Mushrooms Demystified

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And agarics and fungi, with mildew and mould Started like mist from the
wet ground cold Pale, fleshy, as if the decaying dead With a spirit of growth
had been animated. . .

And Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, bygone creator of Sherlock Holmes:

. . . A sickly autumn shone upon the land. Wet and rotten leaves reeked and
festered under the foul haze. The fields were spotted with monstrous fungi
of a size and colour never matched before-scarlet and mauve and liver and
black-it was as though the sick earth had burst into foul pustules. Mildew
and lichen mottled the walls and with that filthy crop, death sprang also
from the watersoaked earth.

And D.H. Lawrence, that chronic belittler of the British bourgeoisie:

How beastly the bourgeois is especially the male of the species- Nicely
groomed, like a mushroom standing there so sleek and erect and eyeable-
and like a fungus, living on the remains of bygone life, sucking his life out
of the dead leaves of greater life than his own. And even so, he's stale, he's
been there too long, Touch him, and you'll find he's all gone inside just like
an old mushroom, all wormy inside, and hollow under a smooth skin and an
upright appearance. Full of seething, wormy, hollow feelings rather nasty-
How beastly the bourgeois is! Standing in their thousands, these
appearances, in damp England what a pity they can't all be kicked over like
sickening toadstools, and left to melt back, swiftly into the soil of England.

FUNGOPHOBIA
3

And that prim American poet Emily Dickinson:

Had nature any outcast face Could she a son condemn Had nature an
lscariot That mushroom-it is him.

Has any group of organisms been so unjustly maligned? Actually,

Dickenson's limp effort should come as no surprise, since she was a virtual
recluse. Prejudice is largely a measure of ignorance! And yet, if you go to
continental Europe, you'll find that fungo phobia is the exception and not
the rule. Most Europeans, especially those who live close to the woods,
know which mushrooms to pick and how to cook them. They bestow upon
each species an individual name and sell them in the markets. Many
Americans, on the other hand, are completely oblivious to the fact that there
is more than one fungus among us-those of recent European or Oriental
ancestry being notable exceptions. The farther east you go in Europe, the
more passionate is the love for mush- rooms. Which brings us to Russia.
The Russians go absolutely bananas over fungus. Mushrooming is a
commonplace tradition there, not the hallowed turf of the academic or
connoisseur. Instead of talking about the weather, strangers often engage in
polite conversation about how the mushroom season is progressing. And
Russian children are raised on mushroom lore from earliest infancy. Many
family names are derived from fungi: Bribov, Borovikov, Gruzdjov,
Ryshikov, Opjonkin. Another oneis Griboyedev, or"Mr. Mushroom- eater."
The poet Majokovsky was a mushroom addict. (Poetry, like mushroom
hunting, is a great tradition there. A Russian poet draws 5,000 toa poetry
reading -here you're lucky to draw 50.) Even Lenin is said to have been
possessed by a razh or "mushroom passion." In this country, it is only with
the renewed interest in natural foods and the desire to return to the earth
(and what's good for you) that mushrooms are being noticed again.
Mycological societies are sprouting up in the major cities. And of course,
business is capitalizing on the trend. Polka-dotted mushrooms have
appeared in startling profusion on curtains and calendars, pottery and
stationery, potholders and incense holders, bumper stickers and birthday
cakes. And yet, when it comes down to actually eating wild mushrooms,
most Americans are still afraid. Instead they opt for something more
familiar and not half as good, such as Grape Nuts or Malt Balls. Yet it
stands to reason that if mushroom-eating were an inherently dangerous
activity, it could not exist to the extent it does in Europe. And the
mycological societies in America would be in dire need of new members,
their ranks depleted annually by the insidious "Mush- room Menace." Like
driving, swimming, walking, or breathing, mushroom- eating is only made
dangerous by those who approach itfrivolously. If you treat mushrooms
with discrimination and respect, you can learn to pick your own edible wild
mushrooms without fear of confusing them with poisonous types-
mushrooms which are nutritious, far more flavorful than the mass-
produced cultivated variety, and best of all, free! It does, however, require
time and effort-a willingness to plunge into the woods, to uncover their
secrets, to learn their characteristics, to penetrate their haunts. That's what
this book is about.

