SDO Navotas EarthSci SHS1st2ndSem - FV

DIVISION OF NAVOTAS CITY
EARTH SCIENCE
1st or 2nd Semester
S.Y. 2021-2022
NAVOTAS CITY PHILIPPINES
Earth Science for Senior High School
Alternative Delivery Mode
1st or 2nd Semester
Second Edition, 2021
Republic Act 8293, section 176 states that: No copyright shall subsist in any work of
the Government of the Philippines. However, prior approval of the government agency or office
wherein the work is created shall be necessary for exploitation of such work for profit. Such
agency or office may, among other things, impose as a condition the payment of royalties.
Borrowed materials (i.e., songs, stories, poems, pictures, photos, brand names,
trademarks, etc.) included in this module are owned by their respective copyright holders.
Every effort has been exerted to locate and seek permission to use these materials from their
respective copyright owners. The publisher and authors do not represent nor claim ownership
over them.
Published by the Department of Education

Secretary: Leonor Magtolis Briones
Undersecretary: Diosdado M. San Antonio
Development Team of the Module

Writers: Vincent L. Dublin, Mary Grace C. Magno, Socora B. Retuya, and June Kathleen
A. Sayo,
Editor: Socorra B. Retuya
Reviewer: Russel P. Samson
Illustrators: Vincent L. Dublin, June Kathleen A. Sayo, and Socorra B. Retuya
Layout Artist: Vincent L. Dublin and Russell P. Samson
Management Team: Alejandro G. Ibañez, OIC- Schools Division Superintendent
Isabelle S. Sibayan, OIC- Asst. Schools Division Superintendent
Loida O. Balasa, Chief, Curriculum Implementation Division
Russell P. Samson, EPS in Science
Grace R. Nieves, EPS In Charge of LRMS
Lorena J. Mutas, ADM Coordinator
Vergel Junior C. Eusebio, PDO II LRMS
Inilimbag sa Pilipinas ng ________________________
Department of Education – Navotas City

Office Address: BES Compound M. Naval St. Sipac-Almacen Navotas City
____________________________________________
Telefax: 02-8332-77-64
____________________________________________
E-mail Address: ____________________________________________
[email protected]
Table of Contents
Quarter 1 or Quarter 3
What I Know ................................................................................1
Module 1......................................................................................2
Module 2......................................................................................10
Module 3......................................................................................21
Module 4......................................................................................30
Module 5......................................................................................37
Module 6......................................................................................46
Module 7......................................................................................52
Assessment ..................................................................................54
Quarter 2 or Quarter 4
What I Know ................................................................................56
Module 8......................................................................................57
Module 9......................................................................................61
Module 10 ....................................................................................65
Module 11 ....................................................................................71
Module 12 ....................................................................................76
Module 13 ....................................................................................82
Module 14 ....................................................................................86
Assessment ..................................................................................88
Answer Key ..................................................................................90
References ...................................................................................93
Directions: Choose the letter of the correct answer. Write your answers on a separate sheet
of paper.
1. The following are the characteristics of the sun that makes Earth a habitable planet
EXCEPT:
A. The sun is an average sized star
B. The sun is not too near nor too far from Earth
C. The sun heats Earth to keep waters from freezing
D. The sun is an unstable young star
2. Some methods of identifying minerals could be destructive to the mineral. Which of

the following properties of minerals could be used to identify minerals without causing
notable damage on the mineral?
A. Creating and counting the cleavage
B. Brushing the mineral on a streak plate.
C. Checking the reaction of the mineral with hydrochloric acid.
D. Measuring the density and specific gravity of the mineral.
3. What type of rock would be plausibly seen in a magmatic mineral deposit?

A. Sedimentary C. Metamorphic
B. Igneous D. Organic
4. A fossil fuel that is composed of the remains of prehistoric plants that were buried
and compacted for millions of years is a:
A. Geothermal C. Oil
B. Coal D. Natural Gas
5. A type of mining where large hole is excavated on the ground to extract the ores is
called:
A. Underground Mining C. Open-pit Mining
B. Strip Mining D. Placer Mining
6. The type of water used and reused by geothermal powerplants is:

A. Saltwater C. Streams
B. Wetlands D. Groundwater
7. A powerplant that uses moving water to power a turbine is called:

A. Hydropower C. Wind Farm
B. Geothermal D. Solar Panel
8. This happens when excess fertilizers end up in the waters promoting algal blooms:
A. Eutrophication C. Misuse
B. Irrigation D. Run off
9. The process of retaining the residues from harvested crops in the land is called:
A. Contour Plowing C. Crop Rotation
B. Strip Cropping D. Mulching
1
10. These wastes are those that pose immediate danger to humans:
A. Hazardous Waste C. Oxo-biodegradable waste
B. Solid Waste D. Agricultural Waste
MODULE 1
This module was designed and written with you in mind. It is here to help you master
the nature of Earth Science. The scope of this module permits it to be used in many different
learning situations. The language used recognizes the diverse vocabulary level of students.
The lessons are arranged to follow the standard sequence of the course. But the order in
which you read them can be changed to correspond with the textbook you are now using.
The module is divided into three lessons, namely:
Lesson 1.1 – The Characteristics of Earth Necessary to Support Life
Lesson 1.2– The Subsystems of Earth
Lesson 1.3– The Rock-Forming Minerals and Their Properties
After going through this module, you are expected to:
1. describe the characteristics of Earth that are necessary to support life.
2. explain that the Earth consists of four subsystems, across whose boundaries
matter and energy flow: and
3. identify common rock-forming minerals using their physical and chemical
properties
Lesson The Characteristics of Earth

1.1 Necessary to Support Life
Humans and all the other forms of life have thrived riding a huge rock travelling
through space which we call our planet Earth. Along with the other planets both larger and
smaller, all these moves around a star we call as our sun. Compared to the other planets,
only Earth is known to foster life. What characteristics make Earth a unique planet that is fit
for life? We will find the answer to this question in this lesson.
Characteristics that Make Earth Habitable

The Earth is the only planet in the solar system known to foster life. The following are the
characteristics of Earth that makes it fit for life.
1. The Sun is an average sized star

A massive star would require less time to consume all of its fuel. If the sun is a bigger
star, it will not stay long enough for life to flourish. On the other hand, if the sun is a smaller,
younger, and less massive one, it can be possibly unstable, thus capable of destroying the
planets. Smaller stars also mean less luminous ones which means that a planet needs to be
closer to the star to receive the right amount of energy. However, being too close to a host
2
star would possibly cause tidal locking where one face of a planet faces towards it and the
other one facing the other side. This would mean that one side will be too hot and the other
will be too cold.
2. The Earth is at a right distance from the sun
Earth is the third planet from the sun. It is in the so-called habitable zone, a region
where water can exist in liquid form. Too near the sun, the water on it will boil just like in
Mercury. Too far, the water will be frozen as ice like Uranus and Neptune.
3. Earth has an atmosphere
Earth is massive enough to have a strong gravity to hold gases from escaping Earth.
This blanket of gases is called the atmosphere. The atmosphere protects the Earth from
harmful radiation from space. Meteorites moving to the earth are reduced to smaller,
harmless debris as it contacts with the atmosphere. Without the atmosphere, all the waters
on the Earth will boil and escape to space. The type of atmosphere the Earth has is composed
mainly of oxygen and nitrogen. Unlike Earth, Venus has an atmosphere of carbon dioxide
which traps heat though greenhouse effect, thus heating the planet making it the hottest in
the solar system.
4. Earth has a magnetic field
The sun gives off charged particles during solar winds which are capable of stripping
away Earth’s atmosphere. Luckily, down to the Earth’s core are currents of iron and nickel
flowing which then creates the Earth’s magnetic field. This magnetic field acts as a shield
from the harmful charged particles from the sun and other parts of space. This is evident in
the poles which manifests as bright green colors known as aurora.
5. Liquid Water
The right distance from the sun prevents water from either boiling or freezing. The
atmosphere prevents the Earth from absorbing to much sunlight which can evaporate all of
Earth’s water and eventually escape in space. The magnetic field shields the Earth from the
sun’s ionizing radiation which can strip away the Earth’s atmosphere.
The presence of water indicate life. On Earth, you can find life as long as there is
water. Also, many chemical reactions needed for life needs water to happen. The amount of
water on Earth is just enough not to cover the whole lands but not scarce to make the lands
dry. In search of life outside Earth, the presence of water is a main factor being considered.
6. Presence of necessary chemicals and compounds
Carbon is an element present in biomolecules along with other elements such as
sulfur, nitrogen, and phosphorus. The presence of this elements together with water and the
complex cycles of these chemicals by volcanic activity and tectonic plates movement gives
enough chance for life to thrive on Earth.
7. The presence of a moon
The two well-known movement of the Earth are rotation on its axis and revolution
around the sun. But there is a less noticeable movement of earth called precession where the
Earth changes its tilt by about 1 degree for about every 40, 000 years. Imagine a wobbling
top when it is spinning. It’s the same with the earth but for a much longer duration. The
Earths tilt is responsible for the seasons because one side is much exposed to the sun and
the other is less exposed. Without the moon, the Earth’s tilt will change much that it will
create extreme hot and extreme cold seasons because there will be no gravity from the moon
that pulls the Earth. Thus, our friendly little satellite has a big contribution on the possibility
of life on Earth.
Activity 1: What if?

Underline the correct word that best suits the statements regarding the characteristics of
Earth as a habitable planet.
1. Without its magnetic field, the Earth’s atmosphere would be (thicker, thinner).
2. If the Earth is closer to the sun, its temperature would be (higher, lower).
3. If Earth is farther from the sun, water would exist as (ice, liquid water, steam).
4.Without an atmosphere (more, less) amount of harmful radiation would reach Earth.
5. Without water (more, less) life can develop and flourish.
3
Lesson
The Subsystems of Earth
1.2
We may think of Earth as just the soil and rocks composing the planet. However,
besides this soil and rock are the waters, living things and gases that make up the whole
planet. The interaction of these all are linked. One change on the soil for instance can cause
changes on the living things above it. Human activities can cause changes in the air and the
waters. We could think of countless ways how these all are connected. In this lesson, we will
explore the different components called subsystems that composes Earth as well as their
roles in every phenomenon and occurrences on Earth
Earth as a whole system

A system is composed of interconnected parts that has its own function which
completes a complex whole. A political system for an instance is composed of different legal
institutions that forms a government. The same is true for the Earth. The lands, waters, air,
and living things on Earth have their different functions and they are interconnected with
each other that a change in one of these would have consequences on the other. These lands,
waters, air and living things on Earth is what we called as subsystems. In thermodynamics,
there are three known systems; closed, open, and isolated system. Earth closely resembles a
closed system where there is no exchange in matter from the system and its surroundings
but an exchange in energy or heat exists. Though, however, some of the hydrogen in the
atmosphere escapes to space and foreign objects from space such as meteorites can enter
Earth. Still, this is just a small percentage compared to all the matter that stays on Earth.
Instead of separate studies in geology for the lands, biology for living things, physics
and chemistry for the air and waters, we integrate these studies as Earth systems science. In
this lesson, we will use all the related fields of study to explore the different subsystems of
Earth and how each of these are dependent on each other.
The Earth’s subsystems
1. Geosphere
The geosphere consists of all the land areas, the mountains, the soil the rocks and
many more. It consists of the outermost layer of the earth called the crust, the thick middle
layer called the mantle and the liquid outer core and the solid inner core. The formation of
different landforms such as mountains as well as the changes in the seafloor are caused by
plate tectonics or the movement of enormous slabs of the crust and upper portion of the
mantle. These different landforms have different effects on the other subsystems.
2. Atmosphere
All the gases that covered the Earth forms the atmosphere. It is composed of 78%
nitrogen, 21% oxygen and 1% of the other gases such as water vapor and carbon dioxide. As
discussed on the previous lesson, the atmosphere serves as a protection from harmful
radiation from the outside of Earth. The ozone layer of the atmosphere serves as this shield.
Furthermore, the atmosphere has the oxygen for humans and animals. Aside from that, it
keeps water on the Earth surface to be liquid.
The cycle of air in the atmosphere is also responsible for the weather. When sun heats
the Earth, the warm air rises creating a low-pressure area while the cold air sink creating a
high-pressure area. Regions with low pressure area can have unstable weather while those
with high pressure have fair and stable weather.
3. Hydrosphere
The presence of the atmosphere makes it possible for liquid water to exist. These liquid
water deposit on the surface and hollows of the earth which created the oceans. These and
all the waters constitute the hydrosphere including the ice frozen on the poles of the Earth.
The Earth’s surface is 70% covered in water, vastly from ocean waters. Only 3% of these are
freshwaters are from lakes, streams, and groundwater. The presence of water was the start
of the earliest lifeforms. It also absorbs and distributes the heat from the sun to the Earth
surface.
4
4. Biosphere
All the life forms and living organisms on Earth constitutes the biosphere. It covers
even the largest or the smallest life forms in the deepest parts of the oceans, or the ones
underground, as well as the small organisms on the extreme environments.
The interaction of the biosphere with the other subsystems is essential for its survival.
Example of this interaction is photosynthesis where plants use sunlight and carbon dioxide
in the atmosphere and releasing oxygen as by-product.
The Interactions of the Subsystems
In every phenomenon on Earth, the four subsystems are involved in one way or
another. A change on one subsystem has its effect on the others. Since Earth also resembles
a closed system, matter from one subsystem is transferred to the others by different means.
These creates a cycle of matter on Earth.
One of the commonly observed cycle is the water cycle or hydrologic cycle. It starts by
the water evaporation when being heated by the sun. Then, it condenses in the clouds in the
atmosphere and falls during precipitation or rain. It is then collected in the oceans, in the
land areas and taken also by the plants and animals.
Another cycle is the carbon cycle. Carbon is abundant on Earth. It may be present in
the rocks, in living organisms, in the sediments in the ocean. During rain, some of the carbon
in the atmosphere are carried out forming carbonic acid, which then dissolves the rocks,
releasing different minerals and ions such as calcium. The calcium is then carried by the
rivers to the ocean, which combines with bicarbonate to form calcium bicarbonate forming
the shells of aquatic animals.
Some of the carbon embedded in the rocks together with the remains of living things forms
fossil fuels. When humans burn these fuels, the carbon are transferred back to the
atmosphere. The ideal thing is that carbon is dispersed in all the subsystems. Too much
carbon in the atmosphere will create greenhouse effect. If all the carbons will be stored in the
rocks, living organisms will have no supply of carbon needed for the sustainability of life.
In every phenomenon observed, all the subsystems may be affected or may be the one
that caused it. For example, during a bad weather, the rains from the atmosphere may soften
the land and cause landslide. Then, it may affect the plants and animals living nearby. In
this example, the atmosphere, hydrosphere, geosphere, and biosphere are all involved.
Human activities also affect the other subsystems. The rapid emission of carbon due
to human activities and industrialization warms the earth and in turn causes the lowest level
of ice in the poles which increases the ocean level. The oil spills affect the ocean waters which
in turn harms the aquatic animals and birds feeding on them. The conversion of farmlands
to subdivisions alters the lands which displaces the animals from their natural habitat. The
four subsystems are interconnected. One causes changes to the other and every observable
phenomenon on Earth, the subsystems are involved in one way or another.
Activity 1: Label the Subsystem

Determine the subsystem in which the following belongs. Write your answer on the space
provided before the number. Write G for Geosphere, H for hydrosphere, A for atmosphere,
and B for biosphere.
1. The glaciers in Alaska 6. Corals
2. Earthworms in the soil 7. Southwest Monsoon
3. The ozone layer 8. Salt from the Himalayas
4. Magma from volcanoes 9. Groundwaters
5. Deserts 10. Rainforest in Amazon
5
Lesson
Rock-forming Minerals
1.3
Most of the geosphere is composed of rocks. These rocks, when examined are
composed of chemical compounds called minerals. There are thousands of minerals that
make up different kinds of rocks. These minerals also played a great part in human history.
The basic food additive and preservative, salt, or rock salt (halite), has been a key part
of shaping civilizations. Likewise, extracting iron from the mineral hematite gave people an
edge to people using bronze tools, thus ending the bronze age. In this lesson, we will explore
the different rock forming minerals as well as their physical and chemical properties.
Characteristics of a Mineral
Minerals are the building blocks of rocks. To study these rocks, it is important to
understand the nature of these minerals. First, let us explore how can a particular matter be
called a mineral. These are the characteristics exhibited by minerals:
1. Solid at normal conditions on Earth
Solid substances only are the ones considered as minerals. For example, snowflake can be
considered a mineral, but rainwater is not. The exception to this is mercury due to historical
reasons even though it is liquid at normal conditions on Earth.
2. Naturally occurring
Materials formed from natural Earth processes are the ones considered as minerals. Thus,
man-made materials are not considered as minerals.
3. Inorganic
Inorganic materials are materials that don’t came from or composed of living
organisms. Corals for example, though solid and naturally occurring are not considered as
minerals because they are formed by living things. Thus, only non-living things are
considered as minerals.
4. Has definite chemical composition
A compound is composed of two or more elements combined. These compounds can
be expressed in terms of chemical formula. A common mineral called halite, also known as
rock salt, has a chemical formula of sodium chloride (NaCl). Even a pinch of salt or a huge
block of salt still has the same chemical formula. Same goes for all minerals. At any size, the
same chemical composition should be observed all throughout.
5. Has a crystal structure
A crystalline structure is a structure of
compounds whose components are arranged in orderly
and repetitive manner. When they grow bigger, they form
regularly shaped materials called crystals. For example,
take the simple compound sodium chloride shown in
Figure 1. When may NaCl combine, they form cubic lattice.
When many of this cubic lattice are combined, they form
the salt crystal. Different minerals have different Figure 1. (a) Simplified NaCl
crystalline structure. chemical structure (b) Simplified
NaCl cubic lattice
Physical and Chemical Properties of Minerals
Different minerals are classified through the various physical and chemical properties.
Their different physical and chemical properties should be studied to identify them. The
following are the common physical properties used to identify minerals.
1. Crystal Shape or Habit

Crystal shape or habit is the distinct crystal shape of minerals. Some minerals can be
easily identified by their crystal shape alone. Halite or salt has a cubic shape. Other crystals
are pointed ones such as quartz.
6
2. Color Figure 2: Different crystal habits of minerals
Some minerals have unique colors in
which it can be used to identify them. The
color of the mineral depends on its internal
atomic structure as well as the impurities that
is in them. However, many minerals have
identical colors while other minerals exhibit
different colors depending on different
conditions. This makes color a less reliable
way in identifying minerals. For example,
during the gold rush, some amateur miners
Figure 3: (a) Gold nugget from Australia. (Public
have mistaken pyrite as gold as shown in
display, Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, figure 4 hence it was named as fool’s gold.
Illinois, USA) (b) Pyrite or Fool’s Gold
Source:
https://www.flickr.com/photos/47445767@N05/168
48647509
3. Luster
Some minerals reflect light while others barely
do. This property is called luster. Some
minerals have a metallic luster where they look
like polished metals while others have non-
metallic luster. Non-metallic luster includes
glassy, resinous, silky, pearly, earthy, and Figure 4: (a) Galena (b) Gypsum
greasy luster. Figure 4 shows two minerals, Sources:
galena, and gypsum. Galena has a metallic https://www.flickr.com/photos/jsjgeology/31
274280814
luster while gypsum has a pearly one. https://www.flickr.com/photos/jsjgeology/16
843705365
4. Streak
As mentioned above, color can be an unreliable
identification of minerals. A more reliable one is streak.
Streak is the color exhibited by a mineral in powdered
form. To do this, a mineral is scratched across a streak
plate which is a piece of porcelain. Commonly, non-metallic
minerals have white streak. Metallic minerals on the other
hand can have a streak different from their perceived color.
Minerals harder than porcelain does not have a streak
Figure 5. Streak of two hematite
since they can scratch the porcelain. Streak is good in
samples with different luster
Source: determining gold and pyrite since pyrite has a greenish
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki black streak while gold still has a golden streak. Figure 6
/File:Hematite_streak_plate.jpg shows that the streaks of hematite are the same even if the
two samples have different luster.
7
5. Hardness
Hardness of a mineral is characterized by its
resistance against scratching. A scale called
Moh’s scale of mineral hardness shown in
figure 6 is designed to compare the hardness
of different minerals. A scale of 1 is the softest
while the scale of 10 is the hardest. Talc is the
softest mineral while diamond is the hardest.
Evidently, harder minerals can scratch softer
ones. Common materials with known
hardness are used to scratch different
materials to determine or estimate their
hardness. Example of these materials are
fingernail with a hardness of 2-2.5, copper
coin (3-3.5), nail (5-5.5), Glass (5.5) and steel
knife (6.5-7). The Moh’s scale, however, is not
Figure 6: Moh’s Hardness Scale
an accurate way of measuring hardness
Source: By National Park Service - nature.nps.gov because it is qualitative and based only on
(file), Public Domain, relative hardness of other materials.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curi
d=53666965
6. Cleavage
Minerals are crystal solids. Their different
properties and characteristics can be traced
down to their atomic structures. In these
structures, there can be strong and weak bonds
between atoms. When a force or pressure is
applied on the minerals, some of these may
break into plane surfaces. This property is
called cleavage. From figure 7, when a pressure
from a cutting tool is applied, it breaks the
Figure 7. Simplified atomic structure of
weak bonds thus creating plane sheets of the minerals forming cleavage
minerals.
Minerals can be identified by the number of cleavage directions and the angle between their
cleavage. Example of a one-directional cleavage is muscovite or mica indicated in figure 8. On
figure 9, a two-directional cleavage of feldspar is shown. On figure 10, a three-directional
cleavage is shown.
Figure 8. One directional Cleavage Figure 9. Two directional Cleavage Figure 10. Three directional
on Muscovite on Feldspar Cubic Cleavage on Halite
Source: Source: Source:
https://www.flickr.com/photos/jsjge https://www.flickr.com/photos/jsjge https://www.flickr.com/ph
ology/31304209033/in/photostream ology/32499528651/in/photostream otos/jsjgeology/494222555
98
7. Fracture
Some minerals don’t create plane surfaces when force is applied on them. Instead,
irregular patterns called fractures are formed. Minerals can have both cleavage and fractures
depending on the weaknesses on the atomic bonds of that mineral. Shown in the images
below are the different fractures in minerals.
8
Figure 11: Different Fractures in minerals (a) Conchoidal fractures in Obsidian
(b) Fibrous fractures in crocidolite (c) Hackly or sharp fracture in copper
Sources: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Conchoidal.JPG
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Krokydolith_Mineralogisches_Museum_Bonn_
(7385).jpg | https://www.flickr.com/photos/jsjgeology/16673037964/in/photostream/
8. Specific gravity
Specific gravity is the ratio of an object’s density and the density of water. In other
words, it is the numerical value of the density of a material without the units. Minerals with
specific gravity less than 1 will float in water while minerals with specific gravity of more than
1 will sink. This is an accurate way to compare minerals. For example, pyrite (fool’s gold) and
real gold have different specific gravity. If a pyrite and gold have the same size, the gold would
be heavier.
9. Other Properties
There are other properties that are exhibited by minerals. For example, halite has a
salty taste.
Magnetite has magnetic properties, sulfur has a rotten egg smell, talc has a soapy
texture while graphite has a greasy one. Some minerals have special optical properties.
Fluorite and calcite exhibit fluorescence where they can glow in the dark. Calcite reacts with
hydrochloric acid (HCl) which produces fizz or bubbles like carbonated drinks.
Activity 1: Mineral or Not?

