TYPES OF POETRY

When studying poetry, it is useful first of all to consider the theme and the overall development of the
theme in the poem. Obviously, the sort of development that takes place depends to a considerable
extent on the type of poem one is dealing with. It is useful to keep two general distinctions in mind (for
more detailed definitions consult Abrams 1999 and Preminger et al 1993): lyric poetry and narrative
poetry.

Lyric Poetry

A lyric poem is a comparatively short, non-narrative poem in which a single speaker presents a state of
mind or an emotional state. Lyric poetry retains some of the elements of song which is said to be its
origin: For Greek writers the lyric was a song accompanied by the lyre.

Subcategories of the lyric are, for example elegy, ode, sonnet and dramatic monologue and most
occasional poetry:

In modern usage, elegy is a formal lament for the death of a particular person (for example Tennyson’s In
Memoriam A.H.H.). More broadly defined, the term elegy is also used for solemn meditations, often on
questions of death, such as Gray's Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard.

An ode is a long lyric poem with a serious subject written in an elevated style. Famous examples are
Wordsworth’s Hymn to Duty or Keats’ Ode to a Grecian Urn.

The sonnet was originally a love poem which dealt with the lover’s sufferings and hopes. It originated in
Italy and became popular in England in the Renaissance, when Thomas Wyatt and the Earl of Surrey
translated and imitated the sonnets written by Petrarch (Petrarchan sonnet). From the seventeenth
century onwards the sonnet was also used for other topics than love, for instance for religious
experience (by Donne and Milton), reflections on art (by Keats or Shelley) or even the war experience (by
Brooke or Owen). The sonnet uses a single stanza of (usually) fourteen lines and an intricate rhyme
pattern (see stanza forms). Many poets wrote a series of sonnets linked by the same theme, so-called
sonnet cycles (for instance Petrarch, Spenser, Shakespeare, Drayton, Barret-Browning, Meredith) which
depict the various stages of a love relationship.
In a dramatic monologue a speaker, who is explicitly someone other than the author, makes a speech to
a silent auditor in a specific situation and at a critical moment. Without intending to do so, the speaker
reveals aspects of his temperament and character. In Browning's My Last Duchess for instance, the Duke
shows the picture of his last wife to the emissary from his prospective new wife and reveals his excessive
pride in his position and his jealous temperament.

Occasional poetry is written for a specific occasion: a wedding (then it is called an epithalamion, for
instance Spenser’s Epithalamion), the return of a king from exile (for instance Dryden’s Annus Mirabilis)
or a death (for example Milton’s Lycidas), etc.

Narrative Poetry

Narrative poetry gives a verbal representation, in verse, of a sequence of connected events, it propels
characters through a plot. It is always told by a narrator. Narrative poems might tell of a love story (like
Tennyson's Maud), the story of a father and son (like Wordsworth's Michael) or the deeds of a hero or
heroine (like Walter Scott's Lay of the Last Minstrel).

Sub-categories of narrative poetry:

Epics usually operate on a large scale, both in length and topic, such as the founding of a nation (Virgil’s
Aeneid) or the beginning of world history (Milton's Paradise Lost), they tend to use an elevated style of
language and supernatural beings take part in the action.

The mock-epic makes use of epic conventions, like the elevated style and the assumption that the topic
is of great importance, to deal with completely insignificant occurrences. A famous example is Pope's
The Rape of the Lock, which tells the story of a young beauty whose suitor secretly cuts off a lock of her
hair.

A ballad is a song, originally transmitted orally, which tells a story. It is an important form of folk poetry
which was adapted for literary uses from the sixteenth century onwards. The ballad stanza is usually a
four-line stanza, alternating tetrameter and trimeter.

Descriptive and Didactic Poetry

Both lyric and narrative poetry can contain lengthy and detailed descriptions (descriptive poetry) or
scenes in direct speech (dramatic poetry).

The purpose of a didactic poem is primarily to teach something. This can take the form of very specific
instructions, such as how to catch a fish, as in James Thomson’s The Seasons (Spring 379-442) or how to
write good poetry as in Alexander Pope’s Essay on Criticism. But it can also be meant as instructive in a
general way. Until the twentieth century all literature was expected to have a didactic purpose in a
general sense, that is, to impart moral, theoretical or even practical knowledge; Horace famously
demanded that poetry should combine prodesse (learning) and delectare (pleasure). The twentieth
century was more reluctant to proclaim literature openly as a teaching tool.