WHAT IS A MUSHROOM?

FUNGI are neither plants nor animals. They don't contain chlorophyll like
green plants, and as a result cannot manufacture their own food. In this
respect they resemble animals, because they feed themselves by digesting
other organic matter. However, they lack the nervous system, specialized
organs, and mobility characteristic of most animals. Furthermore, fungi
reproduce by means of microscopic reproductive units called spores. These
are far simpler in structure than seeds or eggs, and in fact, usually consist of
only one cell. The term mushroom is most often used to describe the
reproductive structure (fruiting body) of a fungus. In this sense a
mushroom, like a potato or persimmon, is not an organism, but a part of an
organism. However, the term "mushroom" can also mean any fungus which
produces a fleshy fruiting body (that is, one that has substance). By this
definition, not all fungi qualify as mushrooms. Athlete's foot fungus, bread
molds, water molds, yeasts, and mildews are examples of fungi which do
not form fleshy fruiting bodies. The term "mushroom" can also be applied
in a more restricted sense to those fleshy fungi like the cultivated
mushroom whose fruiting bodies bear spores on radiating blades called
gills. Many fungi are exquisitely constructed, and their life cycles are
among the most complex to be found. It is not the purpose of this book to
explore their biology, but it is necessary to consider briefly how mushrooms
grow and reproduce. All of the mushrooms in this book belong to two
subdivisions of the true fungi. Most of them produce their spores on the
exterior of microscopic clu b-shaped cells called basidia (singular:
basidium), hence they are called Basidiomycetes. A smaller number
produce their spores inside microscopic saclike mother cells called asci
(singular: ascus), hence they are called Ascomycetes. The fruiting bodies of
the Basidiomycetes and Ascomycetes vary greatly in detail and design, but
their function is always the same-they perpetuate their species by
disseminating spores. A typical gilled mushroom (the most common type of
fruiting body) is a straightforward structure consisting of a cap, gills, and
(usually) a stalk (see diagram). A protective covering called a veil may also
be present, and if so, will frequently form a ring (annulus) and / or a volva
when it ruptures. The parts of a gilled mushroom are discussed in more
detail on pages 14-18, and fruiting bodies of a radically different structure,
such as puffballs, are illustrated and discussed in their respective chapters.

Spore formation. At left is a typical club- shaped basidium, with four small
stalks (sterigmata) on which the spores form. At right is an ascus, inside of
which spores (usually eight) form.

annulus or ring (partial nil remnants)

cap
.¥ umbo

gills

mycelium

\'01\'8 (uni\'ersal nil remnants)

a..

Parts of a gilled mushroom. Mature Amanita at left has cap, stalk, gills,
annulus, and volva. The partial veil covers the gills when young and breaks
to form a ring (annulus) on the stalk, while the universal veil at first
envelops the entire fruiting body and breaks to form a volva (sack, collar, or
series of concentric rings) at base of stalk. Development of fruiting body is
shown on pp. 270-271. At right is a mature Marasmius. which has neither
annulus nor volva, but often has an umbo (knob) on cap.

In a gilled mushroom, millions of spores are produced on basidia which line

the gills. These spores are subsequently discharged and carried by air
currents to new localities. Each is theoretically capable of germina tion, but
only a small percentage land in a favorable environment. Spores germinate
by sending out a germ tube which branches to form many threadlike cells
called hyphae. When two spores of different but compatible strains (or
"sexes") germinate in close proximity to each other, their hyphae merge to
form hyphae with two nuclei (one from each parent). These hyphae grow
rapidly, forming an intricate network of filaments called the mycelium or
spawn (see photo on p. 43). The mycelium is the vegetative portion of the
fungus. The tips of the mycelial hyphae liberate enzymes which digest food
to support growth. Once the mycelium has established itself and built up an
adequate food reserve, it becomes capable of producing mushrooms. Under
favorable conditions (for most species this means damp but not soggy, cool
but not cold), some hyphae bundle together to form knots of tissue which
gradually develop into fruiting bodies. When these fruiting bodies are
differentiated but not fully developed (that is, after they have a cap and stalk
but before the cap expands), they are called buttons. The stalk then
elongates, pushing the cap above the surface ofthe ground (or other
substrate). Finally, the cap opens and the veil (if present) breaks, exposing
the gills on which spores form. The mature fruiting body is essentially a
bundle of threadlike hyphae (each with two nuclei), but the filaments in the
bundle terminate in either spore-producing cells (basidia), specialized
sterile cells (cystidia), or unspecialized cells (basidioles, or in some cases,
paraphyses). (See illustration on p. 6.) Though they lack the sexual organs
of plants and animals, mushrooms reproduce sexually, i.e., genes are
recombined so that offspring are not genetically identical to parents. Gene
exchange takes place in the basidium (or in Ascomycetes, a spedal cell
called the ascogonium). The two parent nuclei fuse, doubling the
chromosome number, then divide twice while replicating their
chromosomes only once-thereby reducing the chromosome number to half