Determine if the following can be considered as a mineral. Base your answers on the
discussed characteristics of minerals. Write M if it is a mineral and N if not.
1. Wood 6. Petroleum
2. Bone 7. Asbestos
3. Clay 8. Glass
4. Ice 9. Zinc
5. Coal 10. Plastic
Build your planet: You are to lead mankind on the search for other habitable planets. Of all
the planets in the solar system, you are going to do some changes on a specific planet for it
to be livable like Earth. What planet will it be? What are you going to do to make it habitable?
How will you build its subsystems? Write an essay on how you will do it. Be imaginative as
you want but incline your answers on scientific principles and the concepts and consider the
previously discussed information.
9
MODULE 2
the different types of rocks and mineral resources. The scope of this module permits it to be
used in many different learning situations. The language used recognizes the diverse
vocabulary level of students. The lessons are arranged to follow the standard sequence of the
course. But the order in which you read them can be changed to correspond with the textbook
you are now using.
Lesson 2.1 – Types of Rocks
Lesson 2.2 – Mineral Resources
1. classify rocks into igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic
2. understand how rock materials are recycled in the rock cycle.
3. identify the minerals that are important to society; and
4. understand how mineral deposits are formed
Lesson
Types of Rocks
2.1
Rocks are almost everywhere. They come in different colors, shapes, and sizes.
Information on Earth’s history is imprinted in the rocks. Mankind makes use of rocks in
countless of ways. Early humans made their tools with rocks. Great structures such as
pyramids and dams are built using these rocks. Today, rocks have served different purposes
in technology and industry. In this lesson, we will discuss the different classification of rocks
and how these rocks are formed.
The Types of Rocks

Rocks are commonly a combination of minerals, though some are composed of single
mineral only. Rocks can be classified according on how they are formed. There are three types
according to this classification.
Igneous Rocks
At the Earth’s interior, immense heat causes rocks to be molten which is called
magma. When volcanic eruption spews out lava (molten rocks but on the Earth’s surface),
these rocks can cool down and solidify to form new rocks. These rocks which came from
cooled and solidified magma or lava are called igneous rocks.
10
There are two types of igneous rocks. These types are based on where and how fast
these rocks cool. The first classification is intrusive or plutonic rocks. These rocks cooled
below the Earth’s surface. Since it cools below, its temperature will drop slowly since it is
hotter below the Earth’s surface. The slow cooling process allows the atomic structure of the
minerals in the rocks to form crystals. Thus, intrusive rocks have visible crystals in them.
The second classification is
extrusive rocks. These are
rocks that cooled above the
Earth’s surface. Being above
the Earth’s surface, the lava
cools quickly leaving no time
for the atoms of the rocks to
arrange themselves and form
crystals. Thus, extrusive
rocks have no visible crystal
structures. Extrusive rocks Figure 1: (a) Granite (b) Basalt
can also be vesicular which Photo By: James St. John
means that there are air Retrieved from:
bubbles trapped in the rocks. https://www.flickr.com/photos/jsjgeology/16540710327/in/photost
ream/
Sedimentary Rocks
The second type of rocks are sedimentary rocks. These are the rocks that are formed
from compacted or cemented sediments. In other words, these rocks are formed from
sediments put together.
Sediments are the bits of rocks that are stripped away from the rock due to different
agents such as water, wind, or gravity. This process of stripping away bits of rocks is called
weathering. These is the start of the formation of sedimentary rocks. Upon weathering, these
rocks can be transported by the same agents in a process called erosion. On high hills and
mountains, water and gravity carry the sediments downhill. Wind can also scatter these
sediments. After erosion, these sediments will be deposited on the ground or underwater.
This process is called deposition. Sediments will pile up on top of another, thus increasing
the pressure to the sediments at the bottom. After being deposited, these sediments undergo
lithification. This is the process in which sediments are turned into a rock. The two
processes that allows lithification are compaction and cementation.
Compaction happens when the pressure from the sediments on top forces the buried
sediments to be squeezed together. Thus, any water content is forced out. The remains of
living things can also be caught in the compaction which, given enough time, forms fossils.
Sedimentary rocks are the only one who can preserve fossils. Some rocks have big
grains that when squeezed together, some holes or spaces are left. When the sediments are
squeezed together, some materials such as silica (SiO2) and calcite (CaCO3) glue the
sediments together by filling the microscopic spaces between the sediments. This process is
called cementation. When this happens, the sediments harden to form rocks. If you ever
washed rice and squeezed one in your palms, you can see that the grains of rice somehow
harden. It is like the compaction and cementation of sediments but on a greater degree.
There are three types of sedimentary rocks. These are clastic, chemical, and
biochemical sedimentary rocks. Clastic sedimentary rocks are the most common
sedimentary rocks. These are the ones that were formed from compacted and cemented loose
sediments.
Figure 2: Coarse grained clastic rocks

(a)Conglomerate (b) Breccia.
Conglomerate has rounded sediments
while breccia has pointed ones
Photo By: James St. John
Retrieved from:
https://www.flickr.com/photos/jsjgeolo
gy/
41073011382/in/photostream/
https://www.flickr.com/photos/jsjgeolo
gy/16789926815/in/photostream/
11
These rocks can be formed from different sizes of sediments. The biggest sediments
are coarse grained rocks. They are formed by sediments larger than 2mm. These rocks are
from fragments of any rocks. The examples of these rocks are conglomerate, and breccia
shown in figure 2. Medium sized sediments have grain size of ¹⁄₁₆ mm to 2mm. These are
formed from quartz and rock fragments. Example of this is sandstone shown in figure 3. Fine
grained ones range from ¹⁄₂₅₆ mm to ¹⁄₁₆ mm which is commonly made of silt. Example of this
is siltstone shown in figure 4. Lastly, very fine grained one has grain size less than ¹⁄₂₅₆ mm.
These rocks are made of quartz and clay. Example of this rock is shale shown in figure 5.
Figure 3: Sandstone Figure 4: Siltstone Figure 5: Shale

Photo By: James St. John Photo By: James St. John Photo By: James St. John
Retrieved from: Retrieved from:
Retrieved from:
https://www.flickr.com/photos/j https://www.flickr.com/photos/j
https://www.flickr.com/photos
sjgeology/16170306843/in/photo sjgeology/8513579676
stream/ /jsjgeology/16797325751
Figure 6: Rock Salt Figure 7: Rock Gypsum

Photo By: James St. John Photo By: James St. John
https://www.flickr.com/photo https://www.flickr.com/photos
s/jsjgeology/33275221442 /jsjgeology/16843705365
Chemical sedimentary rocks on the other hand are formed slightly different from
clastic rocks. This type of rocks is formed when dissolved minerals in waters precipitate at
the bottom. This can happen when the water evaporates leaving the minerals behind. A great
example of this is rock salt, shown in figure 6. When saltwater evaporates, the salts are
gathered at the bottom forming rock salt. Another way is when water is supersaturated with
minerals, meaning it can’t dissolve minerals anymore. When this happens, chemical
sediments precipitate out of the solution and settles at the bottom. Thus, layers of these
sediments are formed. This is analogous to when you are preparing milk with lots of milk
powder in the mug. What happens is that the milk powder settles at the bottom. An example
of this is a rock gypsum (shown in figure 7) formed from oceans or waters with very high
calcium and sulfate contents.
The last type are the biochemical rocks. These are the ones formed from the remains
of former living things. For example, aquatic animals use the minerals in the water to produce
shells and bones. When they die, these shells and bones are deposited on the ocean floor. An
example of this is limestone (shown in figure 8). Limestone is composed of mainly calcite from
these remains. A special type of biochemical rock is bituminous coal. It is made from organic
materials from the remains of dead plants that undergo compaction, burial, and immense
pressure. Coal is used as a source of fuel because of its organic components.
12
Metamorphic Rocks
Before you put a bread into the oven, the dough looks different. The temperature in
the oven changes its form to create a baked bread. This is like metamorphic rocks.
Metamorphic rocks are existing igneous, sedimentary, and even metamorphic rocks that
changes its form due to immense heat, pressure, or hydrothermal solutions. The process of
rocks changing form due to these factors is called metamorphism which literally means “to
change in form”. It is important to note that these changes happen while the rock remain
solid distinguishing it from igneous rocks. During metamorphism, the crystal structure and
even the chemical composition of the rocks change. This progresses from low grade
metamorphism to high grade metamorphism. The higher the temperature and pressure, the
greater the metamorphism that occur. For an example, the sedimentary rock shale could
metamorphose into different types of rocks starting from low grade metamorphism producing
slate up to high grade metamorphism producing gneiss. Figure 9 shows the different
metamorphism of shale. The rocks look stretched and squeezed in increasing metamorphism
due to increasing pressure.
Figure 8: Coquina: A variety of Limestone Figure 9: Bituminous Coal

Photo By: James St. John Photo By: James St. John
https://www.flickr.com/photos/jsjgeology/85123 https://www.flickr.com/photos/jsjgeology/85
38009/in/photostream/ 13510976/in/photostream/
Figure 10: Low grade to High Grade metamorphism of shale starting from (a) shale (b) slate (c) phyllite (d)
schist (e) gneiss. Foliation is visible in increasing metamorphism.
Photos by: James St. John
Retrieved from: https://www.flickr.com/photos/jsjgeology/16797325751
https://www.flickr.com/photos/jsjgeology/16921409712/in/photostream/
https://www.flickr.com/photos/jsjgeology/45574603002
There are two common types of metamorphism. These are contact metamorphism and
regional metamorphism. Contact metamorphism occurs when rocks are heated at high
temperatures. This happens when magma intrusion heats the adjacent rocks. Regional
metamorphism on the other hand, occurs when rocks are subjected to immense pressure,
more than that of sedimentary rocks. This occurs at plate boundaries or fault lines when
continental plates are colliding or during mountain formation. Rocks are under large scale
13
deformation and folding during regional metamorphism. Rocks produced in this type are
found in huge sizes and layered structures. Different textures of rocks are formed due to
these types of metamorphism. These rocks are classified as foliated or non-foliated.
Figure 11: Contact metamorphism where magma Figure 12: Regional metamorphism due to
intrusion heats up the surrounding rocks immense pressure between colliding plates
during mountain formation
Foliation is the parallel arrangement of the minerals in the rocks. This gives foliated
rocks a stripy structure. Foliated rocks are mostly formed from regional metamorphism
because the huge amount of stress squeezes the minerals of the rocks making them parallel.
The metamorphic rocks in figure 10 are foliated rocks. The foliation is most visible in gneiss.
Non-foliated rocks are rocks formed by contact metamorphism. These rocks have
grains that does not align, thus, having no sheet-like or stripy structure. These rocks are
formed when the minerals of the pre-existing rocks are changed due to the heat from magma
intrusions. Examples of these are marble and quartzite.
The Rock Cycle
As discussed above, rocks can change in form

through metamorphism. Rocks does not always stay the
same. The materials making up these rocks are always
recycled that can span millions or billions of years. These
rocks can be transformed into igneous, sedimentary, or
metamorphic rocks. These continuous recycling of
materials to form rocks is called the rock cycle. An
idealized model of the rock cycle is shown below in figure
Figure 13: Non-foliated rocks (a) 14. Let us start with molten rocks or magma. When these
Quartzite (b) Marble
Photo By: James St. John
magma cools down, they create igneous rocks. When
Retrieved from: these igneous rocks are subjected to high temperature, it
https://www.flickr.com/photos/jsjgeol can melt back to magma. However, if it does not melt and
ogy/16266638314 subjected to immense pressure, they can change form
https://www.flickr.com/photos/jsjgeol and become metamorphic. Metamorphic rocks can go
ogy/16268833583 back to being igneous if it melts and becomes magma.
When both igneous and metamorphic rocks undergo
weathering and erosion, they can be stripped off to sediments. These sediments can undergo
deposition, burial, compaction, and cementing forming sedimentary rocks. These
sedimentary rocks can go back to being sediments if they are weathered and eroded. If these
are subjected to heat and pressure, they can change in form and become metamorphic rocks.
These processes can happen in a short period or even in very long duration of time.
14
There are some instances that sedimentary rocks change to igneous rocks without
changing to metamorphic rocks. These requires a sudden increase in temperature which can
be provided by lightning or meteorites hitting the rocks.
Figure 14: Simplified and idealized rock cycle diagram

Photo by: Vincent L. Dublin
Activity 1: Guess the rock!

Determine which rock is described or associated in the following statements. Write I for
igneous, S for sedimentary and M for metamorphic rocks. Write your answers in capital
letters.
1. Rocks that came from cooled magma or lava
2. Foliated rocks are textures of these rocks
3. Rocks that are formed from fragments of other rocks that are compacted
4. Intrusive rocks are examples of this type
5. Old rocks that are changed in form due to heat and pressure
6. The only rocks capable of preserving fossils
7. Rocks that has little to no crystal structures due to fast cooling
8. Rocks that are formed at the boundaries of continental plates during
collision or mountain building
9. Rocks that are formed from the remains of living organisms
10. Rocks that came into contact to magma intrusion
11. Examples of this rock are clastic rocks
12. Rocks that came from cooled lava during volcanic eruptions
13. Rocks formed when minerals are left when water evaporates
14. The two common ways to produce these rocks are called contact and
regional
15. Rocks that undergo lithification of grains or bits of other rocks
Lesson
Mineral Resources
2.2
It may not be noticeable but a lot of the things that we use in our daily lives are
minerals or composed of minerals. Take the mobile phones for example. Tiny amounts of gold
are used in the circuit boards of mobile phones due to its good conductivity and resistance
to corrosion. Lithium and cobalt are used in its batteries. Aluminum and other metals are
15
used in the casing. The same goes with many appliances in our houses. These are composed
of minerals. In this lesson, we will explore what mineral resources are and how these are
formed.
Minerals in Everyday Life

When we trace the very source of the things that we use in everyday life, it is either
grown from agriculture or mined from the Earth. Minerals are used in mostly everything. For
example, the usefulness of iron had been around for ages and shaped civilizations. Today,
every structure and machinery use iron. Phosphate rock, potash and lime are used as
fertilizers. Salt was used by the Roman Empire as payment to soldiers. Today, we use it to
make tasty dishes. Sand, gravel, clay, and other aggregates are used in construction.
Computers and smartphones use a variety of minerals such as gold, lithium, aluminum,
copper, silver, lead, and zinc which are used in the circuitry, microchips, or casing. Even our
bodies need minerals to grow and be healthy. We cannot live the way we do today without
these minerals.
Types of Mineral Resources
We say that a mineral is present in a place, in other words, that a site has a mineral
occurrence if there is a concentration of a mineral deemed valuable. If an abundance and
concentration of mineral occurrence, is present, enough to compensate the extraction costs
of the mineral, it is called a mineral deposit.
Mineral resources are commonly classified as metallic and non-metallic mineral
resources.
a. Metallic Mineral Resources
Metals such as gold, silver, iron, and copper have been used for ages by different
civilizations. These metals can occur as native metals. These native metals are composed
of metal atoms; thus, they look like metal at a simple glance. However, not all metals can
be seen easily. Some of these are bonded to non-metallic minerals or rocks which makes
the metal initially indistinguishable. Through different processes such as smelting, where
rocks are heated to separate the metals to the non-metals, the metallic mineral resources
are obtained. However, not all rocks contain large number of metals. Rocks that contain
a significant concentration of a metal is called an ore.
The concentration of a valuable metal in a rock determines the grade of an ore.

High grade ores have concentrated metals on them. Different metals have their
corresponding ores. Also, a metal can have more than one ore. In comparison, consider
a chocolate chip cookie in figure 1 (a). For a kid that only wants the chocolate chip, the
whole chocolate chip cookie can be considered its ore. Figure 1 (b) shows a quartz-gold
vein which is a gold ore. The bits of gold are visible in the rock.
Other ores of common metals are the following. Hematite and magnetite are ores of iron.
Galena is an ore for lead. Bauxite is a known ore of aluminum.
16
Figure 1: Comparison of (a) chocolate chip cookie and (b) gold ore
Photo By: (a) Evan-Amos (b) James St. John
Retrieved from:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Choc-Chip-Cookie.png
Figure 2: Ores of Iron (a) Hematite and (b) Figure 3: Bauxite: An ore Figure 4: Galena: An ore
magnetite of Aluminum of Lead
Photo By: James St. John Photo By: James St. John Photo By: James St.
Retrieved from: Retrieved from: John
https://www.flickr.com/photos/jsjgeology/ https://www.flickr.com/p https://www.flickr.com
15219263022 hotos/jsjgeology/232029 /photos/jsjgeology/312
https://www.flickr.com/photos/jsjgeology/ 37099 74280814
34667073365
In the Earth’s crust, there are more than a hundred naturally occurring elements. The
most abundant elements are oxygen and silicon. However, these resources are not economical
to mine in the rocks of the crust because these are not concentrated. Thus, places with
mineral deposits are more economical to mine. Due to this, it is important to know how
mineral and ore deposits form.
Processes in the Formation of Mineral or Ore Deposit
There are several ways that minerals deposits or ore deposits are formed. These are
the following:
• Magmatic Ore Deposits
Minerals that were formed from cooled magma

form magmatic deposits. Magma may contain
minerals that crystallize during cooling during
igneous rocks formation. Rocks that contain this
deposit are usually in large crystals called
pegmatites.
• Hydrothermal Deposits
Figure 5: Simplified Diagram of a Magmatic
Deposit
Illustration by: Vincent L. Dublin
17
When water encounter the hot magma, it can dissolve some of the ions of the minerals.
The water can then move into cracks on the Earth where the temperature or pressure is
different. The dissolved minerals can precipitate
or remain in the cracks creating veins (long lines
of minerals embedded in the rocks). These are
called hydrothermal veins deposits. Another
example is seafloor massive sulfide deposits.
Heated ocean water above magma chambers that
is erupted from hydrothermal vents carry
dissolved sulfide minerals. When this heated
water cooled due to mixing with seawater, the
dissolved minerals will precipitate out of the
solution and will deposit around the Figure 6: Simplified Diagram of a
hydrothermal vents. Formation of Hydrothermal Vein Deposits
• Secondary enrichment deposits
This type of deposit results from
groundwater passing through an existing ore
deposit, carrying some of these minerals to
other places and deposit it there.
Figure 7: Simplified diagram of a formation of

seafloor massive sulfide deposits
• Sedimentary ore deposits

Chemical sedimentary rocks are formed when concentrated
minerals precipitate out of the water in a solution. Examples
of these are evaporite deposits of rock salt and gypsum as
discussed in Lesson 1 of this module. Another example are
rocks such as chert with banded iron formation shown in
figure 8. This type of rocks is formed more than 2 billion
years ago when ocean water evaporates leaving the iron
Figure 8: Banded iron formation containing minerals deposited. This also gives hint that the
Photo By: James St. John conditions of the oceans before are different.
Retrieved from:
https://www.flickr.com/photos/
jsjgeology/18603285114
• Placer Deposits
When veins of ore deposits are eroded, some of the bits of the minerals in these ores
are carried away by moving water on streams or rivers. However, light metals can be
carried away easily, but larger or heavier ones can’t. These heavier metals are
concentrated in the gravels of the river usually in areas along the stream that were
relatively deeper. Figure 9 shows how a placer deposit is formed. Gold can be found in
nuggets in these placer deposits.
18
Figure 9: High density minerals forming placer deposits
Photo from: ManuRoquette
Modified by: Vincent L. Dublin
Retrieved from: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:PlacerEN-
01.png
• Residual Deposits
Residual deposits are formed when a valuable metal is left behind when non-valuable
materials originally present in the rock is weathered out due to rainfall. This can happen
if the non-valuable materials are water soluble while the valuable metals are insoluble.
The ore of aluminum, bauxite, is an example of ore from residual deposits. In analogy,
consider a box full of rusty coins. If a certain rust-dissolving solution is poured in the
box, the ones left will be clean, unrusty coins.
b. Non-Metallic Mineral Resources

As much as metals are important mineral resources, there are various non-metallic
mineral resources that were used in everyday lives. Common examples of the things
found at home that are produced from non-metallic mineral resources are the
following:
• Dimension stone
Dimension stone is the term mostly used by architects for ordinary rock that were
cut and polished to be used in various application such as facades, roofs, floors, and
kitchen countertops. Figure 10 shows a sample of dimension rock and its use as a
kitchen countertop.
Figure 10: (a) Granite dimension stone (b) Dimension stone used in kitchen countertop
Retrieved from: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Slabs_of_granite_(Berlin_2008).jpg
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Natural_Quartz_kitchen_Countertops_stonetopgran
ite_2.jpg
• Crushed Stone and Concrete
No building or roads can be made without crushed stone and concrete. Crushed
stone came from quarries where explosives are used to crush the bedrock into rubbles
and then crushed into smaller pieces by a crusher to usable pieces. Concrete, on the
other hand, is produced when cement, sand and/or gravels which are also called
aggregate, and water are mixed to form a slurry mixture. When this mixture set, it
crystallizes to form concrete, just like how chemical sedimentary rocks form. Cement is
19
a powder mixture of lime (CaO), silica (SiO2), aluminum oxide (Al2O3) and iron oxide (Fe2
and iron oxide (Fe2O3). This is produced when limestone and small amounts of quartz
and clay are heated at intense temperatures.
• Bricks, glass, and drywall