Elements of Poetry

POETRY ASSUMPTIONS

Readers of poetry often bring with them many related assumptions:

That a poem is to be read for its "message,"

That this message is "hidden" in the poem,

The message is to be found by treating the words as symbols which naturally do not mean what they say
but stand for something else,

You have to decipher every single word to appreciate and enjoy the poem.

There are no easy ways to dispel these biases. Poetry is difficult because very often its language is
indirect. But so is experience - those things we think, feel, and do. The lazy reader wants to be told
things and usually avoids poetry because it demands commitment and energy. Moreover, much of what
poetry has to offer is not in the form of hidden meanings. Many poets like to "play" with the sound of
language or offer an emotional insight by describing what they see in highly descriptive language. In fact,
there can many different ways to enjoy poetry; this reflects the many different styles and objectives of
poets themselves.

Finally, if you are the type to give up when something is unclear, just relax! Like we just said, there can be
many different approaches to examining poetry; often these approaches (like looking for certain poetic
devices or examining the meaning of a specific phrase) do not require a complete and exhaustive
analysis of a poem. So, enjoy what you do understand!
FIRST APPROACHES

Read the poem (many students neglect this step). Identify the speaker and the situation. Feel free to
read it more than once! Read the sentences literally. Use your prose reading skills to clarify what the
poem is about.Read each line separately, noting unusual words and associations. Look up words you are
unsure of and struggle with word associations that may not seem logical to you.Note any changes in the
form of the poem that might signal a shift in point of view. Study the structure of the poem, including its
rhyme and rhythm (if any). Re-read the poem slowly, thinking about what message and emotion the
poem communicates to you.

STRUCTURE and POETRY

An important method of analyzing a poem is to look at the stanza structure or style of a poem. Generally
speaking, structure has to do with the overall organization of lines and/or the conventional patterns of
sound. Again, many modern poems may not have any identifiable structure (i.e. they are free verse), so
don't panic if you can't find it!

STANZAS: Stanzas are a series of lines grouped together and separated by an empty line from other
stanzas. They are the equivalent of a paragraph in an essay. One way to identify a stanza is to count the
number of lines. Thus:

couplet (2 lines)

tercet (3 lines)

quatrain (4 lines)

cinquain (5 lines)

sestet (6 lines) (sometimes it's called a sexain)

septet (7 lines)

octave (8 lines)

FORM: A poem may or may not have a specific number of lines, rhyme scheme and/or metrical pattern,
but it can still be labeled according to its form or style. Here are the three most common types of poems
according to form:
1. Lyric Poem: It is any poem with one speaker (not necessarily the poet) who expresses strong thoughts
and feelings. Most poems, especially modern ones, are lyric poems.

2. Narrative Poem: It is a poem that tells a story; its structure resembles the plot line of a story [i.e. the
introduction of conflict and characters, rising action, climax and the denouement].

3. Descriptive Poem: It is a poem that describes the world that surrounds the speaker. It uses elaborate
imagery and adjectives. While emotional, it is more "outward-focused" than lyric poetry, which is more
personal and introspective.

In a sense, almost all poems, whether they have consistent patterns of sound and/or structure, or are
free verse, are in one of the three categories above. Or, of course, they may be a combination of 2 or 3 of
the above styles! Here are some more types of poems that are subtypes of the three styles above:

Ode: It is usually a lyric poem of moderate length, with a serious subject, an elevated style, and an
elaborate stanza pattern.

Elegy: It is a lyric poem that mourns the dead. [It's not to be confused with a eulogy.]It has no set metric
or stanzaic pattern, but it usually begins by reminiscing about the dead person, then laments the reason
for the death, and then resolves the grief by concluding that death leads to immortality. It often uses
"apostrophe" (calling out to the dead person) as a literary technique. It can have a fairly formal style, and
sound similar to an ode.

Sonnet: It is a lyric poem consisting of 14 lines and, in the English version, is usually written in iambic
pentameter. There are two basic kinds of sonnets: the Italian (or Petrarchan) sonnet and the
Shakespearean (or Elizabethan/English) sonnet. The Italian/Petrarchan sonnet is named after Petrarch,
an Italian Renaissance poet. The Petrarchan sonnet consists of an octave (eight lines) and a sestet (six
lines). The Shakespearean sonnet consists of three quatrains (four lines each) and a concluding couplet
(two lines). The Petrarchan sonnet tends to divide the thought into two parts (argument and conclusion);
the Shakespearean, into four (the final couplet is the summary).

