Unit 1

My World and I
C. Subunit 3: Individuals,
Communities & Group Dynamics
Chapter 8

Introduction to Sociology
44
and Individual Identity

Chapter 9

Individual Identity & Society 50

Chapter 10

Hierarchy in Society 57
44

8 Introduction to Sociology
and Individual Identity
Topics covered: • Introduction to Sociological Theories
• Students reflect on personal experiences and how they have
been shaped by their choices

8.1 What is Sociology?

The American Sociological Association defines communities, as well as their organisational

Sociology as the study of social life, social structures. They define a society as a group
change, and the social causes and effects of people who interact with one another, reside
of human behaviour. It is the systematic and in a specific geographical area, and have a
scientific study of groups, including both small similar culture. Sociology covers a wide range
as well as very large groups, societies, and of topics, such as the close-knit families or
social interactions. violent mobs, organised crime and religious
customs, racial, gender, and social class
Sociologists are individuals who study how
distinctions as well as shared cultural ideas
people interact in groups, organisations, and
(Connerly, Holmes & Tamang, 2021).

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Sociology's main finding is that just being a part of a group alters how you behave. The
phenomenon of the group is greater than the sum of its members. Why do our emotions and
behaviours change depending on the type of social setting? Why may members of the same
group behave differently in the same circumstances? Why could those who behave similarly to
others not sense a connection to those who do the same? These are only a few of the numerous
queries sociologists have when researching people and communities.

Case Study: A new model of Empathy

through a ‘rat experiment’

Researchers at the University of Chicago conducted a simple experiment to check if a rat

would let a fellow rat escape from a cage if it had the opportunity to do so.
For the study, some rats were paired together. In the beginning, two rats were made to spend
two weeks in a cage and then one was imprisoned in a smaller cage while one was kept outside.
The rats underwent the experiment for one hour each day for a total
of 12 days. They were well acquainted with each other because they had previously shared a
cage for two weeks. The imprisoned rat's cage door was accidentally unlocked the first time, and
the rat normally froze in terror and toppled over noisily. It did, however, learn to open the door
on purpose and stopped being startled when the door toppled over in an average of seven days.
The caged animal cried out in panic in 13% of the sessions, but it was obvious that this was not
necessary to get the free rat to operate. The free rat occasionally opened the cage while it was
empty or home to a rat doll, but after a few days he lost interest in doing so.
The rats investigated the
testing space after being set
free. The free rat, however,
continued to open the door
for the trapped one even after
the arrangement was adjusted
such that the captive exited
into a different location. The
free rat also unlocked the
cage containing five chocolate
chips that had been put to the
arena. If the other cage was
empty, that animal ate every
treat. However, if a confined
rat was present, the free rat
shared the chocolate almost
half the time, giving its
companion 11.5 pieces on
average. The free rat learnt to unlock the cage and got better at it over time after occasionally
hearing distress calls from its companion. Even if there was no reward in the form of a reunion
with the other animal, it would still release it. Surprisingly, the free rat would typically spare
at least one reward for the captive if given access to a tiny trove of chocolate chips, which is
a lot to expect from a rat.

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The inevitable conclusion reached by Since decades, there has been growing
the researchers was that what they were evidence supporting the notion that animals
witnessing was empathy—and seemingly have emotional lives and can recognise other
unselfish behaviour motivated by that mental people's feelings. Many pet owners, especially
state. According to the team that conducted those who own dogs, have detailed how apes
this experiment - Peggy Mason, Inbal Ben and monkeys exhibit empathy. An instance of
Ami Bartal and Jean Decety, there is nothing "emotional contagion"—where one animal's
in it for them but the satisfaction they derive stress exacerbates another's—was recently
from assisting someone else. "There is a proven by scientists in mice. However,
widespread misperception that helping and empathy that results in helping behaviour —
sharing are cultural practices. However, this is or what psychologists refer to as "pro-social
not a cultural action. It is a part of our genetic behaviour" — has not yet been formally
heritage, she continued. demonstrated in non-primates.

Questions for this case study

1 What was the point of this experiment? 4 Create an Inside - out Identity chart
& ask this question - If I were in a similar
2 Can you see any similarities between difficult situation and had the option
human and animal behaviour? of helping my friend in need, would
I help them?
3 What does ‘empathy’ mean to you and
why do you think it’s important?