Aside from concrete, bricks are also an essential part in houses. These bricks are
used in creating the walls. Bricks are made of clay that is baked at high temperature to
change into a rigid object. Glass on the other hand is used in the windows. Glass is made
of silica. Glass is made by melting quartz sand and quickly lowering its temperature to
prevent the formation of crystal, just like how intrusive igneous rocks form. Drywall is
the light and white interior walls. These are made from powdered gypsum mixed with
water. The mixture is then spread into a sheet and when it dries, it creates the solid
board that can be used as drywall.
Metallic and non-metallic mineral resources on Earth are non-renewable. After they
are mined and exhausted, those places won’t regenerate minerals as it requires geological
processes for the minerals to form. Thus, it is important to conserve the mineral resources.
Also, mining these resources can have serious environmental effects especially if irresponsible
mining is practiced. Some minerals are also abundant in specific regions on Earth only.
Responsible use of these minerals is necessary to ensure a sustainable present and future.
Activity 1: Modified TRUE or FALSE

Write TRUE if the statement states a factual statement. Otherwise, change the underlined
word to complete the statement and make it true.
Activity 6: Kitchen Rocks!
Choose which of the activity below are more convenient to you. Choose only two of these.
Then answer the questions that follows.
a. Chocolate igneous “rock”
To simulate the formation of igneous rock, melt a chocolate bar (you can use heat but with
caution. Ask help from adults if needed). Then, cool the melted chocolate bar in the
20
refrigerator or just let it stay at room temperature. Observe the chocolate. What happened to
the chocolate bar? How is it related to igneous rock?
b. Rice-stone: A sedimentary “rock”
Volunteer to cook the rice for your family. On the first wash, take a handful of rice on
your hand. Then, firmly squeeze the rice to remove as much water as possible. Observe what
happen to the rice. What happened to the squeezed handful of rice? How is it related to
sedimentary rocks?
c. Metamorphic Egg-rock
Prepare two eggs. Break one egg to observe its texture and appearance. Then, hard-boil the
other one. After, observe the texture and appearance of the hardboiled egg. Observe the
difference of the two eggs. How does the texture and appearance of the egg changed when
subjected to heat? How is it related to metamorphic rock?
MODULE 3
the concepts of extracting mineral resources and formation of fossil fuels. The scope of this
module permits it to be used in many different learning situations. The language used
recognizes the diverse vocabulary level of students. The lessons are arranged to follow the
standard sequence of the course. But the order in which you read them can be changed to
correspond with the textbook you are now using.
The module is divided into two lessons, namely:
• Lesson 3.1 – Mining Minerals Resources
• Lesson 3.2 – Energy Resources: Fossil Fuels
1. describe how ore mineral are found, mined, and processed for human use;
2. understand the different methods of mining;
3. describe how fossil fuels are formed; and
4. understand the formation of fossil fuel reserves.
Lesson
Mining Mineral Resources
3.1
Mineral deposits are located deep down the Earth. Thus, it is not easily known, seen,
collected, and transported. Mining is the primary method to extract these valuable mineral
resources. These involved delicate processes starting from the planning, exploration,
development and even closing the mine. It is important to understand how intricate extracting
these mineral resources is to appreciate and conserve the mineral resources.
The Stages of Mining Mineral Resources

Mining involves digging large and deep areas. This kind of activity is very delicate.
There is no room for error as it can cause destruction of lands and mountains, loss of money
and may even cost lives.
21
Therefore, each process in mining starting from planning, actual extraction and closing the
mine requires rigorous efforts. These are the stages in mining mineral resources.
1. Mineral Exploration
It is inefficient and costly to just set up a mine without knowing where the mineral
deposit and how much mineral deposit is there. Without answers to these questions, no
mining company or investors would risk their money on a mining project. Aside from that,
several factors must also be considered such as legalities, community, and environmental
effects. These are the steps done in mineral exploration.
a. Project design
In this stage, the question, “Where could a mineral deposit be found?” is ought to be
answered. All the historical and geological data of places that is put into consideration for
mining. Commonly, the choice is between places near known deposits because mineral
deposits tend to cluster outward known minerals deposits and places that were uncovered
but is promising based on available historical and geological data.
b. Prospecting and Early-Stage Exploration
When the target area is decided, prospectors conduct several tests to detect any clues of a
mineral deposit. Aerial photography and remote sensing are done in the prospect site.
Satellite imagery is used in remote sensing to uncover possible geological structures.
Geologist also map outcrops, portions of bedrock that are visible. They go to the field and
collect samples of rocks to be studied. Geophysicists use a range of methods to collect more
information about the site. These methods include using magnetism to detect anomalies in
the ground especially for metallic resources, electrical conductivity, test for gravitational
anomalies, radiometric test, and even seismic test. In these tests, anomalies would mean a
good clue because it means there is something down there that causes it. Geochemistry is
also employed especially in the sampling of the chemical composition of the rock samples and
even the vegetation on the area. It is also used to determine the possible concentration of the
desired mineral in the area.
c. Core Sampling
When all the surface tests were done and the
data yielded promising results, it is time to do a
core sampling. Core sampling is done with drills.
Diamond-tipped, hollow drill bits are used to cut
through any rock and get a cylindrical sample of
the rocks below. An example of the drill is shown
in figure 1. The core sample will show the
amount of mineral deposit and how deep these
deposits are.
The drilling is not just on one place but on
several locations and the collected data will be
used for creating a 3D map of the deposit Figure 1: A core drill for mineral exploration
underground. Retrieved from:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
Core_Drill_Atlas_Copco_CS1000P4.png
2. Mining
After ensuring that indeed a valuable, economical, and concentrated is present as well as
all the regulations and environmental considerations are addressed, the next step is the
mining process. Different types of mining methods are operated depending on the type of
mineral to be mined as well as how deep and how rich the ores are. Mining methods are
broadly defined as surface and underground mining.
Surface Mining
When the ores are located relatively near the surface, the appropriate method is surface
mining. There are different surface mining methods for different kind of deposits or ores.
22
These are as follows:
a. Open-Pit mining
Open-pit mines are basically large holes dug up to extract the ores buried
underground especially at deposits concentrated in an area. Spiral steps are created
at the sides to give way for vehicles and people to go down and mine the ores as well
as to keep the structure stable. Figure 2 shows a diagram of an open pit mine while
figure 3 shows a real open pit mine.
Figure 2: Simplified diagram of an open pit mine

Figure 3: Open pit mines

Retrieved from: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Open-pit.jpg
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_Mir_mine_in_Yakutia.JPG
b. Strip mining
As the name suggests, strip mining is

done by removing strips of earth, called
overburden, to expose and mine valuable
ores. This is commonly used in mining
coal. The removed overburden is then
dumped back after all the coals are
mined.
Figure 4: Simplified diagram of a strip mine

Figure 5: Gold Panning

Retrieved from: Figure 6: Gold Panning using
https://commons.wikimedia.or sluice box
g/wiki/File:Gold_panning_at_B Retrieved from:
onanza_Creek.JPG https://commons.wikimedia.org
/wiki/File:Goldwaschrinne.jpg
23
c. Placer or alluvial mining
Placer deposits are deposits of valuable minerals, usually gold, on lower parts of
moving streams or rivers and they settle with the gravel and sand. If a miner wants
to retrieve that gold, they will need to separate the gravel and dirt from the gold bits
and nuggets. This process is called placer mining. Placer mining can be done simply
by panning where miners will manually separate gravel and dirt in a pan or any flat
container with the use of water. Since gold is denser, its tendency is to settle down
while the dirt will be washed away by water. A more efficient method than panning
is the use of sluice boxes where dense gold is caught at the bottom while gravel and
dirt is washed away by water. Newer technology features a more advance placer
mining like using floating dredges where it separates the gravel from the gold
nuggets.
Underground Mining
When a concentrated and abundant ore deposit is

present it is usually located way deeper and surface mining
is not suitable to extract all the ores. Then, underground
mining is the other option. In underground mining, portions
of the mountain are blown up by explosives to create a way
for tunnels called shafts and drifts to be placed. Shafts go
way down the mineral deposit site while the drifts go
horizontally to have access to the ores. Underground
mine is more expensive to operate since lighting, Figure 7: Simplified diagram of an underground mine
ventilation, transportation, and additional safety need Illustration by: Vincent L. Dublin
to be considered. Also, underground water needs to be
pumped to avoid flooding the tunnels. Figure 7 shows a diagram of an underground mine.
3. Milling and Separation

In the previous module, we compared the ore to a chocolate chip cookie. To get all the precious
chocolate chips, the cookies can be crushed to expose the chocolate chips. The same process
is needed for minerals. The metals in the ores need to be separated from the rocks and dirt.
The first step in doing this is by crushing the big chunks
of rocks into powder. This is sometimes done near the
vicinity of the mining site. Figure 8 shows a rock crusher,
a machine that crushes stones as the jaws move back and
forth.
After the milling process, the next procedure is the
separation of the valuable metals from the crushed rock.
The following are the different methods of separation:
a. Heavy Media Separation/ Density Separation
Heavy media separation is done by submerging crushed
Figure 8: Rock crusher jaws rocks into a liquid. Denser valuable minerals will sink at
Photo By: Steve Ford Elliott
Retrieved from:
the bottom while the non-valuable and less dense
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ materials called tailings will rise and easily be removed.
File: Rock_crusher_jaws.jpg b. Flotation
Flotation is done by adding chemicals in a liquid that
creates a froth (foamy texture like in coffee or alcoholic
beverage). When the crushed ore is put in the liquid, the minerals in the liquid will adhere to
the foam and the unwanted dirt will sink at the bottom thus easily separating the mineral.
24
c. Magnetic Separation
A magnetic mineral will easily be separated from the dirt using
magnetism. A magnetic roller separates the magnetic valuable
minerals from the non-magnetic ones as shown in figure 9.
d. Cyanide heap leaching
This method is commonly used in extracting gold from the ore.
Cyanide can dissolve gold and mixing it to the cyanide
solution. Cyanide is sprayed on top of the crushed ore and as
it moves its way down, it brings the gold with it. Then the gold
is removed from the cyanide solution while the unwanted
materials are left.
Figure 9: Simplified diagram of
magnetic separation of minerals 4. Restoration, Reclamation and Closing
from ore Laws were passed to ensure that miners will be held
responsible for the environment that were affected by the
mine. A responsible miner should make sure that mining
waste called tailings are kept in secured tailings ponds and not dumped in nearby rivers.
Eroded or removed parts of the lands are restored or backfilled. Destroyed vegetations (plants
and trees) should be replaced. Some miners convert open-pit mines into dams. Of course, the
original structure of mountains will not be restored after being mined but doing the best
measures to lessen the damages to the minimum will balance the need for the valuable
minerals as well as protecting the environment.
Activity 1: Answer these questions of Mine
Directions: Provide answers for the following questions regarding the stages of mining. One
or two sentences will be sufficient.
1. Why do you think extensive prospecting methods are done before proceeding to a mining
operation?
2. If you are a geophysicist and you detect an anomaly on the magnetic field in an area,
would it be reasonable to continue the mineral exploration process? Why do you think
so?
3. Upon drilling for a core underground, it was found out that a mineral deposit is
concentrated on a certain spot and relatively not so deep. What mining method do you
think is suitable? Why do you think so?
4. How is density as an intrinsic property of matter taken advantage in the separation

process of the valuable minerals from the ores?
5. Mining provides the necessary minerals for mankind’s progress. However, this also have
environmental effects and since it is non-renewable, future generations may not have
enough minerals to be mined. How would you address this dilemma? Should mining be
continued or stopped?
25
Lesson
Energy Resources: Fossil Fuels
3.2
During the industrial revolution, the use of energy resources increased dramatically.
The use of machines reduced and replaced the use of animal and human power. These
machines are powered by burning fossil fuels such as coal. Today, the demand for energy
resources grew even more. Every developing country needs more of these fossil fuels.
Knowledge about how these fossil fuels form is essential in locating and extracting them. In
this lesson, we will explore how fossil fuels are formed and how is it use in power generation.
The demand in energy in this age of industries, technology, and transportation is very
high. Every major city uses great amount of energy to power different establishments. The
use of fossil fuels is the main option to meet this demand. Fossil fuels are the ones producing
electricity in homes and industries. These are the ones running your automobiles and
motorcycles. It is even used in cooking food. Fossil fuels are ideal energy source because of
their high energy density which means more energy is stored for every kilogram of the fuel.
If we trace the very source of the energy used by living things on Earth, almost all of
them can be traced back to the sun, even fossil fuels. What are fossil fuels anyway? Fossil
fuels are fuels that came from the remains of once living things millions of years ago. Plants
primarily get their energy from the sun and process it through photosynthesis while animals
eat plants, thus getting portions of that energy. When these plants or animals died and they
are buried deep underground, the energy is carried with them given that they don’t undergo
normal decomposition process. Given that these processes take place in millions of years,
fossil fuels are considered as non-renewable energy resources.
There are three types of fossil fuels. These are coal, oil or petroleum and natural gas. Coal is
a solid, petroleum can exist as liquid and natural gas is of course a gas.
Types of Fossil Fuels
a. Coal
Coal is the cheapest, most abundant and one of the most used fossil fuels. It is a
shiny, black rock that usually occur in layers. It is composed of mostly carbon and some
impurities. When combusted, it releases huge amount of heat for a relatively long duration
making it a great source of energy.
Coal is formed from the remains of ancient plants that were buried underground at
high pressure and temperature changing its structure. This is how coals are formed.
Figure 1: Coal, a sedimentary

rock from the remains of
plants millions of years ago
Retrieved from:
https://www.scienceimage.c
siro.au/image/10945
26
Figure 2. Process on the formation of coal
The formation of coal starts from swampy areas where the waters are stagnant and
there is less oxygen. With abundant amount of oxygen, dead plants can undergo aerobic
decomposition (decomposition involving oxygen), thus, returning the energy they
captured through photosynthesis back to the atmosphere.
For plants to turn into coal, it should undergo anaerobic decomposition so that the plants
could carry the energy when they were buried. A swamp is a perfect condition for this.
Vegetations (plants and trees), usually giant ferns grow in these swamps. When the
swamps are flooded due to natural causes such as tectonic activities, the vegetations are
killed and buried by the water and dirt. When the water subsides another vegetations
can grow. Flooding can come again and bury those plants and trees. The process can
repeat and over time, due to heat and pressure underground, the buried plant remains
turns into coal.
27
There are different stages before plant remains turns into coal. This is categorized on
the amount of carbon present. The first stage in the coal development is peat. Peat is
composed of densely packed and unconsolidated plant materials. The plant components
can sometimes still be visible in peat. Peat can be used as fuel when dried out, but it
burns relatively fast. When peat is more compacted, it turns into lignite or brown coal.
Further compaction turns into subbituminous or bituminous coal, a sedimentary rock.
This is the commonly used coal. When burnt, it releases smoke which can pose
environmental risk. When subjected to even higher pressure and temperature, it turns
into a metamorphic rock called anthracite. This is also called clean coal as it is composed
of mostly carbon, thus releasing very little impurities when burnt. The table below shows
the different characteristics of these stages of coal development.
b. Oil/Petroleum and Natural Gas

Oil and natural gas are composed of hydrocarbons, strands of molecules containing
hydrogen and carbon atoms. These hydrocarbons came from the remains of organic
Table 1: Properties of Coal at Different Stages

Water Other Fixed
Content Volatiles Carbon
Type Color (%) (%) (%)
Peat Brown 75 10 15
Lignite Brown to Brownish Black 45 25 30
Subbituminous coal Black 25 35 40
Bituminous coal (soft coal) Black 5 to 15 20 to 30 45 to 86
Anthracite (hard coal) Black 5 to 10 5 86 to 98
materials. However, these are not formed from plants but from microscopic organisms
such as planktons thriving in calm, oxygen-poor oceans or lakes that are well lit by
sunlight and has abundant nutrients. Also, the waters should
contain enough number of sediments that can
help bury the organic remains.
When the planktons die, they
accumulate together with the
sediments such as clay. It is
important that there is less
oxygen in the water to prevent
the planktons from
decomposing or being eaten by
another organism.
Through time, the
accumulated organic remains as well as sediments
are buried and compacted further by other sediments. Due to
higher pressure and temperature
from being buried and
compacted, the organic remains
can undergo lithification and
form organic shale. Organic
shale is called as source rock
because this rock will be the
source of the oil when it is
subjected at higher temperature
and pressure. At even higher
pressure of compaction and
higher temperature, the organic
shale can be broken down in a
form of waxy molecules called
kerogen. Buried deeper and
subjected to higher temperatures Figure 3. Process on the formation of oil and
between 90 OC to 160 OC, the kerogen natural gas
28
breaks down into hydrocarbons forming oil. This temperature is called the oil window.
When temperatures increase until 250 OC, the oil molecules form natural gas which is
essentially methane. Exceeding this temperature would break down the hydrocarbon
leaving behind the pure carbon forming graphite.
Formation of Oil and Natural Gas Reserves
Oil and gas reserves are places that contain enough oil that is profitable to be
extracted. In simple terms, these are places that has huge amount of oil or gas underneath.
There are two kids of reserves, conventional and unconventional reserves. Conventional
reserves are places where oil can be drilled and pumped easily while unconventional
reserves are those that are much different from the conventional ones in terms of form and
extraction method.
a. Conventional Reserves
For conventional reserves of oil and gas to form, it follows additional stages. After oil
are formed, they undergo migration where they rise to reservoir rocks. These rocks
should be porous and permeable. This means that these rocks should have tiny holes
making it porous. These holes should also be connected, making it permeable, so that
oil and gas could pass through it. Example of these porous and permeable rock is
sandstone which is formed from compacted sands.
If these oil and gas

continue to rise without something
preventing them, they can reach the
surface. However, underground
reserves are formed when there is a
cap rock or seal rock that prevents
the oil from moving upward. These
rocks should not be porous and
permeable unlike the reservoir rocks.
If cap rocks and reservoir rocks
encloses a significant amount of oil or
gas, it now forms a trap. These traps
Figure 4. Simplified diagram of an oil and gas trap are then drilled and pumped to
Illustration by: Vincent L. Dublin extract the oil and gas. Briefly, oil and
gas reserves from source rock rises
and settles in reservoir rocks and is trapped by cap or seal rock. It is also important to
note that these whole process takes millions of years to happen. When extracted, oil is
then refined to obtain different distillates such as gasoline, diesel, and kerosene.
b. Unconventional Reserves
• Oil Shale and Shale Oil

It may be confusing, but these terms do not mean the same thing.
Oil shale is composed of a source rock that formed kerogen but did not reach enough
temperature for it to turn into oil. Meaning, it has oil components, but it is still attached to a
rock. On the other hand, shale oil is a source rock that turned into oil. However, this oil did
not migrate and remain trapped in the rocks. These sources undergo processing first before
they can be refined like the conventional oil.
• Oil sands/ Tar sands
These are asphalt-cemented sand or sandstones where the pores of the sandstone are filled
with very viscous oil hence making it unable to flow. This also needs to be processed before
it can be refined.
• Shale gas
Shale gas are hydrocarbons that reached the gas stage but are trapped in the pores of shale.
These are examples of unconventional reserve. These are unconventional because these
are either too viscous to flow or trapped in the rocks. The additional process in extraction
29
makes it less economical than conventional oil or gas. However, with the rising of the price
of conventional oil, these reserves can compete with the conventional reserves.
Activity 1: Let’s go back in time!