Ballad: It is a narrative poem that has a musical rhythm and can be sung. A ballad is usually organized
into quatrains or cinquains, has a simple rhythm structure, and tells the tales of ordinary people.

Epic: It is a long narrative poem in elevated style recounting the deeds of a legendary or historical hero.
Qualities of an Epic Poem:

narrative poem of great scope; dealing with the founding of a nation or some other heroic theme
requires a dignified theme requires an organic unity requires orderly progress of the action always has a
heroic figure or figures involves supernatural forces

written in deliberately ceremonial style

Other types of poems include:

Haiku: It has an unrhymed verse form having three lines (a tercet) and usually 5,7,5 syllables,
respectively. It's usually considered a lyric poem.

Limerick: It has a very structured poem, usually humorous & composed of five lines (a cinquain), in an
aabba rhyming pattern; beat must be anapestic (weak, weak, strong) with 3 feet in lines 1, 2, & 5 and 2
feet in lines 3 & 4. It's usually a narrative poem based upon a short and often ribald anecdote.

SOUND PATTERNS

Three other elements of poetry are rhyme scheme, meter (ie. regular rhythm) and word sounds (like
alliteration). These are sometimes collectively called sound play because they take advantage of the
performative, spoken nature of poetry.

RHYME

Rhyme is the repetition of similar sounds. In poetry, the most common kind of rhyme is the end rhyme,
which occurs at the end of two or more lines. It is usually identified with lower case letters, and a new
letter is used to identify each new end sound. Take a look at the rhyme scheme for the following poem :

I saw a fairy in the wood,

He was dressed all in green.

He drew his sword while I just stood,

And realized I'd been seen.

The rhyme scheme of the poem is abab.

Internal rhyme occurs in the middle of a line, as in these lines from Coleridge, "In mist or cloud, on mast
or shroud" or "Whiles all the night through fog-smoke white" ("The Ancient Mariner"). Remember that
most modern poems do not have rhyme

NOTE: Rhyme (above) and rhythm (below) are two totally different concepts!

RHYTHM AND METER

Meter: the systematic regularity in rhythm; this systematic rhythm (or sound pattern) is usually identified
by examining the type of "foot" and the number of feet.

1. Poetic Foot: The traditional line of metered poetry contains a number of rhythmical units, which are
called feet. The feet in a line are distinguished as a recurring pattern of two or three syllables ("apple"
has 2 syllables, "banana" has 3 syllables, etc.). The pattern, or foot, is designated according to the
number of syllables contained, and the relationship in each foot between the strong and weak
syllables.Thus:

__ = a stressed (or strong, or LOUD) syllable

U = an unstressed (or weak, or quiet) syllable

In other words, any line of poetry with a systematic rhythm has a certain number of feet, and each foot
has two or three syllables with a constant beat pattern .

a. Iamb (Iambic) - weak syllable followed by strong syllable. [Note that the pattern is sometimes fairly
hard to maintain, as in the third foot.]

U __ U __ U __ U __ U __

A book/of ver/ se un/ derneath/ the bough

b. Trochee (Trochaic): strong syllable followed by a weak syllable.

__ U __ U __ U __ U

Fairer/ than the/ mermaid/ tavern

c. Anapest (Anapestic): two weak syllables followed by a strong syllable.

UU __ UU __ UU __

On this night/ of all nights/ of the year

e.g.

In her room at the prow of the house

Where light breaks, and the windows are tossed...

From "The Writer", by Richard Wilbur

d. Dactyl (Dactylic): a strong syllable followed by two weak syllables.

__ UU __ UU __ UU __ UU

How shall/ know wether/ they will come/ back to me

Here's another (silly) example of dactylic rhythm.