8.2 Identity & Behaviour

• Social Identity Theory

The self is reflexive in both social identity theory and identity theory because it has the capacity
to view itself as an object and to label, identify, or categorise oneself in certain ways in relation
to other social categories or classifications. In social identity theory, this process is known as
self-categorization, and in identity theory, it is known as identification. An identity is created
through the self-categorization or identification process (Stets & Burke, 2000).
According to Stets & Burke (2000), in identity theory, self-categorization, which depends on a
named and classified reality, is important to the development of one's identity. The main focus
of identity theory is on the elements of a structured society. People who are functioning within
the framework of a social system name one another and themselves by recognising one another
as holders of particular positions. In general, the self-views that result from the reflexive action
of self-identification in terms of membership in specific groups or roles, make up one's
identities. Being a part of a particular social identity entails being similar to other members of
the group and viewing the world from their point of view. The basis of social identity lies in the
consistency of perception and action among group members (Stets & Burke, 2000).

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• Interactionism
Another theory in sociology called interactionism focuses on how people interact with one
another and how interactions occur. This theory states that in order to comprehend action or
behaviour, one must grasp the meanings that the actors (organisms exhibiting behaviour) attach
to their actions. According to Stryker (2001), Scottish moral philosopher George Herbert Mead
was a major contributor towards interactionism. The foundation of Mead’s social behaviourism
and pragmatism philosophy served as the basis for the interactionist viewpoint. He investigated
the role that social experiences play in the formation of personalities, including attitudes,
behaviours, and actions.
Interactionism acknowledges that humans have agency and are not influenced by forces outside
of their control and, as a result, create their own meanings about the social world through
interactions with one another, in contrast to functionalism theory, which focuses on large social
structures, and conflict theory, which focuses on fundamental conflicts or division in society.
Therefore, interactionism prioritises individual players and focuses on the subjective meaning
that each one of them assigns to the social situation, which then becomes the social reality.

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Case Study: Railway Stations

of Mumbai - How do people behave?

A crowded commuter train station in But how does one decide ‘where to stand?’,
Mumbai may appear to be a very distinctive ‘which side to walk on?’, ‘how fast to go?’,
example for sociology but it also teaches us ‘which compartment to climb into?’, ‘which
a lot about human behaviour. Unknown seat to take?’ and many other questions. The
individuals numbering in the tens or hundreds bigger question here is, do all 7.5 million
of thousands pass through with the aim of people really behave individually?
reaching their destination. The station can
sometimes feel a bit like a balloon that has Even with such numbers, strangers from
been overinflated. Crowds of people congregate various cities can coexist on the same
in narrow bottlenecks before bursting through schedules, share seats, and travel one leg
tunnels, stairways, and other passageways to of the journey together every day before
reach the next stop on their route. Walking diverging in opposite directions. Faces can
against the crowd of people can be a tiresome, become recognisable after a few months
dangerous, and nearly an impossible process and some may even form companionships.
in some stations. A seasoned commuter can predict where
(Connerly, Holmes & Tamang, 2021). another person is headed based on their pace
and the announcement that was just made in
Around 7.5 million people commute daily via the platforms; they may slow down a little to
Mumbai Railways and almost everyday, these let the other person pass or hold a door open
people follow the same routine (Ozarkar, 2022). a little longer than normal in the hopes that
someone will grasp the handle behind them.

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Something to think about

1 What is your understanding of this example?

2 How do you think people know in what manner to behave?

3 Can you relate this example with the Interactionism theory? How?

“The difficulty, in sociology, is to manage to think in

a completely astonished and disconcerted way about
things you thought you had always understood”
- Pierre Bourdieu, French Sociologist

Additional Resources:
Elevator
experiment
video
https://www.
youtube.com/
watch?v=aOOsfkM-nGQ

References:
1. Conerly, R.T., Holmes, K., & Tamang, L.A. (2021). Introduction to Sociology 3e,
OpenStax. https://openstax.org/books/introduction-sociology-3e/pages/1-introduction