Arrange the following according to the correct order of events. Write 1 for the first event and
5 for the last.
1. Formation of Coal
(a) Plants and ferns thrive in the swampy areas with stagnant water
(b) The remains of plants settle at the bottom of the swamps and were not
decomposed by oxygen.
(c) Flooding due to rising of sea levels and other tectonic activities kill vegetations.
(d) The remains are buried down by dirt from the floods.
(e) The buried remains turn into coal after millions of years.
2. Formation of Oil and Natural Gas

(a) Organic remains of planktons accumulate at the bottom of the ocean floor
together with sediments.
(b) Planktons and other tiny organisms thrive in waters well-lit by sunlight.
(c) The source rock is buried even deeper for the source rock to form kerogen.
(d) The kerogen turns to oil and gas when reaching higher temperature due to even
deeper burial.
(e) The organic remains mixed with sediments are buried and compacted forming a
source rock
Making a concept map

Create an advocacy towards responsible mining and use of fossil fuels. You can express your
advocacy in a form of slogan, drawing, meme, or other similar ways.
MODULE 4
This module was designed and written with you in mind. It is here to help you master the
different sources of water, and how it is used in hydropower and geothermal applications.
The scope of this module permits it to be used in many different learning situations. The
language used recognizes the diverse vocabulary level of students. The lessons are arranged
to follow the standard sequence of the course. But the order in which you read them can be
changed to correspond with the textbook you are now using.
• Lesson 4.1 – Hydropower and Geothermal Energy
• Lesson 4.2 – Various Water Sources
30
1. explain how heat from inside the Earth (geothermal) and from flowing water
(hydroelectric) is tapped as a source of energy for human use;
2. identify the advantages and disadvantages of hydropower and geothermal; and
3. identify the various water resources on Earth.
Lesson Hydroelectric and Geothermal

4.1 Energy
The use of renewable energy is highly encouraged for the world not to solely rely on
fossil fuels given the environmental effects of these. The challenge however in using
renewables is that many of these are inefficient compared to fossil fuels. In all these
renewables, hydropower and geothermal energy shows great promise as these two has the
most contribution in power generation among the renewable energy resources. In this lesson,
we will explore how energy is generated by hydropower and geothermal energy.
Hydroelectric Power Generation

Hydropower is the most efficient and has the greatest percentage of power generated of
all the renewable sources at 17% according to the International Energy Agency.
Hydroelectric power generation is about the conversion of kinetic energy of moving water
to electricity. To do these, hydroelectric powerplants are installed along rivers or waterfalls or
other water reservoirs.
1. Working mechanism of a hydroelectric powerplant
Hydroelectric powerplants require huge amount of water and high elevation. Falls are
perfect locations for these. Example of these is the Ma. Cristina Falls hydropower plant in
Iligan City, Lanao del Norte. However, falls are not found everywhere. The rivers that supply
the waters from these falls are the most used site in making hydroelectric powerplant. Figure
1 shows a simplified model of a hydroelectric powerplant.
Figure 1: A simplified diagram of a hydroelectric powerplant

In most powerplants, the goal is to have something to rotate a turbine that is connected
to a generator. In hydroelectric powerplants, moving water is the one spinning the turbine.
Water from rivers is kept in reservoirs by forming a dam. This allows storage of huge amount
of water. These waters can be released when the sluice gate is opened. A penstock pipe is
installed to move the water from the reservoirs to a lower elevation where the turbine is
located. The turbine is connected to a generator in a powerhouse. When water moves through
the penstock, it spins the turbine, which in turn spins the generator, hence producing
electricity. The voltage produced is stepped-up by a transformer and the electricity is
distributed to residences and industries. The water that ran the turbine flows out to the river.
31
Another type of hydroelectric powerplants is pumped storage hydropower. During times
where the demand in electricity is low such as at night, water is pumped up back to the
reservoir. The pumped and stored water in the reservoir can be released again in times with
peak demand in electricity where the price is much higher. This is analogous to charging a
battery when it was already used up by flowing current back to the battery.
2. Advantages and Disadvantages

One of the advantages of hydropower is that no significant amounts of carbon dioxide
are emitted on its operations. Water is also readily available and replenished by rainfall
making it a renewable energy source. Hydropower is also the most efficient energy source
converting 90% of the energy of moving water to electricity. Its ability to store water makes it
suitable in responding to fluctuating demands in electricity. For instance, water collected
during the rainy seasons can be stored and be used during the dry seasons. Lastly, water
used in generating electricity can still be used in other forms.
The disadvantages of hydropower include its costly construction. It also needs a large
space for building dams. Some local communities may need to be relocated when this
powerplants are constructed. The damming of rivers may disrupt natural habitat of animals
living in the rivers.
Geothermal Energy
Beneath the Earth’s crust, the temperature increases as it goes deeper. The source of
this heat comes from the original heat from the formation of the Earth and from the decay of
radioactive matter on Earth. This heat underground is called geothermal energy. However,
not all places are suitable for tapping geothermal energy. Those places with high tectonic
activities such as Mexico, Indonesia and Philippines are suitable for tapping geothermal
energy. Geothermal energy heats underground water. Some of these waters produce hot
springs or geysers. In geothermal powerplants, steam or hot water from underground are the
ones used and manipulated to run turbines.
1. Types and working mechanism of geothermal powerplants
There are three main types of geothermal powerplants. The design and mechanisms of
these powerplants depend on how hot the water underground can be. The different types of
geothermal powerplants are the following:
a. Dry Steam Geothermal Powerplant
Dry steam powerplants directly uses steam generated underground that passes through a
production well which extends underground. The steam is used to run a turbine connected
to a generator. The produced electricity is stepped up by a transformer and ready to be
distributed through the powerlines. The used steam passes through a condenser, hence
turning it to liquid. The liquid water is injected back to the ground to be reheated. These type
of powerplant requires that the water is heated at very high temperatures.
Figure 2: A simplified diagram of a dry steam geothermal powerplant

32
b. Flash Steam Powerplant
Flash steam powerplants are used when the heated waters underground does not
completely turn to steam. Thus, it is flashed into steam when it is pumped out to the surface.
The hot water passes to a production well and into a flash tank. The flash tank is kept at a
low pressure which makes it easy for hot water to turn into steam. Then, the steam created
in the flash tanks spins the turbine, moving the generator and producing electricity. The used
steam is converted back to liquid in a condenser and is injected back underground to be
reheated. In some powerplants called double flash steam powerplants, the water that didn’t
turn to steam are again put in another flash tank at even lower pressure to turn it into steam.
Figure 3: A simplified diagram of a flash steam geothermal powerplant

c. Binary Cycle Powerplant

What if the water is hot enough to heat another liquid but not hot enough to turn into steam?
Binary cycle powerplant exploits the property of other liquid to boil faster than water. In a
binary cycle powerplant, the heat of hot water is transferred to another liquid with high
boiling point via a heat exchanger. Example of these liquid is isobutane. The steam from the
heated isobutane spins the turbine connected to a generator and thus producing electricity.
The hot water is injected back to the ground to be reheated while the other liquid condenses
and returns to the heat exchanger ready to be used again.
Figure 4: A simplified diagram of a binary cycle geothermal powerplant

2. Advantages and Disadvantages

The major advantage in the use of geothermal energy is it being renewable. This is also
environment friendly as it does not emit carbon-dioxide into the atmosphere. Geothermal
energy is also reliable as it can supply electricity at most circumstances unlike solar and
wind. It uses no fuel, requires minimal land area, and operates with less noise compared to
other powerplants.
33
The disadvantage of geothermal energy is it can be installed in specific locations only.
Some areas with low tectonic activities are not suitable for geothermal plants. Also, the
operation of geothermal powerplants may cause water depletion in some areas since it utilizes
the groundwater. Costly construction of geothermal powerplant is also a disadvantage.
Though it is renewable, irresponsible operation of a geothermal powerplant may cause
exhaustion if the heat underground is used up more than it is replenished.
Activity 1: Venn Diagram

Construct a Venn Diagram to show the similarities and differences of hydroelectric and
geothermal energy.
Lesson
Water Sources
4.2
The earliest civilizations thrived near the rivers. The Mesopotamia grew near the Tigris
and Euphrates River. The Egyptians benefited from the riches of the Nile River while the
Indian Civilization grew along the Indus River. It is not surprising because rivers provide the
very necessity of mankind, water. In this chapter, we will explore the various water sources
in our planet.
Water Sources
When Earth’s photo was first captured from space, it
was called the “Blue Marble”. The immense amount of
water on Earth gives the blue appearance. In fact,
about 75% of the Earth is covered with water. This
water is circulated in the Earth through the hydrologic
cycle. If water is abundant on Earth, why do some
places have water scarcity?
The simplest answer is even though there are huge

amount of water on Earth, 97% of these waters are
saltwater in the oceans while the remaining 3% is for
freshwater. From the total freshwater, 77% percent of
Figure 1: The percentages of different water
these are trapped in the glaciers and ice caps in the sources on Earth
poles while 22% is located underground. The Retrieved from:
remaining 1% is what we see in the surface like rivers, https://www.ck12.org/book/ck-12-earth-
lakes and wetlands. As we can see in figure 1, the amount of freshwater on Earth is of little
percentage. That is why, water is still a precious substance though we have lots of it.
34
1. Freshwater
a. Surface water
These pertains to the waters that are located to the surface. This includes the waters in
the lakes, streams, rivers and wetlands. When the ground is flat, these surface water
accumulates in puddles or wetlands. Wetlands include swamps and marshes. If the ground
is sloped, water from river basins (source of river water) moves in streams and rivers. Humans
also create dams where it can store rainwater on the surface.
b. Groundwater
When rain runs off the ground, some of these are evaporated back to the atmosphere while
some infiltrates the ground until it reached and impermeable rock underground. These
waters are called groundwater. Groundwater provides much of the drinking water and
agricultural irrigation. Figure 2 shows a groundwater system.
Figure 2: A groundwater system

Retrieved from:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Groundwater_(aquifer,_aquitard,_3_type_wells).PN
The porous and permeable rocks that hosts groundwater like sponge are called aquifers.
It is important to note that the ground is not floating in the water, as the diagram may falsely
show. Imagine lots of water poured on a column of sand. Aquitards on the other hand are the
impermeable rocks that acts like a barrier for water. These two are like the reservoir and cap
rocks for oil. Aquifers bounded by aquitards are confined ones while the unbounded ones are
the unconfined aquifers.
The water table is the boundary from the non-saturated ground and the water saturated
ones. To gain access to groundwater, people dig wells. Some of these wells extend deep to the
aquitards. These are deep wells which are pumped to collect the water. Some wells have
become dry when the water table lowers. When a well is located to the lower part of an inclined
ground, it may not need pumping as the weight of the water on the higher part provides the
pressure for the water to go up. These are artesian wells.
Aquifers however may become depleted when the removed water is more than the water
that infiltrate back to the ground. Thus, groundwater is a non-renewable resource. Some
places on Earth have a scarcity of water such as in Africa because the aquifers are depleted
and less rains on these continent does not give enough supply to refill the aquifers.
c. Glaciers and Icecaps
In the poles such as the Arctics and Antarctica, snow that are continuously compressed
over time form glaciers which composed much of the freshwaters. When these ices melt, it
can rose seawater levels up to 70m worldwide.
2. Seawater
Seawater comprises almost all of the waters on Earth. In countries such as the Saudi
Arabia and Singapore, there is a scarcity in freshwater. These countries implement the
desalination of seawater. Salt is removed from the seawater by distillation or reverse osmosis.
In distillation, water is evaporated to be separated from the salt. The water is then condensed
to turn into liquid. Reverse osmosis uses a membrane that allows water to pass but not the
salts. This is done to provide the water needs of the people.
Even though water is abundant on Earth, it is not equally distributed. In some places,
water is not available at all time while others have polluted waters. Water is free, but getting
this water, storing, treating, and distributing these waters cost money so water conservation
helps in providing sustainable water for everyone.
35
Activity 1: Solving a crossword puzzle
Supply the crossword with the appropriate words based on the lesson.
1. Making a simple waterwheel (or steam wheel)
Materials:
1 pc round Styrofoam (or any similar objects),
6 pcs plastic spoon (or large tip popsicle stick),
1 pc barbeque stick (or any similar objects),
1 pc tape
(Precautions: Be careful in cutting objects.)

Directions:
1. Cut the plastic spoon in half.
2. Then stick the spoons equally around the styroball. At the middle, pierced the
barbeque stick on the styroball and secure it with tape. Make sure that the styroball
can rotate using the BBQ stick as the axle.
3. Run water on the waterwheel using a faucet or using a cup of water.
36
2. Making a groundwater model
Pour a layer of gravel on a transparent container
(i.e., wafer stick jars). Then, pour sand about ¾ of the
container. Next put a gravel on top of the sand. After,
pour a significant amount of water. Observe how the
water behaves and where does it stay.
3. Hydropower construction Dilemma
Indigenous people communities do not approve a
construction of a hydropower plant as they say that it
will dry up their water resources and displace wildlife.
What will you do if you are in charged on the decision?
What will you do to balance the two concerns?
MODULE 5
the different ways the water and soil is affected by our actions and the ways to conserve the
soil. The scope of this module permits it to be used in many different learning situations. The
language used recognizes the diverse vocabulary level of students. The lessons are arranged
to follow the standard sequence of the course. But the order in which you read them can be
changed to correspond with the textbook you are now using.
• Lesson 5.1 – Human activities affecting the availability and quality of water
• Lesson 5.2 – Human activities affecting the quantity and quality of soil
• Lesson 5.3 – Soil Protection and Conservation Practices
1. give examples of human activities affecting the waters and soil;
2. explain how different activities affect the quality and availability of water for human
use;
3. identify human activities, such as farming, construction of structures, and waste
disposal, that affect the quality and quantity of soil; and
4. give ways of conserving and protecting the soil for future generations.
Lesson Human activities affecting the

5.1 availability and quality of water
The percentage of freshwater on Earth is very small compared to saltwater. Even
though this is a small percentage, this amount is still quite huge. However, access to safe
and enough water are hindered by different human activities. In this lesson, we will explore
the different ways humans affect the quality and supply of water.
37
Human activities affecting water quality and availability
An average person can live for weeks without food but not for days without water.
Water is an important part in our households, industries, and agriculture.
However, human activities are also affecting the quality and supply of this precious waters.
The following are the common activities contributing to these.
1. Pollution
Pollution is arguably the biggest problem that we face with regards to our waters. This
can come from various sources and is quite challenging to solve because of the different
natures of contaminants. Pollution may come from point or non-point sources. Point source
pollution came from contaminants that directly pollutes the waters and be easily identifiable
as the source of pollution. Factories that directly dump liquid waste in the oceans are point
sources. On the other hand, non-point pollution are indirect ways that contaminants reached
and affect the waters in a wider range. The following are common contaminants in the waters.
(a) Garbage
Significant amount of litter reaches our waters. Household items, discarded materials,
plastics, and plastic containers, used tires, broken items, fast-food containers, electronic
waste and many other types of rubbish we can name can all end up in our waters. Some
households throw this rubbish to the nearest waterway. Some people are lazy enough to hold
a bag of plastic until finding a near trash bin. All these little things done by numerous people
contribute to the litters in our waters.
(b) Urban and road runoff

Imagine an asphalted road with cars dripping small amounts of oils and brake fluids as
well as teared tires and impurities from the exhaust. Also add the small sediments and litters.
When rain comes, all these will be washed off. This is called runoff. Run off is a non-point
source because its effects are not direct and easily identifiable. Runoff causes floods as it
clogs drainage because water can’t seep into the ground due to being cemented or asphalted.
Runoff pollutes the bodies of water and when it reaches there, the animals in the waters can
also be affected.
(c) Improper Disposal of Toxic Chemicals and Heavy Metals

Improper disposal of toxic chemicals such as dumping in the sink and rivers could
contaminate the waters. Factories irresponsibly dumping their waste that may contain heavy
metals and toxic chemicals directly on the waters and contaminates it. Dumping in land could
leak those chemicals to the groundwater. Leaking gasoline from gas station could also reach
the water table and contaminate it.
(d) Fertilizer, Nutrients, Pesticides and Herbicides

Fertilizers and nutrients such as nitrates, phosphates and potassium are good at
stimulating growth which makes is good for plants and crops. However, when it is washed off
during rains and it end up in the lakes or rivers, they still do their job as growth enhancers
but for algae. Eutrophication happens where excessive algae grows in the waters. Algal blooms
are the green layers on top of the waters which makes it polluted. When these algae die,
bacteria would decompose it. Bacteria need oxygen in decomposing it and the increased
number of bacteria to decompose the increased amounts of algae would reduce the oxygen
levels in the waters causing animals living in the water to die due to oxygen deprivation. To
prevent this, fertilizers and nutrients should not be used in excess so that less of it can be
washed out to the water bodies. Pesticides and herbicides used in crops may contaminate the groundwater
as it was carried by rainwater seeping into the ground.
38
(e) Human and Animal Waste or Excretions
Septic tanks filters solid waste from human excretions. However, poor maintenance of
septic tanks would leak solid waste to the groundwater. These may contain pathogens such
as bacteria and viruses that may contaminate the waters. This is the reason why digging
wells near toilet septic tanks or latrines is not encouraged. Informal settlements add to these
as human excrements are directly dumped into the bodies of water. Excretions from animals
primarily from agriculture may be washed off to nearby waters through runoff or dumping.
(f) Landfills
Household and industrial trash are collected and
dumped in landfills. Imagine a partly empty paint can or
a broken mercury thermometer. Over time, the can in the
landfill will corrode and leach out the paint to the
groundwater. The same thing is true for the mercury in
the thermometer. Different trashes can leach out heavy
metals and can be a threat to safe groundwater. New
designs of landfills include putting a lining underground
to prevent the leaching of harmful chemical. Responsible Figure 1: Algal blooms forming in
management of landfills are also necessary to prevent a river
possible contamination of groundwater. Retrieved from:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/
(g) Mining wiki/File:River_algae_Sichuan.jpg
On module 3, we have discussed how ores are Photo by: Felix Andrews
processed to extract the valuable minerals. After Licensed under (CC BY-SA 3.0)
extracting it, the tailings, those who are left off after
extracting the minerals needs to be disposed. Some miners have tailings pond to store the
tailings. However, some irresponsible miners dump those tailings to nearby rivers,
contaminating it. Also, acid and cyanide used in the mining and processing of ores can make
its way to the groundwater and the rivers.
(h) Pharmaceuticals
When we take our medicines or supplements, some portions of it are excreted by the body
when we urinate or defecate. Some people flash unused and expired medicines in the toilet.
In a study conducted by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), it was found out that
pharmaceuticals are present in the waters, including the drinking ones. These are tiny
enough to pass through filters in wastewater treatment facilities.
Though it is in small concentrations and have no known effects to humans, small animals
that lives in freshwaters can be affected. For example, hormones from contraceptive pills are
ingested by small fishes. This causes male fishes to feminize, changing their body to grow
eggs. Anti-anxiety drugs can make some fishes like carps anti-social, meaning they leave their
schools, become aggressive and fast eaters making them vulnerable to their predators.
2. Inefficient irrigation system

A huge percentage of about 70% of all human freshwater use is in agriculture. The crops
that make our food need lots of water. This can be provided by rain, which is not readily
available, or by irrigation. Irrigations usually make use of pumped groundwater. As we know
in module 4, groundwater aquifers are not easily replenished. It means that efficient irrigation
systems should be employed. However, some irrigation systems which are less costly are
inefficient.
For example, surface irrigation uses gravity to move the water to the crops. Some of these
may be lost to evaporation making it inefficient. New ways of irrigation such as drip irrigation
are more efficient but costly. In drip irrigation, drops of water from pipes are strategically
placed enough for the specific plant to be watered.
3. Water wasting and misuse

Irresponsible use of water is another contributor to the decline of water supply. Starting
from simply brushing your teeth, some continue to run the faucet. In washing clothes, a lot
of water is thrown off when it can be used for other purposes such as flushing the toilet.
Others flush the toilet more than the needed amount. Faulty and leaking pipes also waste
39
water. A simple drop for long durations would mean a great loss. In cleaning, some hose down
the litters instead of just sweeping them. Using a hose in car washing and keeping the water
running waste several liters of water. A pale and sponge can be used instead. There are
several more ways that human’s wastewater, nullifying the various procedures before the
clean waters reaches our homes.
Activity 1: To meme or not to meme

List 6 activities that promote water conservation and 6 activities that negatively affect
water quality and supply. Put your answer appropriate for the figure below.
Lesson Human activities affecting the

5.2 quantity and quality of soil
Civilizations start to emerge due to agriculture as people need not to wander as
nomads and can stay on one place by benefiting from the riches of the soil. However, the yield
from the soil decreases upon continued use but the demand for food is ever increasing.
Failure to keep the soil quantity and quality, it led to the demise of civilizations such as the
Mayan Civilization, leaving only ruins from their past. People nowadays should learn from
these lessons. Failure to conserve the soil that provide the food for our ever-growing
population may also be a reason for our own demise. In this lesson, we will discuss what are
the activities that people do that affect the soil quantity and quality.
Soil
Soils are unconsolidated materials from the weathering of rocks that also contain
organic matter. This property gives soil an ability to support plant growth and is, therefore,
an invaluable resource. Soil is composed of 45% minerals, 5% decomposed organic matter or
humus and 50% pore space available for water and air to penetrate. Soil can be classified
into different soil horizon shown in figure 1. The top layer aside from the surface litter is
called the topsoil. This is the most fertile layer. It is composed of minerals as well as humus.
The next layer is the subsoil which is composed of clay, calcite, and other minerals. Deeper
than the subsoil is the parent material where all the soils above were weathered from. In this
lesson, when we talk about soil, we are referring to the topsoil that is capable of supporting
plant growth.
40
Human Activities Affecting Soil Quality and Quantity
Soil is important to humans as it provides our very basic need, food. However, the
activities that humans do are also the ones affecting the soil. The following are common
activities that contribute to this.
1. Agriculture
Agriculture is the process of benefiting from the riches of the soil by planting crops and
raising farm animals. However, some of the activities in farming and animal raising can
affect the soil. These are the examples.
a. Improper Cultivation
It is important for farmers to make sure that the land is ready or cultivated enough before
planting crops. The traditional practice is by tillage and plowing. Tillage is done by disrupting
the soil by using sticks, hoes, rakes, plows, or machinery. In Filipino this is what we called
as pagbubungkal. Deep plowing, which is a type of tillage is the overturning of soil (like
flipping an omelet) at greater depths. Though this helps in preparation for planting crops, the
disruption of the soil structure due to tillage exposes the soil from agents of erosion such as
water and wind.
When it floods, the brownish color of the
water tells us that significant amount of soil
can be eroded by it. When significant amounts
of soil are eroded, it will cause the land to bear
less crops as the soil become less fertile. When
done continuously over many seasons of
planting, tillage could completely cause the
breakdown of the soil as it interrupts the
microbial activity as well as the burrowing
animal activities such as of ants and
earthworms. The pores in the soil is also
affected, hence preventing water to permeate Figure 2: A land that undergone tillage
the soil, and causing the farmers to apply more Retrieved from:
irrigation. https://pixabay.com/photos/potato-field-crops-
farm-soil-1628500/
Licensed under: Free for commercial use
b. Excess use of fertilizers and
pesticides
Just as humans need bacteria in our stomachs to
aid different bodily functions, the soil has a similar
relationship with different organisms. The soil is an
ecosystem for small organisms such as earthworms,
nematodes, small insects, bacteria, and fungi
among others. These interactions give the soil its
porosity as well as the organic matter making the
soil fertile. The use of excessive fertilizers and
pesticides may increase the acidity of the soil
affecting the biodiversity in it. The dependence on
fertilizer to have better yields causes the increase of
fertilizer needed every planting. It is like coffee
addiction. You need more coffee to wake you up the Figure 3. A portion of land
longer you have it. In terms of the soil, you need undergone desertification due to
more fertilizers to sustain the desired yields. Rick overgrazing
Haney, a researcher from U.S. Department of Retrieved from:
Agriculture said that the dependence on fertilizer for https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fil
yields is like not bothering to give a child a proper e:Overgrazing-Rukwa.JPG
Licensed under: Lichinga/ (CC BY-SA
diet and just giving them vitamins instead. Also,
4.0)
some fertilizers can cause the soil to accumulate
salt. Salty soils cannot grow crops.
41
c. Overgrazing
Overgrazing happens when farm animals excessively feed from the grass in an area.
Animals also step on the grasses making them unable to grow. When this happen, the natural
soil covering is lost exposing the soil to erosion. As we have discussed, the topsoil is the most
fertile part of the soil. These fertile lands are called arable lands. When these erode, it will not
be able to support plant growth. On extreme cases, land degradation happens when almost
all the topsoil is removed including the nutrients in the soil allowing the possibility of
desertification or the transformation of fertile soil into a desert. Soil that underwent
desertification is unable to support crops or biodiversity.
2. Construction and Urbanization