DDDA was an / archer, who / shot at a / frog

DDDB was a / butcher, and / had a great / dog

DDDC was a / captain, all / covered with / lace

DDDD was a / drunkard, and / had a red / face.

e. Spondee (Spondaic): two strong syllables (not common as lines, but appears as a foot). A spondee
usually appears at the end of a line.
U __ __ __

And no/ birds sing

2. The Number of Feet: The second part of meter is the number of feet contained in a line.

Thus:

one foot=monometer

two feet=dimeter

three feet=trimeter

four feet=tetrameter

five feet=pentameter

six feet=hexameter (when hexameter is in iambic rhythm, it is called an alexandrine)

Poems with an identifiable meter are therefore identified by the type of feet (e.g. iambic) and the
number of feet in a line (e.g. pentameter). The following line is iambic pentameter because it (1) has five
feet [pentameter], and (2) each foot has two syllables with the stress on the second syllable [iambic].

That time | of year | thou mayst | in me | behold

Thus, you will hear meter identified as iambic pentameter, trochaic tetrameter, and so on.

3. Irregularity: Many metered poems in English avoid perfectly regular rhythm because it is monotonous.
Irregularities in rhythm add interest and emphasis to the lines. In this line:

__ U U __ U __ U __ U __

How with/ this rage/ shall beau/ ty hold/ a plea

The first foot substitutes a trochee for an iamb. Thus, the basic iambic pentameter is varied with the
opening trochee.
4. Blank Verse: Any poetry that does have a set metrical pattern (usually iambic pentameter), but does
not have rhyme, is blank verse. Shakespeare frequently used unrhymed iambic pentameter in his plays;
his works are an early example of blank verse.

5. Free Verse: Most modern poetry no longer follows strict rules of meter or rhyme, especially
throughout an entire poem. Free verse, frankly, has no rules about meter or rhyme whatsoever! [In
other words, blank verse has rhythm, but no rhyme, while free verse has neither rhythm nor rhyme.] So,
you may find it difficult to find regular iambic pentameter in a modern poem, though you might find it in
particular lines. Modern poets do like to throw in the occasional line or phrase of metered poetry,
particularly if they’re trying to create a certain effect. Free verse can also apply to a lack of a formal verse
structure.

How do I know if a poem has meter?

How do I determine the meter?

To maintain a consistent meter, a poet has to choose words that fit. For example, if a poet wants to write
iambic poetry, s/he has to choose words that have a naturally iambic rhythm. Words like betray and
persuade will work in an iambic poem because they are naturally iambic. They sound silly any other way.
However, candle and muscle will work best in a trochaic poem, because their natural emphasis is on the
first syllable. (However, a poet can use trochaic words if s/he places a one syllable word in front of them.
This often leads to poetic feet ending in the middle of words - after one syllable - rather than the end.)
It's not surprising that most modern poetry is not metered, because it is very restrictive and demanding.

Determining meter is usually a process of elimination. Start reading everything in iambic by emphasizing
every second syllable. 80 to 90% of metered poetry is iambic. If it sounds silly or strange, because many
of the poem's words do not sound natural, then try trochaic, anapestic or dactylic rhythms. If none of
these sounds natural, then you probably do not have metered poetry at all (ie. it's free verse).

If there are some lines that sound metered, but some that don't, the poem has an irregular rhythm.

WORD SOUNDS

Another type of sound play is the emphasis on individual sounds and words:
Alliteration: the repetition of initial sounds on the same line or stanza - Big bad Bob bounced bravely.

Assonance: the repetition of vowel sounds (anywhere in the middle or end of a line or stanza) - Tilting at
windmills

Consonance: the repetition of consonant sounds (anywhere in the middle or end of a line or stanza) -
And all the air a solemn stillness holds. (T. Gray)

Onomatopoeia: words that sound like that which they describe - Boom! Crash! Pow! Quack! Moo!
Caress...

Repetition: the repetition of entire lines or phrases to emphasize key thematic ideas.

Parallel Stucture: a form of repetition where the order of verbs and nouns is repeated; it may involve
exact words, but it more importantly repeats sentence structure - "I came, I saw, I conquered".

MEANING and POETRY

I said earlier that poetry is not always about hidden or indirect meanings (sometimes called meaning
play). Nevertheless, if often is a major part of poetry, so here some of the important things to
remember:

CONCRETENESS and PARTICULARITY

In general, poetry deals with particular things in concrete language, since our emotions most readily
respond to these things. From the poem's particular situation, the reader may then generalize; the
generalities arise by implication from the particular. In other words, a poem is most often concrete and
particular; the "message," if there is any, is general and abstract; it's implied by the images.