2. Ozarkar, V. (2022). Mumbai local trains see highest ridership since pandemic onset, The Indian Express.
https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/mumbai/mumbai-local-trains-see-highest-ridership-since-pandemic-onset-7826370/

3. What is sociology? The American Sociological Association. Retrieved on 25 April 2023. https://www.asanet.org/about/what-is-sociology/

4. Introduction to Sociology, Open Textbook, British Columbia (BC) Campus,

https://opentextbc.ca/introductiontosociology/chapter/chapter1-an-introduction-to-sociology/

5. Brown, D. (2011), A new model of empathy: The rat. The Washington Post.
https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/a-new-model-of-empathy-the-rat/2011/12/08/gIQAAx0jfO_story.html

6. Stets, J. E., & Burke, P. J. (2000). Identity Theory and Social Identity Theory. Social Psychology Quarterly, 63(3), 224–237. https://doi.org/10.2307/2695870

7. S. Stryker. (2001). Interactionism: Social Psychology, Sociology. International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 14409-14413,
https://doi.org/10.1016/B0-08-043076-7/01963-X.

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9 Individual Identity
& Society
Topics covered: • Students reflect on personal experiences and how they have
been shaped by society and cultures

9.1 Culture and its elements

Similar situations, different regions - How do you behave?

Scenario 1: Imagine you are at a sporting event, a cricket match where as we know, the
crowd can be enormous. The only people you know here are the people you came with. They
could be your friends, family or colleagues. However, even without knowing the rest of the
people in the stadium, you feel a sense of belonging to the crowd (group). When other people
applaud and cheer, you do the same. You shout, scream slogans, praise and boo at the players
with them. When someone has to pass, you move out of the way, and when you have to leave,
you say “excuse me”. You are aware of how to act in this type of gathering.

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Scenario 2: Now imagine, you are travelling in a foreign nation and find yourself among
a crowd going down the street. The crowd has gathered to rally for climate activism. This
is something you have never witnessed before. It could be difficult for you to understand
what is going on. Is the crowd gathered here to simply spread awareness about climate
change, or is there some sort of political demonstration with an agenda? Why are people
so angry and yelling at another group? Maybe there was some type of mishap or catastrophe?
Are you secure in this gathering, or should you make an effort to leave? How can you learn
more about what’s happening? Even though you are a part of it, you might not feel like you
belong in this group. It is natural for you to be clueless about what to do or how to act.

Humans are social creatures. Research indicates that humans have formed groups
for approximately 3 million years for survival. People who shared a home developed societal
norms and behaviours, such as preferred approaches to parenting and ways of procuring food.
Grand theory aims to explain broad relationships and provide fundamental insights into issues
like the formation and evolution of societies (Connerly, Holmes & Tamang, 2021). A culture is
made up of many different components, such as the society’s values and beliefs. Laws, ideologies
that reflect moral ideas, and traditions are examples of norms that control culture. Culture is
developed and transmitted mostly through the symbols and languages of a society. The four basic
parts of culture are values, beliefs, norms, language, practises, and artefacts. Almost all human
behaviours typically stem from societal practices which traces its roots back to cultural norms.

According to Connerly, Holmes & Tamang (2021), George Murdock, an anthropologist, initially
looked at the possibility of cultural universals while researching various kinship systems around
the globe. Murdock discovered that common human events like birth and death, disease and
recovery, or finding food, clothing, and shelter are often at the centre of cultural universals.
Murdock discovered additional universals via his investigation, such as language and the idea
of personal identities.

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For instance, marriage is typically viewed in the United States as a personal decision made
by two adults based on shared sentiments of love. But in many South-Asian countries, marriages
have been arranged through a complex process of interviews and agreements between entire
families and in most cases children accept the choices made by their elders as a mark of respect
in Asian cultures (BC Campus). People may feel confused and frustrated when they find
themselves in a different society. This is referred to as culture shock in sociology (Connerly,
Holmes & Tamang, 2021). If we recall the railway example from the previous chapter, passengers
in Mumbai must board commuter trains while shoving and jostling their way onto crowded
platforms. That kind of behaviour could be considered rude in some cultures, but in Mumbai
it serves as a stark reminder of the challenges commuters must overcome each day as they try
to navigate a jam-packed train system.