Cross-section of a single gill as seen under the micro- scope. The edge of
the gill is at the bottom ofthis section.

that after fusion. The four remaining nuclei migrate to the tip of the
basidium, and walls form behind them to produce four spores-two of each
stram ("sex"), each with one nucleus. With their subsequent discharge the
life cycle is completed. The above life cycle is typical of most
Basidiomycetes, except that it is often complicated by the presence of more
than two strains Uust as our life cy- cle would be unimaginably complicated
by the existence of more than two sexes!). Also, some mushrooms are
capable of forming spores asexually.

MUSHROOMS AND THE ENVIRONMENT

IT IS the "role" of fungi to break things down, to give things back. One of
the more obvious laws of nature is that existing life must die if new life is to
flourish. Stale air must go out the window if fresh air is to come in. If there
were no vehicle for the disposal of dead matter, there would soon be no
need for one-we would all be buried under a blanket of inert matter. Fungi,
along with bacteria. are precisely that vehicle. They are nature's recyclers,
the soil's replenishers. Plants deplete the soil by extracting minerals to
manufacture their food. Animals, in turn, devour plants. In feeding on dead
(or occasionally living) matter, fungi and bacteria reduce complex organic
compounds to simpler building blocks, thereby enabling plants to re-use
them. Thus, in a very profound sense, fungi are life- givers as well as
destroyers. To associate them only with death and decay-as so many people
do-is to do them, as well as our own ability to perceive, an injustice. Fungi
can be divided into three categories based on their relationship to their
substrate (immediate environment). Parasitic fungi feed on living
organisms. Most serious fungus pests (such as wheat rust) fall in this
category, but relatively few mushrooms are parasitic. Their ranks include
Cordyceps species (on insects, insect pupae, insect larvae, and other fungi);
Asterophora and Hypomyces species (on other mushrooms); various
polypores (on trees); and Sparassis crispa (on tree roots). Some, like the
common honey mushroom, Armillariella mellea, are parasitic under certain
conditions and saprophytic (see below) under others. Saprophytic fungi
subsist on dead or decaying matter (wood, humus, soil, grass, dung, and
other debris). When there is an even distribution of nutrients in the
environment, the mycelium of a terrestrial fungus may grow outward at the
6

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A large fairy ring of Marasmius oreades.