When we build houses, roads, and buildings, we need to dig up the soil. Vegetation covering
the soil is also be removed. This loss in vegetation exposes the soil to erosion especially water
runoff. In a study conducted by Safari et. al, they found out that runoff is maximum on
constructed roads compared to forest soils. They also found out that road construction
negatively affects the nutrients present in the soil. This eroded soil due to runoff may find its
way to the rivers and streams bringing all the nutrients of the soil there and making it muddy.
3. Deforestation
Deforestation is the removal of trees in the forest for other uses. Illegal logging activities as
well as kaingin or slash-and-burn practices are causes of deforestation. Though the practice
of kaingin makes the soil fertile, it is only for short period of time. The need for land space for
urbanization, construction and agriculture are the common reasons for deforestation. When
trees and vegetations are removed, there will be no roots from trees that hold the soil together
and therefore expose the bare soil to erosion. The roots minimize erosion from runoff while
the tall and wide trunks, branches and leaves prevent wind from eroding the soil.
4. Mining
We have discussed in module 3 how minerals are extracted through mining. Mining
requires digging large land areas and removing vegetation. This makes soil vulnerable to
erosion. Tailings and heavy metal waste that may reach the soils by irresponsible mining
practices makes soil unusable for future planting. Mining waste that can pollute the waters
for irrigation can also affect the soil.
Activity 1: Assessment of Benefits and Threats/Risks
Most of the activities presented above are not merely harmful practices as these are also
important to sustain human lifestyle. In this activity, let us assess the benefits and
threats/risk of the following activities.
42
Lesson Ways to Protect and Conserve
5.3 the Soil
We knew from the past lesson how different human activities could affect the quality
and quantity of soil. If we continue doing those activities, we are also the ones that will
suffer. But of course, we don’t want that to happen. People conduct several actions to
protect and conserve the soil. We will discuss those activities in this lesson.
Different Practices Promoting Soil Conservation
Soil conservation refers to actions taken to protect the soil, especially the fertile topsoil that
supports plant growth. Most of the practices discussed in module 5 results to soil erosion. In
this lesson, the practices promoting soil conservation mostly aim to decrease or prevent soil
erosion.
1. Contour Plowing
Compare the two pictures. Which one do you think could prevent more water from
running off downhill?
Figure 1: Contoured vs non-contoured planting on sloped lands

If you have chosen a, you’re correct. Picture a show a method of plowing (ploughing in
British) and planting called contour farming. In a slope land, not every point in a straight
horizontal line means the same elevation. In agriculture and in topography in general, the
region of points around a slope that has the same elevation are called contours and are
represented by contour lines. In farming, planting along the contours minimizes the effect of
water runoff moving downhill thus limiting erosion.
The difference in the height in each contours act like little terraces. This enables increased
water absorption in the soil while minimizing water erosion.
2. Strip Cropping and Contour Strip Cropping

Strip cropping is the planting of alternating strips of different crops. For example, one can
plant strips of alternating crops that require different set of nutrients from the soil such as
corn and soybeans. In terms of protection from erosion, alternating strips of row crops
(profitable crops such as corn, wheat, soybeans) and protective crops (crops that protect soil
erosion such as grass, clover, pineapple, or small grains). The protective crops can also be
chosen to give high levels of residue (plant materials such as stem, leaves, branch that are
left after harvesting). The residue can cover the soil during winds or rains, thus minimizing
erosion. It can also be a fertilizer to the soil when decomposed. For sloping lands, a
combination of strip cropping, and contour farming can be employed.
43
3. Crop Rotation
Crop rotation is the sequential planting of two or more crops in the same field for different
planting seasons. The more crops are involved in the rotation, the better it is for the soil. For
example, figure 4 shows how to produce the same three crops every year but each land would
host different crop for the whole 3-year cycle. By using crop rotation, the soil is given enough
time to regenerate its nutrients as every crop needs different set off nutrients. Including cover
or protective crops in the rotation such as legumes reduces soil erosion and enhances the
soil water absorption while preparing the land for the row crops (profitable crops). Legumes
can also take in atmospheric nitrogen which most plants can’t and convert it to other forms
to be used by other plants.
4. No tillage/Reduced Tillage farming

Continuous tillage leads to soil degradation because it exposes it to erosion. In no tillage
farming, the soil is left undisturbed until the planting process. Residues from the previous
crops are left in the land and used to prevent erosion and a source of organic materials.
Through this process, the soil is covered at all times either by crops or by residues. Reduced
tillage farming uses the minimum possible cultivation and leaving the maximum possible
residues on the soil.
5. Mulching
Mulching is the process of intentionally putting or leaving residues of plants like dead
grass, hay or straw on the surface. The purpose of mulching is to prevent soil erosion as the
mulch absorbed the impact of the raindrops on the soil minimizing the runoff. It is also
important in trapping the water and preventing it from evaporating quickly thus retaining
moisture.
6. Conservation Buffers
Conservation buffers are plants or trees that are placed to serve different conservation
purposes such as preventing erosion from runoff or wind. Conservation buffers are also
aesthetically pleasing for the land. The following are the examples of buffers.
a. Contour Buffer strips
Buffer strips are permanent strips of vegetations planted along with larger strips of
crops in a sloping land.
b. Riparian Buffer Strips

These are trees and shrubs planted along the
rivers and streams to lessen sediments carried by
runoff to the streams and rivers.
c. Filter Strips
Figure 2: Simplified illustration of
These are permanent grassy vegetations riparian buffer strip
planted between agricultural lands and streams to Illustration by: Vincent L. Dublin
prevent runoff of sediments, nutrients, and possible
pollutants.
d. Grass or Vegetative Barriers

Tall grasses that are planted in slope lands that
prevent runoff are grass barriers. These grasses slow
down and collect runoff water making water easier to
infiltrate the ground while depositing the sediments.
e. Grassed Waterways
Portions of land where water flows are planted with
grass to slow down the movement of water preventing
Figure 3: Simplified illustration
erosion and to safely guide the water to streams and
of grass barriers
rivers. Illustration by: Vincent L.
Dublin
44
f. Field Borders
Grass and vegetation are planted around or at the edge of farmlands. Aside from
preventing erosion, it can also be used as pathways for people or vehicles when going to
the fields.
g. Windbreaks
Windbreaks are rows of trees planted to minimize
wind velocity protecting the soil from wind erosion.
Trees are commonly planted in accordance to
prevailing wind directions. In other countries,
windbreaks can also trap snow during winters. The
presence of trees also enhances wildlife and gives
aesthetics to the land.
Figure 4: Windbreak trees at Methwold
7. Terracing Common
Terracing is the method of creating steps on Retrieved from:
sloping lands to minimize erosion from runoff. The https://www.geograph.org.uk/photo/41
famous Banaue Rice Terraces is a great example that 7646
License: Bob Jones under (CC BY-SA 2.0)
sloping lands even at greater degrees can be used for
planting. Water running down the slope when it rains
are just distributed to the lower steps thus preventing the loss of the topsoil. Terracing
can also be done in smaller scale with the same purpose of minimizing runoff and erosion
on sloping lands.
8. Pasture and Hay land Planting

To provide food for livestock as well as minimizing overgrazing, pasture and hay
planting can be implemented. Grasses or legumes can be planted in rotation to provide
food for the livestock as well as not leaving the soil bare protecting it from erosion. Grazing
management is also important to ensure that a land is not overgrazed.
9. Mined Land Reclamation

Mining involves digging large portions of rock and soil. After mining, the disturbed
land should undergo reclamation in which mined lands are turned into a usable one. This
is done by replacing the lost soil and replanting vegetations.
Figure 8: Reclaimed coal mine

Retrieved from: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Coal_Mine_Land_Reclamation.png
License: Peabody Energy, Inc. under (CC BY 3.0)
10. Afforestation and Reforestation
Deforestation has caused damage in the lands. Afforestation and reforestation are viable
solution for this. Afforestation is the planting of trees in the lands that are previously not
planted. Reforestation on the other hand is the reestablishment of trees on deforested areas.
Planting indigenous trees would be a big help as the soil naturally provide the nutrients
needed by the trees in that area.
There are a lot of other things that can be done to conserve the soil. The soil conservation
practices discussed above works when done simultaneously with other practices. For
instance, a land under no tillage combined with crop rotation and mulching would be more
effective than no tillage only without doing crop rotation. If you can observe, most of the
practices discussed are about agriculture. It is because agriculture is the most affected sector
45
when the soil is degraded and not conserved. The soil which is sometimes deemed as dirt and
something with no value is one of the most important natural resource that we have. The
effects of soil degradation can be felt when the land doesn’t produce yields anymore. In any
way possible, soil conservation must be practiced.
Activity 1: Match it Up!
Match the items in column A with the corresponding answers from column B. Write the
letter of your answer before the number.
A B
1. Soil Conservation a. Process of returning the soil and vegetation on mined land
2. Contour Farming b. Tall vegetation planted in slope land to minimize runoff
3. Strip Cropping c. Planting different set of plants through a given period
4. Crop Rotation d. Planting along the curved paths on a field with the same elevation
5. Windbreaks e. Actions to protect and sustain the soil
6. Terracing f. Planting of trees in previously unplanted lands
7. Afforestation g. Leaving the remains of crops to protect the soil
8. Reclamation h. Trees planted to minimize the wind velocity thus preventing soil erosion
9. Mulching i. Planting alternating bands of crops on land
10. Grass Barriers j. Process of creating steps on a slope
As a good citizen of the country and the planet, write your pledge to conserve, protect, and
avoid the practices and activities that destroys our soil and waters.
MODULE 6
the different types of waste and its effects on people and environment. The scope of this
The module is consisting of one lesson, namely:
• Lesson 6.1 – Different types of people generated wastes
1. Describe how people generate different types of waste (solid, liquid, and gaseous)
as they make use of various materials and resources in everyday life
46
Lesson Different types of people
6 generated wastes
Most of nature does not produce waste. One’s waste is a nutrient for another.
However, humans are somehow different. People produce waste in many of its activities. In
the Philippines, an average Filipino produce about 0.414 kg of waste per day. This may not
look huge but if the total population of the country is considered, this is a big number. In
this lesson, we will explore how waste are generated and types of waste are produced.
Different types of Waste People Generate

As we continue to strive for a better quality of life through modernization and
industrialization, the consequence of this is the production of waste. Waste is defined as any
discarded, unwanted, or abandoned material. These wastes can be classified in different
ways. Different countries also have different terms about waste classification. The following
are the common classification of wastes.
1. Type of Waste according to Physical State

Wastes can be classified as solid, liquid, or gaseous waste.
a. Solid Wastes
Solid wastes are a range of different discarded solid materials such as plastics, fast-food
containers, peelings from fruits and vegetables, broken household items, manure from
animals, yard trimmings, metals and many more. Solid wastes are the most common and
most abundant waste generated by people. Legislations are created for solid waste
management systems to address solid waste collection, disposal, and resource recovery.
Solid wastes can be further classified as biodegradable and non-biodegradable.
Biodegradable wastes are those that can be broken down by microorganisms. The opposite is
non-biodegradable waste. There are special types of plastics called oxo-biodegradable. The
molecular structure of these plastics can be broken down upon exposure to sunlight, making
it easier for microorganisms to decompose the plastic.
b. Liquid Waste
Liquid waste are the liquid materials generated in the effluents from toilets, industries, oil
and grease from restaurants, fertilizers and pesticides solutions, mining tailings and others.
c. Gaseous Waste
Gaseous waste are air pollutants that are by-products of human activities. Emissions from
automobiles, powerplants, refrigerants, burning and many more are sources of gaseous
waste. These are usually the compounds like carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4),
chlorofluorocarbon (CFCs) and carbon monoxide among others.
2. Type of Waste according to Source

Waste can be classified according on where they came from. These are the following
classifications.
47
a. Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)
Municipal solid waste is a broad classification of

waste produced by people in everyday life.
Municipal waste are a result of people’s
consumption of goods and services. These
include waste from residential, commercial,
construction, medical, institutional, and
municipal services. These include food waste,
Figure 1: Mixed Municipal Waste
food containers, papers, glass, plastics, wood,
Retrieved from:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File: concrete, street sweepings, tree trimmings and
Mixed_municipal_waste.JPG many more. These wastes are commonly
Licensed under Alex Marshall, Clarke collected by the local government and dumped in
Energy Ltd / (CC by SA 2.5) landfills
b. Residential or Domestic Waste
These are the waste produced by households. Examples of these are discarded plastic
wrappings, empty containers, cans of goods, empty cardboard, broken items and many
more.
c. Industrial Waste
These are the waste from different industries such as manufacturing, mining, energy,
construction, and water services. Waste from manufacturing include used chemicals,
solvents, particulate waste, plastics, packaging materials, papers, sludge, and many
more. Mining produces tailings or the leftovers upon extracting the metal from the ore.
The energy sector produces waste such as ash from burnt materials, used oils etc. In
construction, demolished building parts such as concrete, metals, wood, plaster, glass
among others are produced.
d. Agricultural
Agricultural waste refers to different substances that are by-product of agricultural
activities. This may include non-harmful materials such as leftover materials of crops
such as corn cub, rice husk and coconut husk as well as potentially harmful substances
such as excess fertilizers, pesticides, animal manure and carcasses from
slaughterhouses.
3. Type of Waste according to Effect to Environment and People

It is also important to classify waste according to its effects on people and environment.
Clear definitions and classification of these waste enables clear legislations in managing
it. These wastes are classified as hazardous and non-hazardous.
a. Non-hazardous waste
These types of waste do not pose immediate or direct risk or harm. However, it does not
mean that it cannot cause inconvenience. For example, plastic is currently classified by
many institutions as non-hazardous. It does not mean, however, that plastics cannot do
environmental damages. These wastes are easier to dispose of. Most non-hazardous waste
can end up in landfills.
b. Hazardous Waste
Hazardous waste are the types of waste that contains substances or properties that can
directly harm people or the environment. Different countries have different ways of
classification of hazardous waste. In this discussion, we will use the classification of the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The EPA categorizes hazardous waste as the
following.
• Listed Waste
These are specific names of chemicals or substances that are listed to be hazardous. It
is further classified as F-list, K-list, P-list, and U-list. F-lists are waste from common
manufacturing and industrial process such as chemicals used in cleaning or degreasing. K-
list are waste from specific industries. For example, petroleum companies have specific waste
48
generated. Unlike the F-listed waste which can come from different industries, K-listed waste
are from specified ones. Moreover, P and U listed wastes are unused chemicals that are
hazardous. P-listed wastes are more hazardous than U-listed waste. Table 1 shows a portion
of the list from EPA.
Table 1: Portion of EPA’s Listed Wastes

Retrieved from: https://www.epa.gov/hw/defining-hazardous-waste-listed-characteristic-
and-mixed-radiological-wastes
• Characteristic Waste
There are chemicals, materials or substances that are not part of listed waste but
are also considered hazardous if these have the following characteristics below.
Ignitability
Ignitable waste causes hazard because these wastes can

create fire under certain condition, can do spontaneous
combustion or combust on its own, and have flash points
less than 60 °C. This includes gasoline, kerosene, paint
thinners, waste oils and solvents.
Figure 2: Ignitable Hazard sign
Illustration by Vincent L. Dublin
49
Corrosivity
Corrosive waste are strong acids or
Figure 3: Corrosive bases, those that have pH values of 2
Hazard sign or less and 12.5 or more. These
Retrieved from: wastes can corrode metal containers
https://pixabay.com thus must be stored in corrosion
/vectors/corrosive-
acid-warning-
proof containers. Example of this is
attention-98647/ automobile battery acid.
Reactivity
Reactive waste are chemicals or

Figure 4: Reactive or
Explosive Hazard sign
substances that can be explosive,
Illustration by reactive, or unstable under normal
Vincent L. Dublin conditions. These can happen when
these wastes are heated, compressed,
or mixed with water. Examples of these
are cyanides, sulfides, and ammonium
nitrate.
Toxicity
Toxic wastes are harmful or fatal

substances when ingested or absorbed.
These substances when disposed
improperly could leach to the groundwaters
and pose hazard.
Figure 5: Toxic Hazard sign

Retrieved from:
https://pixabay.com/vectors/cross-
skull-danger-crossbones-296395/
Modified by: Vincent L. Dublin
Hazardous Waste based on Sources
(a) Chemical Waste
These are chemicals used in different institutions that can pose hazard. These
chemicals are either listed waste or characteristic waste.
(b) Biomedical Waste
These are the waste from laboratory or

medical institutions that require
special handling to protect human
health and the environment. Not all
waste from hospitals and laboratories
are considered hazardous. However,
some of these like used syringes,
Figure 6: Biohazard sign microbiological sample, animal, and
Retrieved from:
https://pixabay.com/vectors/biohazard-hazard-
human blood samples, among others
biological-toxic-37775/ could be infectious if not disposed
Modified by: Vincent L. Dublin properly.
50
(c) Radioactive waste
These are the waste from nuclear

Figure 7: Radioactive powerplants, laboratories as well as
Hazard sign nuclear weapons facilities. This
Illustration by includes control rods used in
Vincent L. Dublin nuclear reactors, uranium and
thorium salts, and normal items
used in radioactive facilities such as
used rags, papers etc.
(d) E-waste
E-waste or electronic waste are discarded electronic devices that were either
broken, damaged or obsolete. This includes appliances such as microwave ovens,
obsolete or discarded DVD players, non-functioning fan, gadgets such as
smartphones, circuit boards and hard drives among many others. These devices
contain small toxic metals inside them that can leach in landfills. The volume of
E-wastes is increasing as technological advancement is becoming rapid.
Activity 1: Complete the Concept Map

Complete the concept map below by filling the appropriate answer on each numbered box.
1.
Physical
properties 2.
3.
Toxic
Listed
Effects on Hazardous
8.
people and Characteristic
Waste environment 4. 9.
5. 10.
6.
Sources
7.
Agricultural
51
MODULE 7
the different types of waste and its effects on people and environment. The scope of this
• Lesson 7.1 – Different types of people generated waste
• Lesson 7.2 – Effects of waste on people and the environment
1. explain how different types of waste affect people’s health and the environment;
2. understand how people generate different types of waste; and
3. understand how waste affects people and environment
Lesson Effects of waste on people and

7 the environment
When we throw our waste and it gets away from our sight, it does not disappear and just
accumulate somewhere. After a typhoon, trash gather in the beaches or bays. Pictures of
dead birds shows them ingesting waste. People get sick from contaminated waters. Waste
poses great risks and harm to the people and environment. In this lesson, let us explore how
our waste affects us and our environment.
Human and Environmental Effects of Waste

Waste are unwanted materials. We do not want it in our homes, in our pockets, in our hands
or in our sight. However, as the law of conservation of mass says, matter is not created nor
destroyed. Those waste would just end up somewhere else. This harms the environment as
well as people in the process. The following are the effects of waste to people and the
environment.
1. Air Pollution
The greenhouses gases emitted by different appliances contribute to air pollution.
Incineration of garbage especially when not done in incineration plants produces smoke and
other pollutants in the air. Too much smoke causes smog which can be harmful to people.
Landfills where different garbage are dumped produces methane, a greenhouse gas
contributing to global warming. Particulate matter, those waste that are quite small such as
asbestos can be inhaled by people, causing respiratory problems.
2. Water Pollution
The landfills that produce leachate, a combination of all the “juices” from all the garbage
could seep in the groundwater, contaminating it. Single use plastics, Styrofoam, fishing nets
accumulate in the oceans and other bodies of water. Fertilizers causes eutrophication which
kills fishes. Mine tailings can end up in the rivers. In some cases, making it completely dead.
52
Some industries also dump their waste in the waters. Restaurants without grease traps dump
their wastewater full of oil and grease in the bodies of water. Oil spills from tankers kills many
aquatic animals and birds. All these wastes could be ingested by ocean animals or can end
up in freshwaters. Contaminated waters bring sickness to people and even loss of life.
3. Land Pollution
A dump of garbage in land is not visually appealing. Aside from that, leachate from litters
contaminate the soil making it unsuitable for other purposes. Heavy metals, oils, chemicals,
and other waste causes the degradation of the soil. Some of these chemicals as well as
radioactive waste are buried in the ground, thus contaminating it. Some lands that are
previously the habitat of animals become unsuitable due to soil contamination. The animals
regarded as pests such as rats and flies will remain since they can stand such conditions.
Thus, these lands will also be source of sickness and other health related problems. As we
produce more waste, more and more portion of the ground will be used to dump these wastes
reducing the land available for other uses.
4. Wildlife and Marine Life Harm

Plastics, cigarette butts, PET bottles, fishing nets
and rods and other waste that end up in the oceans
affects marine and wildlife. Seabirds feed on these
wastes, especially plastics, mistaking them for food.
Since they cannot digest these, they would strangle
or starve to death. Seabirds also feed these to their
young giving them a false sense of feeding them. In
turn, these chicks would starve and die. Dead
whales that awash in the beaches are found to have
kilograms of plastics and waste on its stomach.
Turtles, seagulls, and seabirds are also caught in
plastics, ropes, discarded fishing gears causing Figure 1: Seal strangled by a fishing
injury, limiting their movement and some die a slow, net
painful death. Wildlife is also affected. Contaminated Retrieved from:
water would cause health problems and death on https://api.ndla.no/image-
animals. api/raw/Tv8lCWSM.jpg?width=10720
Licensed under (CC by NC 4.0)
Microplastics are also another issue. These are
plastics that were broken down into smaller ones or this can come from other sources such
as cosmetics, toothpaste, detergent and many more. Small pieces of plastics can be ingested
by marine animals. Some of the fishes that ingest microplastics reaches our plates. Though
there are no concrete studies yet that shows how microplastics affects our health, the very
idea of ingesting plastic is already bad. Also, harmful chemicals may hitch on the
microplastics and reach our body causing health problems.
5. Health Problems
Various health problems can be caused by waste. Hazardous waste directly affects people
especially when accidents occur. Garbage in landfills are a host of various pathogenic bacteria
and viruses. People finding scraps in landfills are exposed to these. People living near the
landfills are also exposed not just to the odor of the waste but also to these pathogens. Fishes
that ingested heavy metals which reaches people’s plates would pose great danger. Metals
and glass waste may cause injury to people. The wasting of resources would also mean more
mining, more manufacturing and in turn produce more waste in the process.
53
Activity 1: Describe it!
Directions: Write briefly in the boxes how waste affects every word in the outer circles.
Wildlife
and
Marine
Life
Air Land
Effects
of
Waste
People's
Water Health
You’re in Charge!
Directions: You become a mayor of your city. One of your advocacies is lessening the waste
of your city, especially plastics. How will you do it? What will be your policies? Write your
plans in paragraph or bullet form below.
Directions: Choose the letter of the correct answer. Write your answers on a
separate sheet of paper.
1. The following are the benefits of Earth having an atmosphere EXCEPT:
A. Protects Earth from harmful radiation
B. Prevents water from boiling and escaping Earth
C. Source of Earth’s heat and light
D. Reducing outside projectiles into less harmful ones
2. Why is rubber not considered a mineral?
A. It is not solid at normal earth conditions.
B. It has a crystalline structure.
C. It came from plants.
D. It does not have a definite chemical composition.
54
3. Both igneous and metamorphic rocks involve heat in their formation. How to
the igneous rock differ from metamorphic rock?
A. Igneous rock can only be formed beneath the earth’s surface
B. Igneous rocks are subjected to high pressures
C. Igneous rocks are rocks subjected to temperatures enough to melt the rock
D. Igneous rocks are held off by cementing minerals
4. What is considered an ore?