Role Play Activity

Sakshi is a new student who has just joined the school. She
belongs to a state in the western part of India and has recently
shifted to Delhi with her family. She was invited to a classmate’s
birthday party at an upscale restaurant. She chose to wear her
favourite traditional Indian salwar kameez for the occasion. She
arrived at the party, she noticed everyone was dressed in fancy
western outfits. They were smirking at her and casting glances.
Sakshi felt ashamed and humiliated and left the party.

Ritika is a Digital Marketing Manager living in Australia who

works at a Fortune 500 company. While Ritika comes from
a humble background and has worked very hard to secure
a position for herself in her company, most of her peers come
from wealthy households and are used to an expensive lifestyle.
They wear branded and designer outfits and accessories, and
dine at famous restaurants. Her colleagues are unaware of
her actual background as she also tries her best to match their
lifestyle in order to blend in with them and forget her past.

Farhan is a chef working at a 5 star hotel in Mumbai, he

is very hardworking and loves his family, he resides in
a rural village in India. When he’s not in the professional
kitchen wearing his che’s coat, he usually likes to dress in his
traditional attire ‘Kurta-pyjama’ as he is the most comfortable
in it. He is also shy and reserved as a person and does not
like to drink or party much. Due to this, his peers believe
him to be extremely religious and orthodox in nature when
in reality, Farhan is an atheist and while he has nothing against
his religion, he simply chooses to believe in his own work and
values. He is very open minded and has encouraged the people
in his community to give importance to educating girls beyond
school and giving them the opportunity to take up jobs and
be financially independent.

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9.2 Society and its effect on identity

Identity of a teenager
Joey is a 16 year old girl living in Uttrakhand.
When someone asked her to describe herself,
she said her friends and family define her as
an “introvert”. So what does being an introvert
mean? Some may define it as being reserved,
shy, anti-social, day-dreamer, isolated
and some may define it as people who are
thoughtful, attentive and independent even.

Most teenagers or young adults are social

animals, they love to hangout with their
friends, go to parties, concerts and vacations.
But Joey is someone who’s idea of a good
Friday night is to order or cook her favourite
food at home, and watch a movie by herself
or with her family. She prefers her quiet time
with a book or going for a walk with her pet
dog rather than going out or constantly posting
on social media.

Joey finds partying and socialising all the time

to be a bit exhausting and she feels drained
after interacting with too many people other
than her close family or friends. This is not
to say that she feels people who like such
activities are wrong, they are just different
from her and everyone should spend their
time doing what makes them happy. Although
she doesn’t find anything wrong with herself,
sometimes she overhears rumours about being
referred to as “anti-social” or “loner” in school.
She never truly feels a part of her crowd, her
experiences, interests, values and ideologies in
life are different from most people her age and
she has always felt different from others. When
she hears such rumours, she starts to wonder
whether she really is an introvert? Is she really
that different where she finds it difficult to
connect with other people?

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Something to think about

1 Have you ever felt different from your peers? Why?

2 What quality of yours does not fit the traditional norms of society?

3 Have you ever been excluded from say your classmates, family, society friends?
How does it feel?

Sociologically speaking, a society is a collection of individuals who share certain cultural traits
and reside in a clearly defined community. Society, on a larger scale, is made up of the people
and institutions in our immediate surroundings, as well as our cultural ideals and common
beliefs. Commonly, many societies also have a single political power.

Émile Durkheim, a sociologist, placed a strong emphasis on the necessity of all of society's
constituent part’s to be interconnected with one another. Society, in Durkheim's opinion, was
more than the sum of its components. He said that analysing collective behaviour was very
different from studying an individual's activities and that individual behaviour was not the same
as collective behaviour. The collective conscience is what Durkheim referred to as a society's
shared values, norms, and attitudes. Durkheim also believed that social integration, or the
strength of ties that people have to their social groups, is a key factor in social life.

The social creation of reality is the foundation of society. The way we conceptualise society
affects how it actually is. Similarly, how we perceive other people affects both our behaviour
towards them and how they perceive us. All of us play many different roles throughout our lives,
and the kinds of social interactions we have are influenced by the roles we play, the people we
play them with, and the context in which those interactions occur.