same rate in all directions, periodically producing circles of mushrooms on

its outer fringes. These circles or arcs are called fairy rings. presumably
because people once thought fairies danced in them. Many mushrooms are
capable of forming fairy rings, including the aptly named fairy ring
mushroom (Marasmius oreades), which grows on lawns. Each year the fairy
ring gets larger as the mycelium grows outward, until something finally
impedes its progress (usually a lack of food), and the mycelium dies or
breaks up into arcs. By measuring the annual growth rate. it has been
estimated that some fairy rings in the Midwest prairies are six hundred
years old! Mycorrhizal fungi comprise the third category. They form a
symbiotic or mutually beneficial relationship with the rootlets of plants
(mostly trees) called mycorrhiza (from myco, fungus, and rhiza, root). The
mycelium forms a sheath of hyphae around the rootlets of the host and an
exchange of nutrients takes place. The rootlets provide the fungus with
moisture and organic compounds (such as carbohydrates), while the fungus
aids the roots in the absorption of phosphorus, inorganic nitrogen, and other
minerals, and apparently also provides added resistance to certain diseases.
As a rule, mycorrhizal fungi cannot grow without their hosts, and studies
have shown that trees deprived of their mycorrhizal partners do not compete
successfully with those that have their normal complement. This is
especially true in poor or exposed soils, where trees need all the help they
can get, and mycorrhizal fungi have proved invaluable in reforestation
projects. Many mycorrhiza-formers are host-spt:cific, i.e., they grow only
with one kind of tree. For instance, Suil/us pungens grows principally with
Monterey pine, while Amanita rubescens is monogamous with live oak (in
our area). A tree, however, may have several mycorrhizal associates whose
relationships with the tree are qualitatively different (Alexander Smith
reports finding over 50 species of mycorrhizal mushroms under an isolated
Douglas-fir). In other words, each type of mushroom occupies a different
ecological niche. Many factors are encompassed by the concept of niche,
some of which we don't understand. A niche is not so much an organism's
habitat as its "profession"-what it does for a living, or the "role" it plays in
its biological community. Each kind of mush-

'7

MUSHROOMS AND THE ENVIRONMENT

room reproduces and germinates successfully within a certain humidity and

temperature spectrum. Each extracts particular nutrients from its
environment. Thus two species may occur in the same habitat, but occupy
different niches. One may be taking the lignin from a log, another, the
cellulose. Or one may be feeding on the heartwood, another on the
sapwood. Or returning to the mycorrhizal fungi, one may be supplying
phosphorus to the tree, and another, nitrogen. Succession also occurs-as one
type of mushroom exhausts its nutrient supply, another takes its place. A
living tree may harbor certain types of fungal growth. As soon as it dies,
new species will appear. Eventually the wood is reduced to fragments or
powder, at which point still other mushrooms take over, with growth habits
better suited to the changed conditions.

NAMES AND CLASSIFICATION

NAMES, like automobiles, are largely vehicles of convenience. You can't

claim to have a profound knowledge of human beings without knowing at
least some of them on an individual basis. Recognition is a prerequisite to
getting to know someone, and a name is helpful in associating that person
with a unique set of identifying characteristics, whether it be his big nose
and hairy face, or her long legs and swift smile. Rather than saying "the 6 ft.
7 in. acrobatic forward of the Philadelphia 76ers," we say "Julius Erving" or
"Doctor J." Instead of "you know, that bright red mushroom with white
spots that grows under pine," we say Amanita muscaria, or "fly agaric."
Names can also be descriptive. For instance, the red-headed woodpecker
has a red head and pecks wood. What's more, names can reflect common
bonds. Your last name identifies you as a member of a group with similar
genes, and provides a clue as to your origins. Your first name defines you as
an individual entity within that group. Unfortunately, relatively few
mushrooms have colloquial English names-a tribute, as pointed out
previously, to our fungophobic roots. In this book I have used popular
names where they exist, and in some cases have capriciously coined
common names, but to do so in every case would only create confusion, as
there is no assurance they would be accepted. Therefore, if you really want
to get to know mushrooms, it is necessary to know their scientific names.
People usually groan when they hear this, and to be sure, the long Latin
names are intimidating. But so, at first, is a can opener-it's just a question of
familiarity. In fact, you may already have mastered some Latin (scientific)
names without realizing it- e.g., Euca(vptus. Rhododendron, Hippopotamus.
Memorization is made easier by learning the meanings of the names. For
instance, Lactarius rubrilacteus (rubri=red, lacteus=milk) exudes a red
"milk" when cut. See "What It All Means" on p. 899 for more details. Don't
get bogged down in pronounciation.1t doesn't really matter how you say
something as long as you communicate it. Even taxonomists don't agree on
how some names should be pronounced! As you begin to use scientific
nomenclature, you'll discover its many advan- tages. Common names do
not necessarily reflect natural affinities. Hedge nettle is not a nettle, and
poison oak is by no means an oak. Likewise, the names meadow
mushroom, honey mushroom, matsutake, and horse mushroom provide no
clues as to which, if any, have common bonds or similar charac- teristics.
Also, common names are not universal. For instance, Boletus edu/is has
dozens of regional names, and memorizing all of them would be almost as
difficult as getting everyone to agree on one of them!

