or vaccination.

7. Lyme Disease
Causative Agent: Borrelia burgdorferi.

Clinical Features: Bull's-eye rash, fever, joint pain.

Diagnosis: Clinical signs, antibody tests.

Prevention: Avoiding ticks, prompt removal.

Immunity: Partial immunity; reinfection possible.

8. Scabies
Clinical Features: Intense itching, rash.

Diagnosis: Microscopic identification of mites.

Prevention: Avoiding direct contact, washing clothing and bedding, treating affected individuals.

9. Hair Follicle Mite

Disease: Demodicosis, causing itching and skin eruptions.
Prevention: Good hygiene, avoiding oily products, treating with medications if needed.
 LABORATORY 11
1. Insect Body Parts and Thoracic Segments
Body Parts: Insects have three main body parts: head, thorax, and abdomen.

Thoracic Segments: Insects have three thoracic segments: prothorax, mesothorax, and metathorax, each
bearing a pair of legs. The mesothorax and metathorax usually bear wings.

2. Characteristics of the Flea Body

Fleas are small, wingless insects with laterally compressed bodies, allowing them to move easily through fur or
feathers. They have long legs adapted for jumping and piercing mouthparts for feeding on blood.

3. Differences Between Human and Dog Fleas

• Human Fleas (P. irritans): Larger, with more rounded heads.
• Dog Fleas (C. canis): Smaller, with more elongated heads and more pronounced combs (ctenidia) on
their faces and thoraxes.

4. Differences Between Male and Female Flea Sex Organs

• Male Fleas: Possess complex copulatory organs.
• Female Fleas: Have spermathecae for storing sperm.

5. Flea Life Cycle

1. Egg: Laid on the host or in the environment.
2. Larva: Worm-like and feeds on organic debris.
3. Pupa: Encloses itself in a cocoon and undergoes metamorphosis.
4. Adult: Emerges from the pupa and seeks a host for blood meals.

6. Flea-borne Diseases
Fleas can transmit diseases such as plague (Yersinia pestis), murine typhus (Rickettsia typhi), and cat scratch
disease (Bartonella henselae).

7. Behavior of the "Blocked" Flea Infected with Plague

A flea infected with plague bacteria can develop a blockage in its gut, preventing it from digesting blood. This
causes the flea to bite more frequently in an attempt to feed, increasing the spread of the plague bacteria.
8. Differences Between Lice Male and Female Sex Organs
• Male Lice: Have external genitalia adapted for mating.
• Female Lice: Have ovipositors for laying eggs.

9. Differences Between Head Lice and Pubic Lice

• Head Lice (P. h. capitis): Longer, more slender bodies adapted for grasping scalp hair.
• Pubic Lice (P. pubis): Shorter, broader bodies with crab-like claws for grasping coarse hair.

10. Adaptations of Lice to the Parasitic Lifestyle

Lice have flat bodies, clawed legs for gripping hair or feathers, and mouthparts adapted for piercing skin and
sucking blood. They are wingless, which helps them stay attached to their host.

11. The Lice Life Cycle

1. Egg (Nit): Laid on hair or clothing fibers.
2. Nymph: Resembles a small adult and undergoes several molts.
3. Adult: Fully developed, feeds on blood, and reproduces.

12. Diseases Caused and Transmitted by Lice

Lice can cause itching and irritation (pediculosis) and transmit diseases like epidemic typhus (Rickettsia
prowazekii), trench fever (Bartonella quintana), and relapsing fever (Borrelia recurrentis).

13. Infection with Epidemic Typhus and Relapsing Typhus

• Epidemic Typhus: Caused by Rickettsia prowazekii, transmitted by body lice. Symptoms include high
fever, headache, rash, and can be severe or fatal.
• Relapsing Typhus: Caused by Borrelia recurrentis, also transmitted by body lice. Characterized by
recurrent episodes of fever, headache, and muscle pain.

14. Personal and Public Prevention of Pediculosis

Personal Prevention: Regular hair washing, avoiding sharing personal items, and using lice combs.
Public Prevention: Public health education, maintaining cleanliness in schools and institutions, and regular
screening programs.
 LABORATORY 12
1. Medical-Epidemiological Significance of the Tsetse Fly
The tsetse fly (genus Glossina) is a significant vector of African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness) in
humans and nagana in animals. These diseases are caused by Trypanosoma parasites (T. brucei in humans, T.
congolense, T. vivax, and T. brucei brucei in animals). Tsetse flies impact public health and agriculture by
reducing productivity and causing fatalities if untreated.

2. Diseases Transmitted by the Sand Fly

Sand flies (genera Phlebotomus and Lutzomyia) are vectors for several diseases, including:

• Leishmaniasis: Caused by Leishmania parasites, leading to cutaneous, mucocutaneous, and visceral

forms.
• Sandfly Fever: Caused by Phlebovirus.
• Bartonellosis (Carrion’s Disease): Caused by Bartonella bacilliformis.

3. Feeding Differences in Male and Female Mosquitoes

• Male Mosquitoes: Feed primarily on nectar and plant juices. They do not bite humans or animals.
• Female Mosquitoes: Require blood meals for egg development. They feed on the blood of humans and
animals.

4. Mosquito Life Cycle

1. Egg: Laid on water surfaces.
2. Larva: Aquatic, undergoes several molts, commonly known as "wiggler."
3. Pupa: Aquatic, non-feeding stage, known as "tumbler."
4. Adult: Emerges from the pupal stage, flies to seek food and mates.

5. Differences Between the Mouth Apparatus in the Genera Anopheles and Culex
• Anopheles: Palps are as long as the proboscis; the proboscis and palps are straight.
• Culex: Palps are much shorter than the proboscis; the proboscis is curved.

6. Differences Between the Larvae Stage in the Genera Anopheles and Culex
• Anopheles Larvae: Rest parallel to the water surface, lack siphons, breathe through spiracles located
on the dorsal side.
• Culex Larvae: Hang down from the water surface at an angle, have siphons for breathing, and breathe
through a siphon tube.
7. Differences Between the Pupae Stage in the Genera Anopheles and Culex
• Anopheles Pupae: More streamlined, breathing trumpets are short and broad.
• Culex Pupae: Less streamlined, breathing trumpets are long and narrow.

8. Medical Significance of Mosquitoes

Mosquitoes are major vectors of several serious diseases:

• Malaria: Transmitted by Anopheles mosquitoes, caused by Plasmodium parasites.

• Dengue Fever, Zika Virus, Chikungunya, and Yellow Fever: Transmitted primarily by Aedes
mosquitoes.
• West Nile Virus and St. Louis Encephalitis: Transmitted by Culex mosquitoes.
Mosquitoes' ability to transmit these pathogens makes them significant public health threats, especially in
tropical and subtropical regions.