A. A rock that has no metals embedded
B. A rock formed from compacted seashells
C. A rock that is crushed into rubbles to be used in construction
D. A rock that contains economical amounts of metals
5. How are oil and natural gas formed?

A. Remains of plants are buried by sediments
B. Remains of plants melts and forms oil
C. Remains of planktons are buried and compacted
D. Remains of marine animals mixes with underground water
6. What statement tells the truth about hydropower and geothermal?

A. Geothermal is renewable, hydropower is not.
B. Hydropower is renewable, geothermal is not.
C. Hydropower and geothermal are both nonrenewable
D. Hydropower and geothermal are both renewables
7. Why water in aquifers is called non-renewable even though the Earth is ¾ water?
A. Water can be used up more than it is replenished
B. Water that was drank by humans never is lost
C. Water in aquifers is never replenished
D. Water in aquifers are the only waters safe for drinking
8. How does inefficient irrigation system affect the availability of water?

A. Unused water by the plants returns to the rivers
B. Some of the groundwater used in inefficient irrigation would evaporate
C. Almost all the water from irrigation is absorbed by the crops
D. Water becomes contaminated by pathogens after being used in irrigation
9. Why is it important to do practices promoting soil conservation?

A. To keep the soil fertile for sustainable planting
B. The soil will have the same yield of crops even if not conserved
C. Soil conservation is just another burden to the farmers
D. Soil conservation guarantees a double of yield
10. This is a broad category of waste which come from different sources in a city.
A. Municipal Solid Waste C. Industrial Waste
B. Domestic Waste D. Biomedical Waste
55
of paper.
1. Which process is an example of chemical weathering?

A. Rocks grinding against each other.
B. Salt crystals growing in cracks of rocks.
C. Crushing and refining of talc into a powder.
D. Feldspar reacting with water and producing a clay mineral.
2. A primordial source of heat generated by the conversion of kinetic energy of impacting

bodies (smaller planetary objects) to thermal energy is known as:
A. Accretional heat C. Core formation energy
B. Adiabatic compression D. Radioactive heat
3. Which of the following is needed for the formation of a metamorphic rock?

A. Pressure B. Heat C. Heat and Pressure D. Weathering
4. Which would most likely occur during the formation of granite and basalt?
A. lithification of weathered and eroded materials
B. solidification of molten materials
C. exposed to extreme pressure and heat
D. precipitation of seawater
5. Which of the following supports seafloor spreading theory?

A. Same type of fossil found in continents.
B. Same type of mountain ranges found in separate continents.
C. Symmetrical magnetic anomalies found in both sides of the ridges.
D. The oldest rocks found in mid-ocean ridges and younger rocks found far from it.
6. Which of the following is an evidence that supports seafloor spreading?

A. The oldest rocks found in the mid ocean ridge
B. Magnetic stripes on both sides of the mid ocean ridge
C. Least dense rocks found far from the mid ocean ridge
D. Rocks accumulating most sediments in the mid ocean ridge
7. The first process of rock stratification that breaks the rock into smaller fragments due to
physical or chemical reactions is known as
A. Cementation C. Erosion
B. Deposition D. Weathering
8. What principle of relative dating states that in an undisturbed sequence of sedimentary

rocks, the lowest stratum is the oldest and the highest is the youngest?
A. Principle of Superposition C. Principle of Lateral Continuity
B. Principle of Horizontality D. Principle of Inclusions
9. Uranium-238 has a half-life of 4.47 billion years in volcanic rocks. After two half-lives,
what is the percentage of the parent isotope over the daughter isotope of this radioactive
isotope?
A. 13% B.25% C. 50% D. 75%
10. Which is in order from the smallest to the largest division of geologic time?
A. eons, eras, periods, epoch C. epochs, periods, eras, eon
B. epochs, periods, eras, eon D. eras, eons, periods, epochs
56
MODULE 8
about Weathering and Earth’s Internal Heat. The scope of this module permits it to be used
in many different learning situations. The language used recognizes the diverse vocabulary
level of students. The lessons are arranged to follow the standard sequence of the course. But
the order in which you read them can be changed to correspond with the textbook you are
now using.
• Lesson 8.1 – Weathering
• Lesson 8.2 – Internal Heat of the Earth
1. describe how rocks undergo weathering; and
2. explain why the Earth’s interior is hot.
Lesson
Weathering
8.1
MECHANICAL WEATHERING
Mechanical weathering occurs when rocks are physically broken into smaller pieces
without changing the rock’s mineral composition. There are many ways in which mechanical
weathering can occur and they are as follows:
• Frost Wedging
This form of mechanical weathering happens when water moves into cracks in rocks
and then freezes. Because water expands when it freezes, the force of expansion pushes the
crack apart. When the water melts and refreezes, the crack is pushed farther apart. With
multiple freeze-thaw cycles, the crack can become huge enough to break the rock into pieces.
This form of mechanical weathering occurs mostly in porous rocks and in regions where
temperatures rise above and fall below the freezing point.
• Abrasion
Abrasion is another form of physical weathering that causes rock to wear down by
friction. With abrasion, rocks, and sediment grind against each other. This process is most
common in streams, windy regions, or under glaciers. For instance, running water can
transport rocks, causing them to grind against each other and wear down into rounded
shapes.
• Salt Crystal Growth
Salt Crystal Growth happens when saltwater seeps into pore spaces or cracks
in rocks and then evaporates. As this water evaporates, salt crystals form. When these salt
crystals build up, they exert force that can weaken and split rocks.
• Biological Activity
Actions of living organisms can cause weathering. Seeds of trees or plants may grow
in soil that has collected in a cracked rock. As their roots grow and get bigger, they exert huge
57
pressure on the walls of the cracks, which causes the rocks to split. In addition, burrowing
animals can contribute to weathering. These animals can dig and move the rock fragments
to the surface. As a result, these fragments become more exposed to physical and chemical
processes that can further enhance their weathering.
CHEMICAL WEATHERING
Chemical weathering decomposes rocks by chemical reactions that change the original
mineral composition of the rock. Chemical reactions commonly occur between rocks, water,
oxygen, carbon dioxide and naturally occurring acids. These reactions include the following:
• Dissolution
Dissolution involves the disassociation of the molecules into ions, like salt dissolving
in water. Rock and minerals that dissolve in water are called soluble. Examples of soluble
natural minerals include rock salt or halite, potash salt, and gypsum.
The most usual dissolution reactions involve slightly acidic water. As carbon dioxide
from the air dissolves in water, carbonic acid is formed. When carbonic acid comes in contact
with rocks that contain calcite such as marble and limestone, they dissolve. Through time,
caves are formed by the dissolution of limestone.
• Hydrolysis
Hydrolysis is a chemical reaction that causes a change in the composition of minerals
when they react with water. For example, a type of feldspar, a mineral found in igneous rocks
such as granite, reacts with water and produces a clay mineral known as kaolinite.
• Oxidation
This is a chemical reaction between minerals and oxygen dissolved in water. Oxidation
usually happens in high-iron content rocks like hematite and magnetite. In this rock, iron
reacts with oxygen that is dissolved in water to form rust, also known as iron oxide.
RATES OF WEATHERING
Weathering does not occur at the same rate in each location on Earth’s surface. There
are several factors that influence the type and rate of weathering. These factors include the
following:
• Rock Structure
Bedding planes, joints, and fractures provide natural pathways by which other agents
of weathering can enter a rock mass. Rocks with lots of these features weather faster than a
solid rock of the same measurement.
• Climate
High temperature and abundant rainfall tend to favor chemical weathering. These
climatic conditions accelerate many chemical reactions that break down rocks. Thus,
chemical weathering occurs more rapid in tropical region. On the contrary, physical
weathering rates are higher in regions with dry and cold climates. In cold climates, where
freezing and thawing are frequent, frost wedging is the common form of mechanical
weathering.
• Rock Type
Different types of rocks are comprised of different minerals and each mineral responds
differently to weathering. For instance, granite, which is composed of silicate minerals, are
relatively resistant to chemical weathering. On the other hand, some minerals, such as calcite
in limestone and marble, weather rapidly because they easily dissolve even in a weakly acidic
solution.
• Topography
Topography also influences the rate of weathering. Physical weathering proceeds more
rapidly on a steep slope. Weathered rocks are pulled down by gravity and washed away by
heavy rains on a steep slope, and new surfaces are continually exposed to weathering.
However, in gentle slopes, water may stay in contact with rock for extended periods of time,
which results in higher chemical weathering rates.
58
Activity 1: Mechanical Weathering or Chemical Weathering
Directions: Write M if mechanical weathering occurs in the given situation and C if it is a
chemical weathering. Write your answers on a separate sheet of paper.
______________1. Acid rain dissolving marble tombstone.
______________2. Wind carrying sediments to a field.
______________3. Halite dissolving in water.
______________4. Water freezing causing rocks to crack.
______________5. Salt crystals growing in cracks of rocks.
______________6. Carbonic acid dissolving limestone.
______________7. Crushing and refining of talc into a powder.
______________8. Animals digging rock fragments to the surface.
______________9. Iron in a rock reacting with oxygen that is dissolved in water.
_____________10. Feldspar reacting with water and producing a clay mineral.
Lesson
Internal Heat of the Earth
8.2
GEOTHERMAL GRADIENT OR GEOTHERM
The temperature increases with depth into Earth (a non-linear temperature/depth
curve) which means that the increase in depth is not proportional to the increase in
temperature.
The mantle is greatly hotter than the crust, and the core is considerably hotter than
the mantle. The temperature between the boundary of core-mantle is 3,700°C; Inner-core –
outer-core boundary: 5,000°C±500°C and Earth’s center: 6,400°C±600°C.
In the crust, the geothermal gradient is about 25 °C per km of depth (1 °F per 70 feet
of depth). Some areas exhibit a much higher gradient because of a greater concentration of
heat at relatively shallow depths. These areas of exceptional high temperature gradient are
utilized for geothermal energy
If temperature was simply a linear function of depth (linear relationship), we should
expect that at depths below 100 km (the average thickness of the lithosphere), temperature
could reach as much as 2500°C. Partial melting of rocks can occur at this temperature yet
we know that, except for the outer core, the rest of the Earth is essentially solid. Most of the
rocks beneath the surface of the Earth is solid since the geothermal gradient drops sharply a
short distance into the earth and that increasing confining pressure with depth counteracts
the effect of increasing temperature.
SOURCES OF THE INTERNAL HEAT OF THE EARTH
There are two main categories which are considered major sources of internal heat.
I. PRIMORDIAL HEAT – refers to the heat imparted to a planetary body by the
processes of its formation and differentiation. The heat generated during the Earth’s
formation came from the following sources:
a. Accretional Heat /Accretion Energy - the heat generated by the conversion of kinetic
energy of impacting bodies (smaller planetary objects) to thermal energy. It is concentrated
at the surface. It is believed that our solar system evolved from the accretion of solid particles
derived from a large nebular cloud, called Nebular Hypothesis. At this stage, proto-planet
Earth would have grown over time from a bombing of extra-terrestrial impacts, increasing its
mass with each bombardment. As the proto planet grew in size its increased gravitational
field would have attracted even more objects on its surface. The composition of these colliding
bodies would have included metal-rich fragments (i.e.., iron meteorites), rocky fragments (i.e.,
stony meteorites), and icy fragments (i.e., comets). Though accretion was much more
established in the early stages of the Earth's history, these extra-terrestrial collisions are still
occurring today, shown by shooting stars and fireballs in the night sky, and by the irregular
impact of larger bodies on the Earth's surface.
59
b. Adiabatic Compression / Adiabatic Heating - compresses something causes it to
heat up. As more particles accreted (accumulated/added) in planet, those at center squashed
by growing gravitational load. At the start of planetary accretion, the earth was much less
compact than it is today. The accretion process led to an ever-greater gravitational
attraction, forcing the Earth to contract into a smaller volume. Increased compaction caused
in the transformation of gravitational energy into heat energy, like a bicycle pump heats up
due to the compression of air inside it. Heat conducts very slowly through rock, hence the
rapid build-up of this heat source within the Earth was not accommodated by an equally
rapid loss of heat through the surface.
c. Core formation Energy - settling of Iron (Fe) to the center of the Earth converts P.E.
of iron to heat energy. Five hundred million years after planetary accretion, Earth developed
a distinct core. Deep in Earth is a ball of iron that is solid and one that is liquid. At the
beginning, it was only liquid, but due to planetary differentiation- (the separation of different
constituents of planetary materials resulting in the formation of distinct compositional layers
in which denser material tends to sink into the center and less dense material rises toward
the surface) the densest liquids got in the middle. Constant activity keeps outer core in its
liquid state and lots of things are still affected by it, such as the magnetic field.
d. Decay of short-lived radio-isotopes - those with half-lives measured in millions of
years (abbreviated Ma) or fewer. Decay of short-lived radio-isotopes - in early-solar system
have isotopes such as Al26, Cl36, Fe60, with half-lives of approximately 0.3 Ma (one-million
years is represented by “Ma,” meaning “mega annum.”)
Short-lived radioisotopes are believed to have been a major source of heat driving
planetary differentiation in the early Solar System. 26Al, thought to have been present in
significant quantities, is particularly essential.
II. RADIOACTIVE HEAT SOURCE - the heat generated by long-term radioactive decay_
those with half-lives measured in hundreds of millions or billions of years (abbreviated as Ga)
which means Giga-annum- unit of time equal to one billion years.). This is considered as
major source of Earth’s heat and present in the modern world in detectable quantities.
Radioactive elements are the elements or isotopes which emit radiation and undergo
the process of radioactivity. Radioactive decay is a natural process wherein unstable
elements like 238U (Uranium) or 40K (Potassium) stabilize with time and produce what we
call daughter products: 206Pb (Lead) for Uranium and 40Ar (Argon) for Potassium. This
process produces heat, which represents about 90% of the total heat inside the Earth.
Moreover, this process produced more heat early in Earth’s history than it does
today because fewer atoms of those isotopes are left today. Heat contributed by radioactivity
is now roughly a part of what it was when Earth formed.
Activity 2: What’s in the Video?

Directions:
A. The least important reason for why the
1. Watch the video about “Why is
interior of earth is hot.
Earth’s Interior Hot? at
B. Reason of why the increase of the
https://www.youtube.com/watc
pressure cause the temperature to
h?v=rfbB8Hy-XbI by Ben Work .
increase.
2. Make “Outline Notes” regarding
C. Two reasons which provide most of the
the video by enumerating the
heat in earth’s interior.
answers to the following
D. One sentence which explains how
statements inside the box.
earth’s early impact caused heat.
3. Design your own template for
E. Element which is considered very dense
your “Outline Notes-Watched
and radioactive and present in earth’s core.
Video: Why is Earth’s Interior
F. Reason why mantle is hot.
Hot?” Be creative.
60
Activity: Unleash Your Creativity
Directions: Perform the given tasks and follow the instructions properly.
1. Compose an acrostic poem in which the first letter of each line spells out the word
“WEATHERING”. Your work should reflect the concepts about how rocks undergo
weathering. Write your acrostic poem on the box provided below.
Must include in the acrostic poem:
✓ Mechanical and Chemical Weathering
✓ 2 examples of each type of weathering
MODULE 9
This module was designed and written with you in mind. It is here to help you master the
nature of Earth Science. The scope of this module permits it to be used in many different
• Lesson 9 – Changes in Mineral Components and Texture of Rocks
1. describe what happens after magma is formed; and
2. describe the changes in mineral components and texture of rocks due to changes in
pressure and temperature.
Lesson Changes in Mineral Components

9 and Texture of Rocks
Magma originates in the lower part of the Earth’s crust and in the upper portion of
the mantle. Most of the mantle and crust are solid, so the presence of magma is crucial to
understanding the geology and morphology of the mantle. Magma leaves the confines of the
upper mantle and crust in two major ways: as an intrusion or as an extrusion. An intrusion
can form features such as dikes and xenoliths. An extrusion could include lava and volcanic
rock.
Magma can intrude into a low-density area of another geologic formation, such as a
sedimentary rock structure. When it cools to solid rock, this intrusion is often called a pluton.
A pluton is an intrusion of magma that wells up from below the surface.
61
Plutons can include dikes and xenoliths. A magmatic dike is simply a large slab of
magmatic material that has intruded into another rock body. A xenolith is a piece of rock
trapped in another type of rock. Many xenoliths are crystals torn from inside the Earth and
embedded in magma while the magma was cooling.
The most familiar way for magma to escape, or extrude, to Earth’s surface is through
lava. Lava eruptions can be “fire fountains” of liquid rock or thick, slow-moving rivers of
molten material. Lava cools to form volcanic rock as well as volcanic glass.
Magma can also extrude into Earth’s atmosphere as part of a violent volcanic
explosion. This magma solidifies in the air to form volcanic rock called tephra. In the
atmosphere, tephra is more often called volcanic ash. As it falls to Earth, tephra includes
rocks such as pumice.
Factors that Control Metamorphism

The reason rocks undergo metamorphism is that the minerals in a rock are only stable
under a limited range of pressure, temperature, and chemical conditions. When rocks are
subjected to large enough changes in these factors, the minerals will undergo chemical
reactions that result in their replacement by new minerals, minerals that are stable in the
new conditions.
Chemical Composition of the Protolith

The type of rock undergoes metamorphism is a major factor in determining what type
of metamorphic rock it becomes. In short, the identity of the protolith plays a big role the
identity of the metamorphic rock. A fluid phase may introduce or remove chemical substances
into or out of the rock during metamorphism, but in most metamorphic rock, most of the
atoms in the protolith are present in the metamorphic rock after metamorphism; the atoms
will likely be rearranged into new mineral forms within the rock. Therefore, not only does the
protolith determine the initial chemistry of the metamorphic rock, but most metamorphic
rocks do also not change their bulk (overall) chemical compositions very much during
metamorphism. The fact that most metamorphic rocks retain most of their original atoms
means that even if the rock was so thoroughly metamorphosed that it no longer looks at all
like the protolith, the rock can be analyzed in terms of its bulk chemical composition to
determine what type of rock the protolith was.
Temperature
Temperature is another major factor of metamorphism. There are two ways to think
about how the temperature of a rock can be increased because of geologic processes. If rocks
are buried within the Earth, the deeper they go, the higher the temperatures they experience.
This is because temperature inside the Earth increases along what is called the geothermal
gradient, or geotherm for short. Therefore, if rocks are simply buried deep enough sediment,
they will experience temperatures high enough to cause metamorphism. This temperature is
about 200ºC (approximately 400ºF). Tectonic processes are another way rocks can be moved
deeper along the geotherm. Faulting and folding the rocks of the crust, can move rocks to
much greater depth than simple burial can. Yet another way a rock in the Earth’s crust can
have its temperature greatly increased is by the intrusion of magma nearby. Magma intrusion
subjects nearby rock to higher temperature with no increase in depth or pressure.
Pressure
Pressure is a measure of the stress, the physical force, being applied to the surface of
a material. It is defined as the force per unit area acting on the surface, in a direction
perpendicular to the surface. Lithostatic pressure is the pressure exerted on a rock by all the
surrounding rock. The source of the pressure is the weight of all the rocks above. Lithostatic
pressure increases as depth within the Earth increases and is a uniform stress—the pressure
applies equally in all directions on the rock.
If pressure does not apply equally in all directions, differential stress occurs. There
are two types of differential stress. Normal stress compresses (pushes together) rock in one
direction, the direction of maximum stress. At the same time, in a perpendicular direction,
the rock undergoes tension (stretching), in the direction of minimum stress. Shear stress
62
pushes one side of the rock in a direction parallel to the side, while at the same time, the
other side of the rock is being pushed in the opposite direction.
Differential stress has a major influence on the appearance of a metamorphic rock.