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Case Study: Transgender people

and their acceptance in society

According to Marks (2022), Trans is an umbrella term for people who are:

• Male • Female • Nonbinary

but were assigned female but were assigned male meaning they don’t identify
sex at birth sex at birth as male or female

Civilizations around the world have recognised have been in operation that have forced people
the different forms of gender for centuries into untrue dichotomies. One's humanity as
and have welcomed and praised gender a whole is diminished when one reduces a
nonconformity. In addition to surviving complex individual to a single identity for
despite colonisation and fighting traditional the purposes of targeting and discrimination.
cultural norms, many of these groups have People's perspectives are narrowed by
been welcomed into society and contributed generalisations and classifications, which
to the development of tolerant, peaceful can contribute to the development and
civilizations. Consider the Philippines, which, maintenance of stereotypes, prejudice,
despite a history dominated by strict morality and oppression.
propagated by the Roman Catholic Church, is
one of Southeast Asia's most accepting nations While on one hand there are communities &
of gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender cultures within societies who have accepted
persons. Or India, which recently repealed trans people with open arms and treat them
a legislation enacted by British colonial with equality, it would be naive to think that
authorities that prohibited homosexuality, they have not gone through or are still going
erasing a negative legacy and reviving the through their fair share of oppression by
nation's history of gender flexibility. Native other members of society. The psychological
Americans in the United States have long perception of one’s gender is referred to as
accepted two-spirit individuals who consider gender identity and there are many people
themselves to have both feminine and who still face issues with their identity and
masculine energies. In actuality, third genders how they view themselves because of societal
are accepted in the societies of more than pressure and the feeling of being “different”
150 different Native American tribes. than most people. Transgender people might
be fearful, depressed, anxious, or scared.
These communities can teach us important Marks (2022), says that it is common for them
lessons about gender equality. Similar to race, to feel uncomfortable with their appearance,
gender is a social construct, and throughout and feel isolated, ashamed or misunderstood
history, various systems and organisations not just by society but also themselves.

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Create a Starbust Identity Chart and follow these

prompts to help you with the activity
1 Have you ever seen or interacted with people from the transgender community? If yes,
how was your experience, share it with your team members.

2 How do you think society’s actions have made transgender people feel?

3 Do you think we as individuals or as a society have the right to tell people how they can
feel about their own gender identity?

Additional Resources: References:

1. Conerly, R.T., Holmes, K., & Tamang, L.A. (2021).
Review this article on ‘Women Introduction to Sociology 3e, OpenStax. https://

Participate Less in Interactive openstax.org/books/introduction-sociology-3e/

pages/1-introduction
College Classes Due to Fear
of Peer Judgment: Study’ 2. Introduction to Sociology. Open Textbook.
British Columbia (BC) Campus. 1st Canadian (e.d.).
written by Devrupa Rakshit https://opentextbc.ca/
https://theswaddle.
and try to connect it with the com/women-
3. Pennington, H. (2022), What the evolution of gender
learnings of this chapter. participate-less-in-
interactive-college-
can teach us about equality. Ford Foundation.
https://www.fordfoundation.org/news-and-stories/
Can you identify the problem classes-due-to-fear-of-
stories/posts/what-the-evolution-ofgender-
peer-judgment-study/
highlighted in this article and can-teach-us-about-equality/

connect it with any of the 4. Marks, L.J. (2022). Gender Dysphoria: What It Is,

above mentioned theories? Symptoms, Treatment, and More. Everyday Health.

https://www.everydayhealth.com/emotional-health/
gender-dysphoria/guide/

5. What is Gender Dysphoria?. American Psychiatric

Association (ASA). Retrieved on 27 April 2023.
https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/gender-
dysphoria/what-is-gender-dysphoria

6. Rakshit, D. (2020), ‘Women Participate Less in

Interactive College Classes Due to Fear of Peer
Judgment: Study’. The Swaddle.
https://theswaddle.com/women-participate-less-
in-interactive-college-classes-due-to-fear-of-peer-
judgment-study/

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10 Hierarchy in Society
Topics covered: • Students examine how leaders are chosen in certain groups
and their role in these groups and in the society at large