NAMES AND CLASSIFICATION

In contrast, scientific nomenclature transcends cultural and regional

barriers. It is used by naturalists and biologists throughout the world. and it
is designed to reflect natural relationships. It employs a binomial system in
which each kind of organism has two names. The second name, the species,
is the kind of organism; the first name, the genus (plural: genera) is a
collection of species with very similar traits. The species epithet is
meaningless without the genus name (or its abbreviation) attached (we
never sign a check with only our first name!). The names are mostly Latin
because that language was universally fashionable in learned circles when
the binomial system was devised. The beauty of the binomial system is that
it indicates commonality while simultaneously expressing singularity.*
Amanita calyptrata (the coccora) and Amanita phalloides (the death cap)
are different species belonging to the same genus,just as Canis lupis(woIO,
Canis latrans(coyote), and Canisfamiliaris(dog) belong to the same genus.
Yet the common names of these organisms don't indicate that they are
closely related! Some kinds of similarities are clearly more fundamental
than others. Therefore, it was deemed necessary to erect a hierarchy of
classification to indicate the degree of commonality. Genus and species are
only two levels in that hierarchy. Just as species with common
characteristics are grouped in a genus, several genera with common features
are grouped in a family (e.g., the red fox, Vulpes fulva, belongs to the same
family as the dog, but not to the same genus). Families are in turn grouped
in an order, orders in a class, classes in a subdivision or division (or in the
case of animals, in a phylum), and divisions in a kingdom. At the other end
of the scale, slightly different populations of a single species are designated
as subspecies, varieties, or forms.** Here is the complete classification
scheme for three mushrooms-the blewit, shaggy mane, and inky cap.

Category Kingdom Division Subdivision Class Order Family Genus

Species

Blewit Fungi Eumycota Basidiomycotina Hymenomycetes Agaricales T

richolomataceae Clilocybe nuda

Shaggy Mane Fungi Eumycota Basidiomycotina H ymenom ycetes

Agaricales Coprinaceae Coprinus comalus

Inky Cap Fungi Eumycota Basidiomycotina Hymenomycetes Agaricales

Coprinaceae Coprinus alramenlarius

All three of these organisms are fungi-they possess neither photosynthetic

compounds nor seeds, and their vegetative phase is comprised of threadlike
cells (hyphae). Since none are ameba-like, they are not slime molds and
hence belong to the division Eumycota. All three produce their spores on
microscopic cells called basidia, hence they belong to the subdivision
Basidiomycotina. All forcibly discharge their spores from basidia which
form on radiating blades (gills), therefore they belong to the class
Hymenomycetes and the order Agaricales. However, the blewit has pinkish
spores while the shaggy mane and inky cap have black spores-which is one
reason they are placed in different families. Not only do the shaggy mane
and inky cap belong to the same family (the Coprinaceae), but they also
belong to the same genus, Coprinus, because

*The singularity of a population of organisms; our personal names, on the

other hand, indicate the singularity of individual organisms.