Differential stress can flatten pre-existing grains in the rock, as shown in the diagram below.
flattened grains
Rounded grains
direction of maximum stress
direction of maximum stress
Metamorphic minerals that grow under differential stress will have a preferred
orientation if the minerals have atomic structures that tend to make them form either flat or
elongate crystals. This will be especially apparent for micas or other sheet silicates that grow
during metamorphism, such as biotite, muscovite, chlorite, talc, or serpentine. If any of these
flat minerals are growing under normal stress, they will grow with their sheets oriented
perpendicular to the direction of maximum compression. This results in a rock that can be
easily broken along the parallel mineral sheets. Such a rock is said to be foliated, or to have
foliation.
Fluids
Any open space between the mineral grains in a rock, however microscopic, may
contain a fluid phase. Most commonly, if there is a fluid phase in a rock during
metamorphism, it will be a hydrous fluid, consisting of water and things dissolved in the
water. Less commonly, it may be a carbon dioxide fluid or some other fluid. The presence of
a fluid phase is a major factor during metamorphism because it helps determine which
metamorphic reactions will occur and how fast they will occur. The fluid phase can also
influence the rate at which mineral crystals deform or change shape. Most of this influence
is due to the dissolved ions that pass in and out of the fluid phase. If during metamorphism
enough ions are introduced to or removed from the rock via the fluid to change the bulk
chemical composition of the rock, the rock is said to have undergone metasomatism.
However, most metamorphic rocks do not undergo sufficient change in their bulk chemistry
to be considered metasomatic rocks.
Time
Most metamorphism of rocks takes place slowly inside the Earth. Regional
metamorphism takes place on a timescale of millions of years. Metamorphism usually
involves slow changes to rocks in the solid state, as atoms or ions diffuse out of unstable
minerals that are breaking down in the given pressure and temperature conditions and
migrate into new minerals that are stable in those conditions. This type of chemical reaction
takes a long time.
Grades of Metamorphism
Metamorphic grade refers to the general temperature and pressure conditions that
prevailed during metamorphism. As the pressure and temperature increase, rocks undergo
metamorphism at higher metamorphic grade. Rocks changing from one type of metamorphic
rock to another as they encounter higher grades of metamorphism are said to be undergoing
prograde metamorphism.
Low-grade metamorphism takes place at approximately 200–320 ºC and relatively low

pressure. This is not far beyond the conditions in which sediments get lithified into
63
sedimentary rocks, and it is common for a low-grade metamorphic rock to look somewhat
like its protolith. Low grade metamorphic rocks tend to characterize by an abundance of
hydrous minerals, minerals that contain water within their crystal structure. Examples of
low-grade hydrous minerals include clay, serpentine, and chlorite. Under low grade
metamorphism many of the metamorphic minerals will not grow large enough to be seen
without a microscope.
Medium-grade metamorphism takes place at approximately at 320–450 ºC and at

moderate pressures. Low grade hydrous minerals are replaced by micas such as biotite and
muscovite, and non-hydrous minerals such as garnet may grow. Garnet is an example of a
mineral which may form porphyroblasts, metamorphic mineral grains that are larger in size
and more equant in shape (about the same diameter in all directions), thus standing out
among the smaller, flatter, or more elongate minerals.
High-grade metamorphism takes place at temperatures above about 450 ºC. Micas
tend to break down. New minerals such as hornblende will form, which is stable at higher
temperatures. However, as metamorphic grade increases to even higher grade, all hydrous
minerals, which includes hornblende, may break down and be replaced by other, higher-
temperature, non-hydrous minerals such as pyroxene.
Index Minerals
Index minerals, which are indicators of metamorphic grade. In each rock type, which
starts with a particular chemical composition, lower-grade index minerals are replaced by
higher-grade index minerals in a sequence of chemical reactions that proceeds as the rock
undergoes prograde metamorphism. For example, in rocks made of metamorphosed shale,
metamorphism may prograde through the following index minerals:
• chlorite characterizes the lowest regional metamorphic grade
• biotite replaces chlorite at the next metamorphic grade, which could be considered
medium-low grade
• garnet appears at the next metamorphic grade, medium grade
• staurolite marks the next metamorphic grade, which is medium-high grade
• sillimanite is a characteristic mineral of high-grade metamorphic rocks
Index minerals are used by geologists to map metamorphic grade in regions of
metamorphic rock. A geologist maps and collects rock samples across the region and marks
the geologic map with the location of each rock sample and the type of index mineral it
contains. By drawing lines around the areas where each type of index mineral occurs, the
geologist delineates the zones of different metamorphic grades in the region. The lines are
known as isograds.
Activity 1: Modified True or False

Directions: There are two statements in each number. In second column, write A, if the
underlined word in first statement is correct and the underlined word in the second
statement is incorrect; B if the underlined word in the first statement is incorrect and the
underlined word second is correct; C if the underlined words both in statements A and B are
correct; and D if the underlined words both in statements A and B are incorrect. Then, if the
underlined word is wrong, change it by writing the correct answer in third column.
No. Statements Answer (A, Corrected word

B, C, D)
1 A. Magma originates in the lower part of the
Earth’s crust and in the upper portion of the
mantle.
64
B. Magma leaves the confines of the upper
mantle and crust in two major
ways: as an intrusion or as an extrusion.
2 A. If rocks are buried within the Earth, the
deeper they go, the higher the temperatures they
experience
B. The temperature inside the Earth decreases
along what is called the
geothermal gradient.
3 A. Pressure is a measure of the rest, the physical
force, being applied to the surface of a material.
B. There are two types of differential stress -
normal stress and sheer stress.
4 A. Metamorphic grade refers to the general
temperature and pressure conditions that
prevailed during metabolism.
B. As the pressure and temperature increase,

rocks undergo metabolism at higher
metamorphic grade.
5 A. Index minerals, which are indicators of
metamorphic grade.
B. Index minerals are used by geologists to map
metamorphic grade in regions of metamorphic
rock.
Activity: Writing Acrostic “METAMORPHISM” Poem

Directions: Perform the given tasks and follow the instructions properly.
Compose an acrostic poem in which the first letter of each line spells out the word
“METAMORPHISM”. Your work should reflect the concepts about the changes in mineral
components and texture of rocks. Write your acrostic poem on a separate sheet of paper.
MODULE 10
The module has 1 lesson namely:
Lesson 10: Plate Tectonics
1. describe how rocks behave under different types of stress such as compression,
pulling apart, and shearing
2. explain seafloor spreading
65
Lesson
Plate Tectonics
10
Continental Drift: A Hypothesis Ahead of its Time
Figure 1: Continents drifting apart from being together as the Pangea

Retrieved from: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pangea-y-el-genesis.jpg
Licensed under Pablo Rodolfo Castro/CC by SA 4.0
Americas. Asia. Europe. Australia. Africa. Antarctica. Long ago, the continents used
to be together in harmony. Then, everything changed when the Pangea drifted apart. Alfred
Wegener, a meteorologist and geophysicist, compiled evidence to support the continental drift
theory. But when the scientific community asked for explanation about the driving force for
the movement of the continents, he cannot provide it. Several years have passed and
scientists like Arthur Holmes and Harry Hess discovered several mechanisms: mantle
convection and seafloor spreading. And although these discoveries are great, there are still a
lot to know to formulate a complete unifying theory.
Seafloor Spreading
People back then rejected Wegener’s theory because of the lack of explanation on how
the continents move. In 1929, Arthur Holmes proposed an idea that convection in the mantle
is the mechanism that causes the motion of the continents, supporting Wegener’s theory. The
scientific community was still skeptic about this. It is easy to observe and understand
convection on liquids like boiling water for instance. The hot water rises while the colder
sinks. The water that rose will become cooler and will sink while the cooler water will rise
since it becomes hot. The cyclic process is called convection. However, it is hard to imagine
this mechanism to happen in a solid Earth mantle.
66
Technological advances allowed scientist during the World War 2 to explore the oceans
at greater depths. Harry Hess and Robert
S. Deitz conducted explorations and
observations in the ocean floor using
SONAR, a technology used to have an
image underwater using sound waves
bouncing back from the ocean floor. They
found out that the oceans are not flat like
the beaches but instead have underwater
mountain ranges. These underwater
mountain ranges found in the middle of
oceans are called mid-ocean ridge. Hess
also found out that the rocks and
sediments in the ocean floor are found to
be only millions of years old. However,
the Earth is billions of years old! Where Figure 2: Simplified diagram of the use of SONAR
in seafloor observation
did the old rocks go? It was also found
that the rocks near the ridge are younger
and the rocks are older when farther from
the ridge. Moreover, the density of the rocks is greater the farther it is from the ridge.
These compelling pieces of evidence lead to the conclusion of Hess that the seafloor is
indeed spreading. With the convection in the asthenosphere as the driving force, magma rises
in the mid ocean ridges, solidify and forms into new crust. It then pushes the crust in both
directions causing the seafloor to spread. But the main driving force of the seafloor spreading
is the convection in the upper mantle (asthenosphere) as shown in figure 3. The newest
oceanic crust will be formed at the middle and the oldest ones are pushed outwards at both
directions. This is supported by the observations presented above.
Figure 3: Magma formed from the asthenosphere rises in mid-ocean ridges

Figure 4: Magma solidifies and becomes new seafloor. This new seafloor pushes the old crust
and spread on both sides from the mid ocean ridge and subducts to the continental crust
67
The observations that the oceanic crust become denser when farther from the ridge is
because as the seafloor spreads, it cools. The density of most materials increases as the
temperature lowers. The oceanic crust is also thicker when farther from the ridge. This is
because it accumulates sediments as it moves from the ridge. When the oceanic crust meets
the continental crust, which is less dense, the oceanic crust plunges beneath the continental
crust. (Just like how water will go beneath a column of oil because it is denser.) This process
is called subduction.
Further investigations of the ocean floors were made to validate Hess’s theory. The
use of magnetometers to assess the magnetism of rocks in the ocean revealed that there are
alternating strips of rocks that has normal and reversed magnetic polarity. Since the Earth’s
magnetic field is known to switch, the rocks record this switch of magnetic fields which
happen for millions of years. The magnetic field patterns are observed to be the identical from
both sides of the ridge as shown in figure 5.
The magnetic reversals observed in the
magnetic basalt rocks which are mirrored on
both sides of the ridge proves that the seafloor
spreads on both sides. The basaltic rocks
record the Earth’s magnetic field the moment
they solidify from being magma.
Seafloor spreading is the missing piece in
Wegener’s continental drift theory. This
theory explains that instead of the continental
crust pushing the oceanic crust, the
continental crust rides along while the
Figure 5: Simplified diagram of regions where
oceanic crust spreads. Combining these two
“Magnetic stripes” or similar magnetic patterns of
normal and reversed polarity found on either side of theories, a unifying theory was made.
the ridge
Theory of Plate Tectonics
First, let us take another look to the layers of the Earth, but now according to its
physical characteristics. The two important layers that we will use in this discussion is the
lithosphere and the asthenosphere. The litho-sphere is composed of the crust and the
uppermost mantle.
The thicker but less dense continental crust
and the thinner but denser oceanic crust are both
parts of the lithosphere. The continental crust
which is mostly composed of granite are the
continents while the oceanic crust which is mostly
composed of basalt are the ocean floors. The
difference of the densities between the two is an
important factor in plate tectonics. Underneath the
lithosphere is the asthenosphere. The temperatures
and pressure on the asthenosphere allows the
rocks to be near melting temperature. The
asthenosphere is a ductile layer. It means that it
can flow very slowly when forces are acting on it.
You can think of it like a bubble gum. It is solid but
can respond to forces by movement. You may falsely Figure 6: Layers of the Earth in terms of
think that underneath the lithosphere is a reservoir physical composition
of magma or molten rocks; however, the Retrieved from:
asthenosphere is still solid and ductile but not https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Eart
h%27s_Inner_Layers_denoting_the_LAB.png
completely molten. Given that structure, we can say
Licensed under NealeyS at English
that the rigid lithosphere lies on top of a ductile,
Wikipedia/CC BY-SA 3.0
slowly moving asthenosphere.
The ideas of continental drift and seafloor spreading are unified in the theory of plate
tectonics. In this theory, the lithosphere is said to be brittle. It is broken into huge slabs of
crust called tectonic plates or simply, plates. You can visualize it like the shell of a hard-
boiled egg that has several cracks or a like a jigsaw puzzle. These plates are on top of the
asthenosphere moving very slowly and can be entirely oceanic crust, entirely continental
68
crust, or a combination of both. The convection in the asthenosphere is the mechanism that
causes the plates to move. This is slightly different from Wegener’s theory because the
continents are just part of the plates, not the ones that are really moving. Figure 7 shows the
different plates of the Earth. If this is the first time that you see the image of plates, you might
be confused because you are used to look at the maps and see the countries or continents.
The plates are the ones enclosed in white lines.
Figure 7: Earth’s major and minor tectonic plates

The major plates include the Pacific Plate, which is mostly oceanic crust; Eurasian
Plate, Indian-Australian Plate, North American Plate, South American Plate, Antarctic Plate
and African Plate. The minor plates include the Philippine Plate, Juan de Fuca Plate, Cocos
Plate, Scotia Plate and Arabian Plate, Caribbean Plate and Nazca Plate.
Plate tectonics tells us that these plates interact along their boundaries in sluggish
movements. In that case, we are just looking at a snapshot of the Earth during our time. The
Earth would be much different millions of years from now.
Stress and Strain on Rocks
Stresses on rocks
Stress is defined as force experience by an object per area. In geology, rocks can
experience two broad types of stress, confining and differential stress. Rocks experience
confining stress when the stress is uniform in all directions. Example of this is when a rock
is buried, and pressure is exerted to it by the underlying weight of the rocks.
Differential stress means rocks experience unequal
stress. There are three types of differential stress. These are
compression, tension, and shearing.
(a) Compression
Rocks under compressive stress are squeezed
together. This can cause the rocks to fold or fracture.
Compressive stress is present in convergent plate
boundaries where plates are moving towards each
other.
(b) Tension
Rocks under tensional stress are being pulled apart
causing them to be thinned out, stretched, or even
break. Tensional stress is present in divergent
plate boundaries where the plates are moving
Figure 8: Different stresses on rocks
away from each other. Illustration by Vincent L. Dublin
69
(c) Shearing
Shear stresses are parallel but opposite to each other. This stress causes slippage or
translation. Shear stress is present in transform boundaries where the plates move
past each other.
When a stress causes deformation on a material, the deformation is called as strain. These
types of strains are elastic, plastic, and fracture strain or deformation.
Types of Strain on Rocks

(a) Elastic Strain
Elastic strain is a type of deformation where a material can go back to its original
shape once the stress is removed. Rocks experiencing elastic strain will produce
vibrations in the form of earthquakes when they snap back to their original shape just
like how a ruler vibrates when you bend it and released the stress.
(b) Plastic Strain/ Ductile strain
Plastic strain happens when the stress on a material exceeds the elastic limit. When
this happens, the material will not go back to its original shape even if the stress is
removed. Rocks undergoing plastic strain are folded or crumbled. Rocks that easily
deforms but does not break are called ductile rocks.
(c) Fracture
Fracture happens when the stress on the material exceeds the plastic limit. Rocks are
broken in this kind of deformation. Rocks that easily fractures are called brittle rocks.
Factors affecting the deformation of rocks

Not all rocks deform at the same way. The deformation of rocks is affected by the following:
1. Temperature and Confining Pressure
Rocks on the surface where the temperature and confining pressure are both low tend
to be brittle; thus, fracturing once it reaches its limit. Rocks buried underground
experience greater confining pressure and temperature. These conditions do not allow
rocks to fracture; instead, they experience ductile deformation.
2. Rock type
Some rocks have minerals that are brittle, and others have ductile minerals which is
explained by their respective chemical compositions. For example, quartz-bearing
rocks are brittle while clay rocks are ductile.
3. Time or Strain Rate
Stresses applied on a very short time tend to break rocks. However, stresses applied
over long periods would allow time for molecules of the rocks to arrange themselves,
thus allowing it to be ductile.

Directions: There are two statements in each number. Write BOTH if the two statements
are correct; NEITHER if none of these are correct; A, if only statement A is correct and B if
only statement B is correct.
1. _________________________
A. Seafloor spreads towards the mid-ocean ridge.
B. Rocks thin out due to compression.
2. _________________________
A. Symmetrical magnetic stripes on the seafloor support seafloor
spreading theory
B. Tectonic plates move because of the ocean currents.
3. _________________________
A. Tectonic plates are found in continents only
70
B. Elastic deformation is reversible.
4. _________________________
A. Crust found near the mid ocean ridge are less dense than those far from the
ridge.
B. Rocks buried deep underground are more likely to be ductile
5. _________________________
A. Tectonic plates are moving fast.
B. Shear stress is at work when plates slide
Creating a Simple Infographic

Directions: Create a simple infographic about either seafloor spreading or the stress and
strain on rocks. It can be drawn or created using a software.
MODULE 11
The module has 1 lesson namely:
Lesson 11: Structure and Evolution of Ocean Basins
1. describe the structure and evolution of ocean basins
2. explain how the movement of plates leads to the formation of folds, faults,
trenches, volcanoes, rift valleys, and mountain ranges
71
Lesson Structure and Evolution of Ocean
11 Basins
An individual ocean basin grows from an initial rift, reaches a maximum

size, then shrinks and ultimately closes completely. Stages in this cycle are summarized in
Table 3.1 (overleaf) and briefly reviewed below.
Whether or not the East African rift valleys really are an incipient ocean
basin (Stage 1) and eastern Africa will eventually be split apart is debatable. Nevertheless,
such rift valleys must develop along the line of continental separation. When separation does
occur, sediments from the adjacent continents soon begin to build out into the new basin
and will become part of
the eventual continental shelf-slope-rise zone. As the spreading axis migrates away from the
marginal areas, the continents become increasingly distant and so the sediment supply
dwindles (Stage 2). The ocean floor between the spreading axis and the continent subsides
by thermal contraction of the underlying lithosphere (Figure 2.13), abyssal plains form, and
the continental shelf-slope-rise zone becomes fully developed. The continental margins are
more or less parallel to the central spreading ridge, as in the Atlantic (Stage 3).
Stage 4 involves the development of one or more destructive plate margins. The reason
for the formation of new destructive margins probably lies in changing circumstances in
another part of the globe, such as continental collision or the initiation of new continental
rifting. If (as seems certain) the Earth is neither expanding nor contracting, the net rates of
spreading and subduction over any great circle on the Earth must be equal, and the pattern
of plates and plate motion must adjust to keep this so. The Mediterranean is an ocean in the
final stages of its life (Stage 5), with the African Plate being consumed under the European
Plate. Unless the world system of plates changes so as to halt the northward movement of
Africa relative to Europe, the continental blocks of Europe and Africa will eventually collide,
and new mountain ranges will form (Stage 6).
Stages in the evolution of ocean basins, with examples
Stage Examples Dominant motions Characteristic features
1 embryonic East African rift crustal extension rift valleys
valleys and uplift
2 young Red Sea, Gulf of Subsidence and Narrow seas with
California spreading parallel coasts and a
central depression
3 mature Atlantic Ocean Spreading Ocean basin with active
mid-ocean ridge
4 declining Pacific Ocean Spreading and Ocean basin with active
shrinking spreading axez; also
numerous island arcs
and adjacent trenches
around margins
5 terminals Mediterranean Sea Shrinking and Young mountains
uplift
6 relict scars Indus suture in the Shrinking and Young mountains
Himalayas uplift
Folds, faults, and Plate Movement

The tectonic movement of the Earth's plates has resulted in the folding and faulting
of the Earth's crust. This is caused by the Earth's plates converging, diverging, or traversing
72
against one another. This causes the crust of the Earth to buckle and strain, generating
incredible amounts of pressure that build up as time progresses and may conclude in the
release of this energy. The crust is divided into layers of materials that have been compressed
together. These layers are known as strata, laid down and composed of the denudated
material of pre-existing rocks.
In folding, the Earth's crust is pulled and strained, resulting in a variety of different
features that can be commonly seen when examining a cliff face. There are three parts of a
fold: the anticline (high), the syncline (low) and the limbs, commonly referred to as the "arms"
of the folds. Folds can be divided into several different types, such as a monocline, whereby
the layers travel in the same direction, a
symmetrical fold, both arms have the same slope, a asymmetrical fold, the slope of one arm
is steeper than the other, and a overfold, whereby the arms have slightly overturned.
Faulting is a process that occurs due to the intense strain on plates that is endured
by the folding of layers. The pressure of compression or tension results in a fracture to occur
in the fold, which can form along a fault line. Movement along this fault may be horizontal or
vertical. Such an example of a fault line is the San Andreas Fault Line in America.
There are three main types of faulting: normal faulting, reverse faulting, and tear
faulting. They occur due to divergence, convergence, and transverse movement of plates
respectively. Rift valleys are found between two parallel normal faults on a part of land known
as a graben, a sunken part of the land so to speak. This occurs because the foothold block is
upthrown while the hanging block is downthrown. These are surrounded by block-
mountains, also known as horsts which move apart and increase the size of the valley. Rift
valleys are distinguishable by the sharp, declining sides. In conclusion, the movement of the
Earth's plates results in the folding and faulting of the Earth's surface due to processes such
as compression, tension, and shearing, and in doing so, deform and rearrange the Earth's
crust.
Trenches and Plate Movement

Ocean trenches are steep depressions in the deepest parts of the ocean [where old
ocean crust from one tectonic plate is pushed beneath another plate, raising mountains,
causing earthquakes, and forming volcanoes on the seafloor and on land. With depths
exceeding 6,000 meters (nearly 20,000 feet), trenches make up the world’s "hadal zone,"
named for Hades, the Greek god of the underworld, and account for the deepest 45 percent
of the global ocean. The deepest parts of a trench, however, represent only about 1 percent
or less of its total area.
Trenches are formed by subduction, a geophysical process in which two or more of
Earth's tectonic plates converge and the older, denser plate is pushed beneath the lighter
plate and deep into the mantle, causing the seafloor and outermost crust (the lithosphere) to
bend and form a steep, V-shaped depression. This process makes trenches dynamic
geological features—they account for a significant part of Earth’s seismic activity—and are
frequently the site of large earthquakes, including some of the largest earthquakes on record.
Subduction also generates an upwelling of molten crust that forms mountain ridges and
volcanic islands parallel to the trench. Examples of these volcanic "arcs" can be seen in the
Japanese Archipelago, the Aleutian Islands, and many other locations around this area called
the Pacific "Ring of Fire."
Volcanoes and Plate Movement

There are three settings where volcanoes typically form:
• constructive plate boundaries

• destructive plate boundaries
• hot spots
Volcanoes do not typically occur at transform boundaries. One of the reasons for this is
that there is little or no magma available at the plate boundary.
73
Constructive plate boundary volcanoes
At constructive plate boundaries, the tectonic plates are moving away from one
another. The Earth’s crust is pulled apart to create a new pathway for rising hot magma to
flow on to the surface. Volcanoes can sometimes form in these setting; one example is Iceland.
Iceland lies on the Mid Atlantic Ridge, a constructive plate boundary, where the North
American and Eurasian plates are moving away from each other. As the plates pull apart,
molten rock (magma) rises and erupts as lava, creating new ocean crust. The island is covered
with more than 100 volcanoes. Some are extinct, but over 30 are still active. The majority of
volcanism in Iceland occurs along volcanic rift zones that cut through the center of the island.
Destructive plate boundary volcanoes