10.1 What is Social Hierarchy?

We have been taught to see our social environment in terms of who is better, wiser, or more
favoured than everyone else from an early age, whether it be through school-age sports
competitions, spelling bees, board exams and entrance test results or high ranking government
jobs and wealthy business owners. Even as adults, we are able to quickly recognise status
markers like expensive automobiles, humongous houses, and prestigious careers. In the past,
human beings have been generally known to favour a hierarchical social structure, which is
noticeable in the manner with which we recognise status cues and rank others. This desire may
be due to the necessity of knowing where we are in relation to others for establishing social roles
and encouraging fruitful social engagements (Koski, Xie & Olson, 2015).

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particular order. In a hierarchy, different

Koski, Xie & Olson (2015) define hierarchy
social classes are arranged in ascending order.
as the ranking of individuals within social
There are many different types of hierarchies,
groups according to the strength, influence,
including caste, class, age, gender, income,
or dominance they display, with some
political and religious hierarchies.
individuals being superior to or beneath
others. Rank is a word that is frequently
Social groups are organised using social
used to describe one's place in a hierarchy
hierarchies to distribute scarce resources
in an objective manner. While status is
such as food, promote social learning, and
often connected with admiration and
increase individual growth. By definition,
respect, it can also be measured by social
those at the top of the hierarchy will receive
opinion or reputation. Since both "status"
more resources and advantages than those
and "rank" denote the higher positions in
at the bottom, which will have an impact on
a social hierarchy, they are frequently used
morbidity and mortality. Even though this
synonymously or in combination (Cheng,
situation invariably results
Tracy, Foulsham, Kingstone, & Henrich, 2013).
in inequalities, social hierarchies are
extremely common throughout human
According to an article in Sociology Guide,
civilizations and they
stratification or categorisation based on
seem to develop spontaneously in social
socio-economic factors; is a social phenomenon
groups Koski, Xie & Olson (2015). The
that is linked to hierarchy. According to one
importance of
set of sociologists, caste-based or estate-
equality has been highly valued in the
based communities tended to be hierarchical,
contemporary West. Old social and class
and socioeconomic inequities were seen as
hierarchies have been challenged, if not
inevitable. On the other hand, stratification is
entirely destroyed, while equal rights are
a characteristic of contemporary industrial
protected by the law. There is little doubt that
society where inequalities exist but are not
these improvements have improved global
seen as a part of the natural or divine order.
society. However, hierarchies still exist. There
Hierarchy results from stratification, which
are still many ways that society is divided into
in turn results from inequalities. Hierarchy
tiers based on position and income
develops when disparities are formed in a
(Angle, S., Appiah, A.K., Baggini, J. et. al, 2017).

Case Study: B.R. Ambedkar

and his fight for caste equality
Background
Many people think of Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar as a judge, economist, and social reformer. It
is undoubtedly difficult to identify many individuals who can be said to have had a
comparable impact on Indian history in the modern era. Ambedkar was, above all, a fierce
opponent of the Hindu caste system and a pioneer in the struggle for Dalit independence. An
incisive critique of the long-standing caste system was written by Amberdkar in his book
‘Annihilation of Caste’, which was published during the conflict for India's independence.
Ambedkar claimed that unless caste was abandoned by all, Dalits would still be at the bottom
of society even if India attained independence.

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Unlike other members of his caste, Ambedkar was permitted to go to school since his father
was a British Army officer. Despite this advantage, the real experience helped the young
Ambedkar become familiar with the vileness of caste discrimination at a young age.
Ambedkar was forced to sit in a corner of the classroom by himself and was separated
from the other students for the whole of his school years. If he was thirsty, he had to wait
for someone who could be touched to open the tap so he wouldn't have to contact it and
contaminate it. He would be without water if such a person was not present. Despite all
odds, Ambedkar chose to educate himself and went on to get his doctorate from the London
School of Economics (Perrigo, 2020).