10

NAMES AND CLASSIFICATION

both have gills that deliquesce (liquefy) at maturity. However, the shaggy
mane has a tall, shaggy, cylindrical cap while the inky cap has a smoother,
broader, oval or conical cap; consequently they are recognized as distinct
species. Note the suffixes at the levels above genus: -ceae denotes a family;
-ales indicates an order; and -cetes denotes a class or larger category. It
must be remembered, however, that this elaborate classification scheme is
contrived. It is our attempt at boxing and categorizing nature. There are
common gene pools and definite lines of evolution, but no such clearcut
categories exist. Thus, the definition and interpretation of species, genera,
families, etc., is largely a matter of opinion. Disputes invariably arise, many
of which have not been resolved. For instance, at the genus level and above,
there is the problem of deciding which similarities among fungi are
fundamental (indicators of common origin), and which are coincidental or
superficial, or the result of convergent evolution. * The microscope has
been a tremendous help in uncovering "hidden" similarities, but it has also
exacerbated the confusion by introducing a vast new set of criteria on which
to pass judgment. The result is a nomenclatural nightmare, from the upper
echelons of the hierarchy right on down to the species level. Mycological
literature is as riddled with contradictions as a Suilllus pungens is with
maggots. Anyone who has used more than one mushroom book can testify
to the frustration of finding different names applied to the same fungus
(synonyms), or one name applied to several different fungi (homonyms).
For instance, Clitocybe nuda (the blew it) is better known as Lepista nuda,
and was formerly known as Tricholoma nudum. It has been incorrectly
called Tricho- loma personatum, and in Europe is also known as
Rhodopaxillus nudus! For an even more confusing example, see the list of
synonyms for Trametes occidentalis on p. 550. This confusion is partly the
result of disagreement as to what exacly con- stitutes a "genus" or "species"
-a difference in philosophy that is known in taxonomic circles as the battle
between the "lumpers" and "splitters." The "lumpers" are conservative in
their approach. They interpret genera or species broadly, allowing for a
good deal of variation-in other words, they tend to stress similarities
between mushrooms rather than differences. ..Splitters," on the other hand,
are forever describing new genera and species based on the most minute-
but not necessarily insignificant-differences. Both approaches have their
advantages and drawbacks, and both are self-defeating when carried to an
extreme. ** The important thing to realize is that the system of
classification used in this book is by no means definitive. It represents an
amalgamation of various inves- tigators' views of the fleshy fungi, plus the
overriding consideration of usefulness to the amateur (since this book is
designed for amateurs). Some of the names used will undoubtedly be
invalidated in the near future. A few have not been validly published and
are therefore placed in quotation marks. Synonyms have been provided and
homonyms elucidated. But the inherent advantages of the binomial system
of nomenclature will not be fully realized until stabilization is achieved and
one name is agreed upon for each kind of mushroom. In exceptional cases
like that of the blew it, it is perhaps easiest in the meantime to use the
common English name-if there is one. *The fins and torpedo-shaped bodies
of sharks and killer whales are independent adaptations to a similar en-
vironment, not indicators of common origin. This phenomenon is called
convergent evolution. **One radical "lumper" ) know recognizes only two
kinds of mushrooms-the "pickers" and the "kickers" (those that deserve to
be picked, and those that deserve to be kicked!).

COLLECTING MUSHROOMS

MUSHROOM hunting is not simply a matter of traipsing through the

woods after it rains. It is an art, a skill, a meditation, and a process. If you
proceed at a careful, deliberate rate, you'll enjoy much more success than if
you rush around frantically picking whatever mushrooms you see, then stuff
them in your basket, bring the whole mess home and dump it on your table.
Mushrooms collected in this manner are likely to wind up in the garbage,
unidentified and unappre- ciated. Don't just collect, but observe the
mushrooms-and their surroundings. In the process you'll discover many
other clandestine wonders you were previously unaware of (see
photographs on pp. 28-29). Be selective-pick only distinctive species in
good condition. You enhance your chances of successful identification
immeasurably by collecting several specimens of each kind ofmushroom.
This is absolutely essential, because you have no other means of assessing
variation within a given species. Since mushrooms decay rapidly and
identification can be a time-consuming process, don't pick every kind you
see. I t's better to fill your basket with many good examples of a few
distinctive species (in which case your chances of identification are good)
than with one or two specimens of many species (in which case your
chances of identification are very poor). Don't assume, however, that two
mushrooms are the same species simply because they're growing together.
Judge each on its own merits. If you're uncertain, assume for safety s sake
that they're different, and treat them as such. As you become more adept at
observation, your ability to identify fleshy fungi will "mushroom"- but only
after a solid foundation or "mycelium" of ex- perience is laid. It is far better
to learn a few species well than a large number superficially. The novelty of
the "Easter egg" approach wears off quickly as its futility becomes
apparent. If possible, choose a specific quarry for each hunt. Suppose it's
January and you're going for a walk in a local live oak woodland. By using
the chart on pp. 48-5] and consulting the description of the blewit
(Clitocybe nuda), you find that the blewit is often abundant under oak in
January. The next step is to familiarize yourself with its field marks: bluish-
purple color, stocky stature, absence of a veil, citrus odor, etc. Your
mushroom hunt is thus transformed into a blewit hunt. Of course, nothing
stops you from gathering other interesting fungi you encounter, but
focusing your attention on the blewit insures that you'll learn something
about blewits even if you don't find any (namely, that the locality and/or
weather conditions were not conducive to its fruiting). The desirability of
this approach is underscored by the excitement it lends to the hunt. It is
much more gratifying to find something you are specifically trying to find.
And you'll be more likely to remember what it looks like and where it
grows, so you can return to harvest more. By focusing on several species as
the season unfolds, you will develop a quicker and keener appreciatIon of
what grows where and what environmental factors they respond to. Many
of the more distinctive species occur throughout the world, so the
knowledge you accumulate will serve you elsewhere!