Images, in turn, suggest meanings beyond the mere identity of the specific object. Poetry "plays" with
meaning when it identifies resemblances or makes comparisons between things; common examples of
this "figurative" comparison include:

ticking of clock = mortality

hardness of steel = determination

white = peace or purity

Such terms as connotation, simile, metaphor, allegory, and symbol are aspects of this comparison. Such
expressions are generally called figurative or metaphorical language.
DENOTATION AND CONNOTATION

Word meanings are not only restricted to dictionary meanings. The full meaning of a word includes both
the dictionary definition and the special meanings and associations a word takes in a given phrase or
expression. For example, a tiger is a carnivorous animal of the cat family. This is the literal or denotative
meaning. But we have certain associations with the word: sinuous movement, jungle violence, and
aggression. These are the suggestive, figurative or connotative meanings.

FIGURATIVE/CONNOTATIVE DEVICES

Simile is the rhetorical term used to designate the most elementary form of resemblances: most similes
are introduced by "like" or "as." These comparisons are usually between dissimilar situations or objects
that have something in common, such as "My love is like a red, red rose."

A metaphor leaves out "like" or "as" and implies a direct comparison between objects or situations. "All
flesh is grass." For more on metaphor, click here.

Synecdoche is a form of metaphor, which in mentioning an important (and attached) part signifies the
whole (e.g. "hands" for labour).

Metonymy is similar to synecdoche; it's a form of metaphor allowing an object closely associated (but
unattached) with a object or situation to stand for the thing itself (e.g. the crown or throne for a king or
the bench for the judicial system).

A symbol is like a simile or metaphor with the first term left out. "My love is like a red, red rose" is a
simile. If, through persistent identification of the rose with the beloved woman, we may come to
associate the rose with her and her particular virtues. At this point, the rose would become a symbol.

Allegory can be defined as a one to one correspondence between a series of abstract ideas and a series
of images or pictures presented in the form of a story or a narrative. For example, George Orwell's
Animal Farm is an extended allegory that represents the Russian Revolution through a fable of a farm
and its rebellious animals.
Personification occurs when you treat abstractions or inanimate objects as human, that is, giving them
human attributes, powers, or feelings (e.g., "nature wept" or "the wind whispered many truths to me").

Irony takes many forms. Most basically, irony is a figure of speech in which actual intent is expressed
through words that carry the opposite meaning.

Paradox: usually a literal contradiction of terms or situations

Situational Irony: an unmailed letter

Dramatic Irony: audience has more information or greater perspective than the characters

Verbal Irony: saying one thing but meaning another

Overstatement (hyperbole)

Understatement (meiosis)

Sarcasm

Irony may be a positive or negative force. It is most valuable as a mode of perception that assists the
poet to see around and behind opposed attitudes, and to see the often conflicting interpretations that
come from our examination of life.

POETRY AS A LANGUAGE OF INDIRECTION

Thus, if we recognize that much of the essential quality of our experience is more complex than a simple
denotative statement can describe, then we must recognize the value of the poet's need to search for a
language agile enough to capture the complexity of that experience. Consider this four-line stanza:

O Western wind, when wilt thou blow

That the small rain down can rain?

Christ, that my love were in my arms,

And I in my bed again!

The center of the poem is the lover's desire to be reunited with his beloved (lines 3 and 4). But the full
meaning of the poem depends on the first two lines also. Obviously, the lover associates his grief with
the wind and rain, but the poet leaves to implication, to indirection, just how the lover's situation and
the wind and rain are related. We note that they are related in several ways: the need for experiencing
and manifesting love is an inherent need, like nature's need for rain; in a word, love, like the wind and
rain, is natural. Secondly, the lover is living in a kind of drought or arid state that can only be slaked by
the soothing presence of the beloved. Thirdly, the rising of the wind and the coming of the rain can
neither be controlled nor foretold exactly, and human affairs, like the lover's predicament, are subject to
the same sort of chance.

Undoubtedly, too, there are associations with specific words, like "Western" or "small rain" that the
reader is only half aware of but which nonetheless contribute to meaning. These associations or
connotations afford a few indirections that enrich the entire poem. For example, "small rain" at once
describes the kind of rain that the lover wants to fall and suggests the joy and peace of lover's tears, and
"small" alone might suggest the daintiness or femininity of the beloved.