Caste stratification & discrimination

The varna system described in the founding texts of Hinduism is the source of the caste
system in India, a type of social hierarchy. There are four varnas: the highest are Brahmins
(priests), followed by Kshatriyas (administrators or soldiers), Vaishyas (merchants), and
Shudras (servants), who are at the bottom. The Dalits were those outside the varna system
and are seen as being much lower and were considered as “untouchables”. Over 200 million
Dalits, or 4% of India’s 1.3 billion people, still endure prejudice there today (Perrigo, 2020).
The Mahars, a particular Dalit caste to which Ambedkar belonged, according to old societal
norms were supposed to sweep up their footsteps by tying brooms around their waists. Even
in 1998, Dalits made up almost 90% of those working for the Indian government as “sweepers,”
whose duties include clearing human waste from restrooms. They are prohibited from utilising
public schools, public wells, and public roads, as well as from eating particular foods and dressing
however they choose. Murders of members of lower castes by members of higher castes were
widespread in both Ambedkar’s time and modern-day India.

Struggle for caste equality

Ambedkar spent his life working towards the advancement of the Dalit people after completing
his education. He organised protests, spoke at conferences, and wrote for numerous magazines
throughout the 1920s. He organised the ‘Dalits against caste discrimination’ by founding the
Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha (Group for the Wellbeing of the Excluded). His group's motto
was "agitate, educate, organise." Ambedkar notably organised a march in 1926 to defend the
Untouchable’s legal right to access the Chavdar water tank in Mahad. Ambedkar ceremonially
drank from the tank to mark the completion of the march (Mclaughlan, 2022).

Ambedkar’s legacy has had a significant impact on contemporary India. His programmes,
including affirmative action laws and financial rewards for better treatment of “Scheduled
Castes” (Dalits), continue to be in place. The Hindu caste system is still in place today, more
than 75 years after Indian independence. The lowest rungs of society are still required
to perform the most hazardous, filthy, and menial professions, despite the fact that the
caste system was formally abolished in 1950. Mclaughlan (2022), states that although Dalits
are technically guaranteed certain safeguards and rights, in practice they frequently experience
caste-based violence and social discrimination.

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Answer the following questions

1 What are some of the hardships faced by Dalits in India?

2 How did Ambedkar fight for caste equality in India?

How do you think being treated in a derogatory manner or being excluded

3 by the caste system (an important aspect in Hindu ideology) has affected
the Scheduled Caste community?

4 Can you name a few ways in which you as an individual can help break
the stereotype against backward castes?

10.2 Power & Leadership in groups

In contrast to objective rank, several in positions of authority might affect the

studies described in this review measure or behaviour of others. Even if some people
manipulate power or dominance. This is due may reject being forced to do something,
to the fact that status is typically linked to a successful leader can get through that
power and domination, which are frequently opposition. Although some people may view
used to infer other’s status. Power is the power as corrupt or evil, it is a reality of
capacity to push or compel action from organisational life and is neither good nor bad.
others by employing a range of strategies, Power can be used by leaders to help or hinder
whether with or without resistance. Power others, to advance or thwart an organisation's
is the capacity to accomplish goals. In order objectives (Granite Pressbook).
to accomplish a purpose or objective, those

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Sanau (2020), defines leadership as "a capacity for influence. These forms of
transactional event that takes place between influence are used by leaders to encourage the
the leader and the followers. This definition attitudes and deeds required to carry out duties
of leadership makes it accessible to all people and reach objectives. The degree to which
and not simply limited to the group's publicly people are susceptible to influence varies from
elected leader. Effective leadership happens one individual to another. Some people may
in the context of discourse, not command or give much thought to how others see them and
control, as a function of the entire community. may therefore find it easier to read social cues.
Power and leadership are often driven by Others might desire to have a strong sense of
influence. When other people have an impact purpose in what they do and so work towards
on a person's feelings, beliefs, or actions, this internalising a set of principles that will serve
is known as influence. It is a crucial facet as their moral compass. We are surrounded by
of a leader's capacity to wield authority and sources of influence in our home, offices, peer
uphold respect within a team. Peer pressure, groups, religious communities, government
socialisation, compliance, obedience, and parties and in the majority of aspects of life.
persuasion are all examples of influence. As a result, how others communicate with
A crucial quality for leaders, as well as those us and how we perceive them might have
in sales, marketing, politics, and the law, is the an impact on our behaviour.