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Always dig up unknown mushrooms so as not to miss the volva, if present.

There's no room for care- lessness, as shown here: Agaricus arvensis, at left,
lacks a volva and is edible; Amanita ocreala, at right, is furnished with a
volva and is deadly poisonous!
EQUIPMENT Foraging for fleshy fungi requires little in the way of
sophisticated para- phernalia. The bare essentials are: A rigid container for
carrying the mushrooms. There's no point in picking mushrooms unless you
transport them home in decent condition. A broad, shallow basket is
best,but a cardboard box or bucket will do unless it's raining. Paper bags sag
and the mushrooms get crushed. DON'T USE PLASTIC BAGS!
Mushrooms, like people, have to "breathe." Plastic bags trap moisture,
making the mushrooms "sweat" and rot more rapidly. Waxed paper is
necessary when collecting mushrooms for identification. It provides support
for mushrooms within the basket and also keeps them separated. Never mix
unknown species together. Wrap each type separately and arrange them
carefully in the basket with the heavier ones on the bottom. Tall specimens
like Agaricus and Amanita species will bend unless placed upright
(mushrooms exhibit negative geotropism: their caps turn away from gravity
so as to orient the gills downward). Small paper bags are useful when
harvesting familiar edible species, but again, don't use plastic bags! A knife
or trowel is a must for digging up mushrooms or detaching them from trees.
A knife is also handy for cleaning edible species you are already familiar
with, but always dig up unknown mushrooms so as to ascertain whether or
not a volva (sack) or "tap root" is present. The telltale volva of the deadly
Amanitas is usually buried in the ground! A pencil and small notebook or
index cards are useful for taking field notes and spore prints. Bread, cheese,
and fruit are essential if you're always hungry like I am. I make a practice of
stocking my basket generously. Then each time I put a mushroom in my
basket, I'm compelled to put something from the basket in my mouth! If
you find some edible Agaricus buttons, put them in a sandwich! Not known
for wasting opportunities, the French carry this tradition one step further-
they bring wine, goblets, and a table cloth, and pause for a picnic every half
hour. The advantage of this strategy is obvious-you needn't find any
mushrooms to have a good time!

12
EQUIPMENT

13

Binoculars are handy in open country (e.g., pastures). They enable you to
distinguish at a distance giant puffballs (Calvalia species) and horse
mushrooms (Agaricus arvensis and A. osecanus) from rocks and other
assorted "pseudocarps. ... And of course, they allow you to watch birds and
mammals as well. A three- or four-pronged rake or cultivator and a small
hand cultivator are necessary if you want to find truffles and false truffles,
unless you have the services of a truffle hound or muzzled pig. The rakes
will enable you to locate these elusive underground fungi by sifting through
the forest duff and scraping the topsoil beneath it. (But re- member: this
practice can be unsightly as well as destructive, so don't do it on a wide-
spread basis, be discreet, and always cover up the holes you dig.) See the
chapter on truffles for more details. Other optional equipment includes: a
hand lens, compass, stick (for probing brambles and "mushrumps"), a field
guide (for leisurely use on a sunny day), small jars orvials (for delicate
specimens, such as Mycenas), a damp cloth or brush for cleaning edible
species, rainboots and other rain gear, gloves for frigid winter mornings,
and photographic equipment (usually too cumbersome except for special
picture-taking expeditions).

FIELD NOTES Is it growing on the ground or on a log? Is it near a tree?