Religious Leaders in the world:

Much like a simple coin, there are two sides in every aspect of life and human beings have
been dabbling with the idea or definition of good and bad for centuries. While religion has
always been viewed as a symbol of hope and faith amongst its believers, there are certain
individuals who prey on people’s innocence and influence them to reach a position of
power and leadership.
• A court in India sentenced • A religious cult in Kenya has group died in the jungle of
a self-styled godman cost at least 58 people their the small South American
(religious or spiritual leader) lives after they starved country. They were lead to
to life imprisonment. themselves to death in the their deaths by an influential
He was convicted in a rape belief they would meet their US preacher, who coerced
case filed by a former woman spiritual leader as reported by members of his Temple into
disciple of his. He has also the Kenyan police. committing “revolutionary
been charged with multiple suicide”, urging parents to
other accounts of sexually • In one of the most horrific give their children poison,
assaulting minor girls at mass murder-suicides of while others were shot trying
his ashram. modern history, 914 adults to flee or forced to drink the
and children from a US cult deadly liquid.

Something to think about

1 How do you think religious leaders like these get chosen?

2 How do they affect societies at large?

3 What is your idea of such religious leaders/groups and the power given to such people?

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Additional Resources:
Review this article published
by Australian National
University on ‘Choosing Our
Leaders: Western Electoral
Systems versus Traditional https://dpa.
Leadership Selection in the bellschool.anu.edu.
au/sites/default/
Pacific Islands — A Personal files/publications/

Perspective’. Write an article attachments/2017-03/

ib-2017-06-aqorau.pdf
in your words summarising
your understanding of the
article and mention 1-2
points on which you agree or
disagree with the author.

References:
1. Koski, J. E., Xie, H., & Olson, I. R. (2015). Understanding social hierarchies: The neural and psychological foundations of status perception. Social Neuroscience, 10(5), 527–550.
https://doi.org/10.1080/17470919.2015.1013223

2. Cheng, J.T., Tracy, J.L., Foulsham, T., Kingstone, A., & Henrich, J. (2013). Two ways to the top: Evidence that dominance and prestige are distinct yet viable avenues to social
rank and influence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 104(1), 103–125. DOI: 10.1037/a0030398

3. Hierarchy in Society. A Student’s Guide to Sociology. Sociology Guide. Retrieved on 27 April 2023.
https://www.sociologyguide.com/socio-short-notes/view-short-notes.php?id=72

4. Redhead, D., & Power, E. A., (2022). Social hierarchies and social networks in humans. Philosophical Transaction of The Royal Society, 377(1845), 1-13.
http://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2020.0440

5. Angle, S., Appiah, A.K., Baggini, J., Berggruen, N., Bevir, M., Chan,J., Fraenkel, C., Macedo,S., Puett, M., Qian, J., Risse, M., Romano, C., Tiwald, J., & Wang. R. (2017). In defence of
hierarchy. Aeon. https://aeon.co/essays/hierarchies-have-a-place-even-in-societies-built-on-equality

6. Perrigo, B. (2020). As India’s Constitution Turns 70, Opposing Sides Fight to Claim Its Author as One of Their Own. Time Magazine.
https://time.com/5770511/india-protests-br-ambedkar/

7. Mclaughlan, S. (2022), Dr. Ambedkar and the Annihilation of the Hindu Caste System. The Collector. https://www.thecollector.com/hindu-caste-system-ambedkar/

8. Cultivating Leadership Capabilities. Granite Pressbook. Granite State College. Retrieved on 28 April 2023. https://granite.pressbooks.pub/ld820/chapter/4/

9. Sanau, B. (2020). Shepherd’s after God’s Heart: A Biblical Perspective on the Use of Power and Authority in Leadership. Doctor of Ministry Program. Andrews University, 44-49,
https://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4468&context=pubs

10. Choosing Our Leaders: Western Electoral Systems versus Traditional Leadership Selection in the Pacific Islands — A Personal Perspective’. Australian National University.
Retrieved on 28 April 2023. https://dpa.bellschool.anu.edu.au/sites/default/files/publications/attachments/2017-03/ib-2017-06-aqorau.pdf

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