What kind(s)? Are familiar types of mushrooms growing nearby? Which
ones? If it's growing on wood, is the wood coniferous or hardwood? Living,
recently felled, or in an advanced stage of decay? If on the ground, is the
humus layer deep? Is the ground disturbed? Is there a road, trail, parking
lot, or laundromat nearby? You should automatically ask yourself these
questions every time you find a mushroom. Observation begins in the field.
After all, in picking a mushroom you are leaving behind the vegetative
portion of the fungus. It is folly to depart without some idea of the niche
that fungus occupies in the larger scheme of things. Field (or mental) notes
should include: Date, weather conditions, abundance (how many times you
observed a particular species), growth habit (solitary, scattered, gregarious,
clustered, in fairy rings, etc.), substrate (humus, soil, grass, moss, dung,
wood, etc.), vegetation (the kinds of trees and shrubs within 50 feet). If
growing on wood: stage of decomposition, type of wood (hardwood or
conifer), type of tree (if discernible), effects on the wood (see chapter on
polypores on p. 549). If growing on dung: type of dung, stage of
decomposition If growing on ground: type of ground (disturbed, cultivated,
hard-packed, sandy, charred, etc.) Don't restrict your observations to
specimens that you collect. After you've gathered a representative sampling
of a particular species, continue to note its habitat each time you encounter
it. With terrestrial fungi, it is important to note all types of trees within 50
feet because mycorrhizal species grow in association with rootlets that may
be quite a distance from the trunk of the host. Usually there are several
kinds of trees in the vicinity, and you have no way of knowing which (if
any) is the mycorrhizal associate. However, through repeated observation
many possibilities can be eliminated. For instance, if you find Sui/lus
pseudobrevipes growing under pine, you cannot conclude that there is a
relationship between the two. But if you find that Sui/Ius pseudobrevipes
always grows with pine and nowhere else. then an intimate relationship of
some kind can be inferred.

IDENTIFICATION AND TERMINOLOGY

IF YOU take the time to seek out mushrooms, it only makes sense to
exercise the extra care and trouble necessary to get them home in beautiful
condition. Handle them gingerly, don't leave them in stuffy places like cars,
and don't shift them unnecessarily from box to box. Always conduct your
studies on fresh material, preferably the day you pick them. Coprinus
species digest themselves in a few hours, and many types quickly lose their
original color or are devoured overnight by maggots. If you're pressed for
time, at least sort them out and separate the worm- riddled specimens. Then
refrigerate the ones you wish to save or spread them out in a cool, dry place
where they can "breathe." Now let's assume you've taken field notes,
brought several species home, and are ready to study them. For the diligent
and disciplined toadstool taxonomist, a detailed written description of each
species is a must. For practically everyone else, compiling a written
description is a tedious affair which tends to detract from the enjoyment and
spontaneity ofthe hunt. However, it is an ideal tool for learning how to look
at mushrooms critically, so try it at least a few times. The basic terminology
for identifying and describing gilled mushrooms is outlined here. Fruiting
bodies with a radically different structure, such as puffballs, are illustrated
and discussed in their respective chapters. Unfamiliar terms not illustrated
or defined here can be looked up in the glossary. Remember to base your
observations on as many specimens of each species as possible. The value
of written descri ptions is enhanced when accompanied by sketches,
photographs, and spore prints of fresh material.

MACROSCOPIC CHARACTERISTICS SIZE

Size is important for purposes of comparison. The terms large, medium,

small, and minute cannot be given absolute measurements, but they
communicate a characteristic size range that you will quickly learn to
appreciate. The size of a fruiting body is dependent on three major factors:
age, amount of moisture available, and genes. Since mushrooms grow very
quickly, those that fruit during rainy weather are apt to be larger than those
that fruit during a dry spell-subject, of course, to genetic constraints. The
measurements given in descriptions and keys represent average size ranges;
those in parentheses indicate unusual dimensions, but do not take into
account extremes due to extraordinary conditions. The metric system is
used, but a conversion rule is provided on the back cover of this book. Also,
it's easy to remember that 1 inch equals approximately 2'l2 centimeters, or 2
inches equals 5 centimeters (or 50 millimeters). COLOR