Destructive, or convergent, plate boundaries are where the tectonic plates are moving
towards each other. Volcanoes form here in two settings where either oceanic plate descends
below another oceanic plate, or an oceanic plate descends below a continental plate. This
process is called subduction and creates distinctive types of volcanoes depending on the
setting: (1) ocean-ocean subduction produces an island-arc volcano (2) ocean-continent
subduction produces Andean-type volcanoes. Subduction provides a mechanism for
introducing water-bearing sediments into the mantle. As the subducted oceanic plate sinks
and heats up, water is gradually released from the sediments and minerals within the plate
‘slab’. Water has the effect of reducing the melting temperature of the mantle by about 60–
100°C. It is this process that allows the generation of magma at depth that feeds volcanoes
that are formed at the surface.
Hot-spot volcanism
Volcanoes can also form above a column of superheated magma called a mantle
plume. This may happen in areas that are distant from plate boundaries. It is also referred
to as hot spot or intraplate volcanism. Heat from the mantle plume causes melting and
thinning of the crust, which leads to volcanic activity at the surface. The Hawai’ian Islands
are a chain of volcanoes in the middle of the Pacific Plate, which have formed due to the
presence of a hot spot. The Hawai’ian hot spot causes magma to rise and erupt as lava on
the ocean floor. Over millions of years, the Pacific Plate has moved over the hot spot, creating
a chain of volcanic islands.
Mountain Ranges and Plate Movement

Mountain formation refers to the geological processes that underlie the formation of
mountains. These processes are associated with large-scale movements of the earth’s crust
(plate tectonics). Mountain formation is related to plate tectonics. Folding, faulting, volcanic
activity, igneous intrusion and metamorphism are all parts of the orogenic process of
mountain building. The understanding of specific landscape features in terms of the
underlying tectonic processes is called tectonic geomorphology, and the study of geologically
young or ongoing processes is called neotectonics.
Volcanic mountains
Movements of tectonic plates create volcanoes along the plate boundaries, which erupt
and form mountains. A volcanic arc system is a series of volcanoes that form near a
subduction zone where the crust of a sinking oceanic plate melts. Most volcanoes occur in a
band encircling the Pacific Ocean (the Pacific Ring of Fire), and in another that extends from
the Mediterranean across Asia to join the Pacific band in the Indonesian Archipelago. The
most important types of volcanic mountain are composite cones or stratovolcanoes (Vesuvius,
Kilimanjaro and Mount Fuji are examples) and shield volcanoes (such as Mauna Loa on
Hawaii, a hotspot volcano).
Fold mountains
When plates collide or undergo subduction (that is – ride one over another), the plates
tend to buckle and fold, forming mountains. Most of the major continental mountain ranges
74
are associated with thrusting and folding or orogenesis. Examples are the Jura and the
Zagros mountains.
Block mountains
When a fault block is raised or tilted, block mountains can result. Higher blocks are
called horsts and troughs are called grabens. A spreading apart of the surface causes
tensional forces. When the tensional forces are strong enough to cause a plate to split apart,
it does so such that a center block drops down relative to its flanking blocks. An example is
the Sierra Nevada Range, where delamination created a block 650 km long and 80 km wide
that consists of many individual portions tipped gently west, with east facing slips rising
abruptly to produce the highest mountain front in the continental United States.
Hotspot volcanoes
Hotspots are supplied by a magma source in the Earth’s mantle called a mantle
plume. Although originally attributed to a melting of subducted oceanic crust, recent evidence
belies this connection. The mechanism for plume formation remains a research topic.
Fault blocks
Several movements of the earth’s crust that lead to mountains are associated with
faults. These movements are amenable to analysis that can predict, for example, the height
of a raised block and the width of an intervening rift between blocks using the rheology of the
layers and the forces of isostasy. Early bent plate models predicting fractures and fault
movements have evolved into today’s kinematic and flexural models.

Directions: There are two statements in each item. Write BOTH if the two statements are
correct; NEITHER if none of these are correct; A, if only statement A is correct and B if only
statement B is correct.
1. _________________________
A. When a fault block is raised or tilted, block mountains can result.
B. Higher blocks are called horsts and troughs are called grabens.
2. _________________________
A. When plates collide or undergo subduction (that is – ride one over another), the
plates tend to buckle and fold, forming mountains.
B. Most of the major continental mountain ranges are associated with thrusting and
folding or orogenesis
3. _________________________
A. Movements of tectonic plates create volcanoes along the plate boundaries, which
erupt and form mountains.
B. A volcanic arc system is a series of volcanoes that form near a subduction zone
where the crust of a sinking oceanic plate melts.
4. _________________________
A. Folding, faulting, volcanic activity, igneous intrusion, and metamorphism are all
parts of the orogenic process of mountain building.
B. The understanding of specific landscape features in terms of the underlying
tectonic processes is called tectonic geomorphology
5. _________________________
A. There are three settings where volcanoes typically form: constructive plate
boundaries, destructive plate boundaries, and hot spots
B. Volcanoes do not typically occur at transform boundaries because there is a little
or no magma available at the plate boundary.
75
Creating a Simple Infographic
Directions: Create a simple infographic either about the structure and evolution of ocean
basins or the movement of plates leads to the formation of folds, faults, trenches, volcanoes,
rift valleys, and mountain ranges. It can be drawn or created using a software.
MODULE 12
This module was designed and written with you in mind. It is here to help you
master the nature of Earth Science. The scope of this module permits it to be used in many
different learning situations. The language used recognizes the diverse vocabulary level of
students. The lessons are arranged to follow the standard sequence of the course. But the
order in which you read them can be changed to correspond with the textbook you are now
using.
The module is divided into two lessons:
Lesson 12.1 – Stratification of Rocks
Lesson 12.2 – Relative and Absolute Dating
1. describe how layers of rocks (stratified rocks) are formed; and
2. describe the different methods (relative and absolute dating) of determining the
age of stratified rocks
76
Lesson
Stratification of Rocks
12.1
Earth was formed by different types of rocks and minerals. The formation of rocks and
minerals will yield to some changes on Earth internally and even externally. As part of these
changes to our living planet, weathering has played an important role in some phenomena.
As the rock weathers, the granules of rocks or dust can form new landforms. Some of these
landforms are built through the process of STRATIFICATION. This process shows how rocks
formed by layers over a period of time.
PROCESSES OF ROCK STRATIFICATION
1. Weathering
This is the first step of stratification. As the rock

exposes to any physical or chemical reactions, it will
break down into smaller fragments, as illustrated in
figure 1. These small fragments of rocks are now called
sediments. They become light -weight where they can
easily be carried by the natural agents of erosion.
Fig. 1 - Weathering of rocks caused

by natural agents.
Illustrated by J. Sayo
2. Erosion
As the loosen sediments are removed from the rocks carried by natural agents of erosion
(wind or water), it will be transported from one place to another.
3. Deposition
When the eroded materials and sediments are laid down in a certain place. Massive
sediments were settled down first followed by the finer sediments filled on top. These layers
will vary in their thickness depending on the volume of sediments deposited.
4. Compaction or Cementation
As the sediments are buried, they become cemented to each other and hardened
under pressure. Sometimes there are bones of organisms buried and they become fossils in
time. After that, another stratification occurs, and a new layer of rocks or stratum will form.
This formation of stratified rock are also the sedimentary rocks. Each stratum varies in
thickness, and it formed over a period of time. This repeated process shows that the Earth is
continuously forming and molding by itself.
SIGNIFICANCE OF STRATIFICATION OF ROCKS

Rock stratification shaped the earth’s surface by layers for a long period of time.
Maybe, you would wonder how the Earth developed in a natural way. But how this
phenomenon is significant. Why do you need to understand this Earth’s activity?
Deposition of the sediments builds new landforms like plateaus, cliffs or even canyons.
Every deposition of new sediments will make the land grow as the year goes on; it can slowly
but continuously. Until it finally creates a unique shape for the people to appreciate its
distinctive beauty. People do their recreational activities like mountain climbing, hiking or
others that find their love for nature.
77
For scientists, like geologists who study the stratified rocks can tell us the history of
earth. For geologists it's always the rocks that are the specimens of their study. In the
stratified rocks it shows the layers of rocks that formed in different times. Each stratum tells
something about what the Earth was before especially in its composition. Example, if the
geologist collected stratified rocks and found out the bottom part is made up of claystone.
The scientist may infer that there was a time in that place there was a river Sometimes the
scientist can collect fossils from ancient times which they can describe the type of organisms
that lived before.
Rocks are the old clues of ancient times. Thus, stratified rocks can be used to
determine the age of the Earth based on the scientist’s discovery. They invented some
methods and technologies where the scientists can calculate the possible age of the Earth.
Activity 1: That’s About It

Directions: Answer the questions that surround the word stratification.
Lesson
Relative and Absolute Dating
12.2
RELATIVE DATING
A method that tells the order of events without exact dates by comparing one event or
rock layer to another. The study of rock layers is known as Stratigraphy. Relative dating
identifies which rock or fossil layers formed first, second, third and so on. But the actual age
of a rock or fossil in years is not determined. The words like “older” or “younger” instead of
exact numbers are used when determining the age of rock using this method. This can be
done using the following principles.
1. Law of Superposition
This principle states that in any untouched sequence of layers (strata) of rocks, the
oldest layer is deposited at the bottom and the youngest layer is at the top. This is commonly
applying to sedimentary rocks but can be applied also to lava flows and layers of ash from
volcanic rock.
78
2. Principle of Cross-Cutting (Law of Cross –cutting Relationship)
It states that any geologic feature like fault that cuts across or cut through a body of
sediment/rock layers is younger than the body of those rocks that it cuts across. Similarly,
when magma forcedly enters other layer of rocks and hardens, the fault or intrusion is
younger than the rocks surround it.
Principle of Original Horizontality

This states that layers of sediments are commonly deposited in horizontal position or
in flat layers and are parallel to the surface on which they were deposited due to the action
of gravity. If tilted or folded sedimentary rock layers (originally horizontal) are observed, it can
be inferred that these rocks were deformed after deposition because of crustal disturbances
such mountain buildings, uplifting, and erosion.
Fig.L2.1.Cross-cutting relationship
Rock layer 4
Rock layer 3
Rock layer 2
Rock layer 1
Illustrator: S.B.Retuya
3. Law of Inclusion Fig.L2.2. Original

Horizontality
This law states that those fragments of rocks
called inclusions are older than the layer of rock they
found in. A rock layer may have inclusions (rock Younger Older rock
fragments) when after an exposed layer has eroded and rock layers layers
the loose material on the surface combined into the layer
deposited on top of it.
4. Principle of Unconformity
Unconformity defines as a break in the geologic

record. It means that a gap (a surface of non- Illustrator: S.B.Retuya
deposition/erosion) forms in a series of rock layers due to
erosion. This shows that deposition stopped for a period, and rock may have been removed
by agents of weathering and erosion before deposition resumed. Rocks below an unconformity
are older than the rocks above.
79
The Four types of unconformities:
A. Disconformity_ the sedimentary rock layers above and below the unconformity (surface
of non-deposition/surface of erosion) are parallel to each other.
Fig.L2.3. Disconformity
Younger sedimentary
rock layers
Unconformity
Older sedimentary
rock layers
B. Nonconformity_ below the unconformity is either Igneous or Metamorphic rock layer

with sedimentary rock layer on top.
Fig.L2.4. Non-conformity
Sedimentary
rock layer (younger)
Unconformity
Igneous or Metamorphic
rock layer (older)
C. Angular_ on the bottom of the unconformity are tilted sedimentary rock layers with
horizontal sedimentary rock layers on top.
Fig.L2.5. Angular
Horizontal Sedimentary
rock layers (younger)
Unconformity
Tilted Sedimentary
rock layers (older)
D. Paraconformity_ Sedimentary rock layers formed parallel with one another between
invisible unconformity due to erosion of older unit or non -deposition.
ABSOLUTE DATING
This dating method enables scientists to determine the numerical age of rocks. In
absolute dating, one of the most common ways to determine the numerical age of a rock is
through a technique called radiometric dating. The radiometric dating technique uses
radioactive isotopes to figure out the absolute age of the rock. Isotope is an atom of an element
that has the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons. Isotopes of an
element are either stable or radioactive. A radioactive isotope is an atom of an element with
an unstable nucleus. A nucleus that is unstable can become stable by undergoing a
radioactive decay. The stable isotope formed by radioactive decay is called the daughter
80
isotope and the original unstable radioactive isotope is called a parent isotope. For each kind
of radioactive isotope, the rate of decay is constant. The fixed rate of decay of a radioactive
isotope is called the half-life. Half-life is the time it takes for half of a particular isotope to
decay to daughter isotope. By measuring the amounts of the parent and daughter isotopes
in a rock, the absolute age of the rock can be determined. Below are the different methods
that can be used to determine the absolute age of rocks.
1. Radiocarbon Dating
Scientists use the radioactive isotope carbon-14 to determine the ages of plant and
animal remains. All living organisms maintain the same amount of carbon-14 in their bodies
with respect to other isotopes of carbon. When the organism dies, it stops taking in any kind
of carbon, so the amount of carbon-14 decreases at a known rate. Over time, scientists can
measure the amount of carbon- 14 that decayed in organic material to determine how long
ago the organism died. The longer an organism is dead, the less carbon -14 remains. Since
carbon -14 has a half-life of only 5,370 years, it can’t be used to date ancient fossils or
rocks. This method is particularly useful for dating materials from plants and animals that
lived between 100 and 50,000 years.
2. Potassium- Argon Dating

This absolute dating method is based upon the decay of potassium-40 to argon-40
in the minerals that comprise the rock. Potassium-40 has a half-life of 1.26 billion years. This
long half - life makes it possible to use this method to date rocks from 100,000 years to over
a billion years old.
3. Uranium - Lead Dating
It is a radiometric dating technique that uses the decay of the radioisotope uranium–
238 to lead–206 with a half-life of 4.47 billion years and the decay of uranium–235 to lead–
207, with a half- life of 704 million years. The long half-lives of the uranium isotopes make
it well-suited to date the oldest rocks of Earth’s crust. By measuring the amount of uranium-
238 remaining in the material relative to the amount of daughter nuclei, the time when the
rock solidified can be determined. This uranium-lead dating method is usually performed in
crystals of the mineral zircon.
Activity 1: The Rock Dating

Directions: Fill in the Venn diagram about the two methods used to determine the age of
stratified rocks. List their similarities and differences.
Similarities
81
Activity: My Act to Help
Directions: If you had explored any type of landforms, what would be your contribution to
maintain the beauty of these natural resources in our country? If you’re not
tried exploring these landforms, what do you think of your contribution?
Write it in the scroll below.
MODULE 13
the methods used in determining the subdivisions of Geologic Time Scale. The scope of this
Lesson 13 – The Use of Relative and Absolute Datings in Subdivisions
of Geologic Time Scale
1. Describe how index fossils (also known as guide fossils) are used to define and identify
subdivisions of the geologic time scale
2.
82
The Use of Relative and
Lesson
Absolute Dating in Subdivisions
13
of Geologic Time Scale
The subdivision of geologic time is based on significant events or changes in Earth’s

history as recorded in rocks or fossils. When looking at the history of the Earth and dealing
with geologic time, two types of dating are distinguished: relative dating and absolute
dating.
Relative dating is a method that tells the order of events by comparing one event or
rock layer to another without specifying the numerical age. Relative geologic time just tells
us which event came first or which rock layer is older or younger than the other.
There are several principles geologists use for relative dating such as principle of
unconformities, principle of inclusions, and principle of faunal succession. In the 17th
century, a geologist named Nicolas Steno articulated other relative dating principles: original
horizontality, lateral continuity, and superposition. His observations of sedimentary rocks
led him to formulate these principles which became the foundation of stratigraphy, the
study of layered rocks.
Scientists use these relative dating principles to identify the relative ages of a
subdivision of rock layers. With this information, scientists can hypothesize what geologic
events that formed the rocks layers throughout the time.
The usual geologic events which are frequently preserved as proof in the rock records
are the following:
1. Deposition and layering of stratified rocks
2. Folding of rocks
3. Displacement of stratified rocks
4. Intrusion of magma materials that turned to igneous rocks
5. Faulting rocks
In addition to relative dating, scientists use another method to determine the
subdivision of geologic time- the absolute dating.
Absolute dating is a method of determining the age of a geologic event or object in
years. The absolute age of fossils and rocks are determined by analyzing the isotope of
radioactive elements.
A radioactive isotope (parent isotope) is an atom of an element with an unstable
nucleus. For it to become stable, it must undergo a radioactive decay. The stable isotope
formed by radioactive decay is called the daughter isotope.
Radioactive decay is a process which changes the parent isotope into a daughter
isotope in a fixed rate of decay called half-life. At time 0 half- life, 100% of the atoms are
parent isotopes. After the first half-life has passed, 50% of the sample has changed from
parent to daughter isotope. After two half-lives have passed, there are 25% parent isotope
and 75% daughter isotope as illustrated in figure 1 below.
83
Fig. 1 - Half-lives of Radioactive Isotope
0 half-life 1st half-life 2nd half-life

100% parent isotope 50% parent isotope 25% parent isotope
0% daughter isotope 50% daughter isotope 75% daughter isotope
Illustrator: J.K.Sayo
So, let’s take Carbon 14 as an example. Its half-life is 5,370 years as shown
in Table 1. What does it mean? It means that it takes 5,370 years for half of the Carbon-
14(Parent isotope) to decay into Nitrogen-14(Daughter Isotope). Can you imagine how long it
would take for half of Potassium-40 to decay into Argon-40? Or Uranium-238 into Lead-206?
Table 1 - Radioactive Isotopes Commonly Used in Radiometric Dating

Parent Isotope Half-life Daughter Isotope Used for
Carbon-14 5,370 years Nitrogen-14 previously living things, or

any organic material (old
paper, old fabric, etc.)
Potassium-40 1.26 billion years Argon-40 igneous, metamorphic rocks

(1,000 years to over a billion
years old)
Uranium–238 4.47 billion years Lead–206 igneous or volcanic rocks

(10,000 - billion of years)
Now, how do geologists or paleontologists use half-life to determine the age of rocks
or fossils?
Once a scientist collects a sample specimen, it will be taken to the laboratory. He
will use an instrument called the Mass Spectrometry to identify the ratio of the radioactive
isotope present in the specimen.
For instance, a paleontologist collected a fossilized bone in a laboratory to check the
content of radioactive isotopes. The results reveal that the amount of Carbon-14 left in the
fossilized bone is half (50%) of the original. Such an amount of Carbon-14 in the fossilized
bone has passed one half-life. Remember that it takes 5,370 years for one-half (50%) of
Carbon-14 to decay into Nitrogen -14, therefore, the fossilized bone has been dead for 5,370
years as shown on the table below. Approximately, this is the age of the fossilized bone based
on the first half-life of Carbon-14. What about if the fossilized bone has passed two half-lives,
how many years do you think the fossilized bone has been dead? Very good! The fossilized
bone has been dead for 10,740 years.
Half-life in Carbon Dating
84
Radioactive Isotope
C-14 N-14 Number of years the organism died
1st half- life 50% 50% 5,370 years
2nd half-life 25% 75% 10,740 years
Since carbon -14 has a half-life of only 5,370 years, it can’t be used to date ancient
fossils or rocks. Thus, it is particularly useful for dating materials that were formed in the
relatively recent geologic past. But there are other radioactive elements, such as potassium-
40 and uranium-238 that can be used to date rocks, fossils, or significant geologic events.
Activity 1: Marks of Event

Directions: Study the illustration of rock samples below. Then, answer the guide questions.
Part A
Guide Questions:
1. How many layers are formed in this rock sample?

2. Between layer A and B, which rock layer formed
first? Why?
3. What geological event occurred in layer B - faulting
or folding?
4. In layers B & C, which geologic event happened
first? Layering or folding?
5. How do layer D formed?
Activity: Age Shows in It

Directions: Identify the number of parent and daughter isotopes of each sample of radioactive
isotope.
1st Half-life 2nd Half-life 3rd half-life

Radioactive Number of
Isotope radioactive
isotope # of # of # of # of # of # of
parent daughter parent daughte parent daughte
isotope isotope isotope r isotope isotope r
isotope
A 100 50 1. 2. 75 12.5 3.
B 80 4. 40 5. 60 6. 70
C 60 7. 30 8. 45 7.5 9.
85
MODULE 14
the methods used in determining the subdivisions of Geologic Time Scale. The scope of this
Lesson 14 – The Use of Index Fossils in Geologic Time Scale
1. describe the history of the Earth through geologic time
Lesson The Use of Index Fossils in

14 Geologic Time Scale
In dating the past, the primary value of fossils relies within the Principle of Faunal
Succession: fossil organisms succeed one another in time in a definite order. This principle
explains that each layer in a rock sequence contains fossils that are unique from those of the
layers that are above and below it. This condition permits geologists to identify and correlate
sedimentary rock layers in widely separated areas which are helpful in studying Earth’s
history.
When fossils are correlated, scientists look for exact matches in different locations.
The primary conceptual tool for correlation by fossils is the index fossil. Ideally, index fossils
are widespread geographically, abundant, distinctive, and are limited to a short span of time.
Based on the characteristics of index fossils, which fossil below is considered as a good index
fossil? Yes, you are indeed correct, it's Fossil 2. With the use of index fossils, together with
the principles of relative dating of events and absolute/radiometric dating, scientists were
able to determine the subdivisions of the geologic time scale.
86
Fig. L2.1: Rock layers at different locations
Outcrop 1 Outcrop 2
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
Activity 1: Fossil Hunters II

Directions: Study the table and answer the guide questions.
Place 1 Place 2 Place 3
Rock layer 1 A A A D
Rock layer 2 A D C D
Rock layer 3 A B B B D
Question:
Suppose the letters represent fossils found on different rock layers and places.
Which letter best represents a good index fossil? __________
Why? ______________________________________________________________
87
Activity 4: My Oldest Clothes’ Possession
Directions: Determine the oldest clothes you have inside your cabinet. Take a picture of it
and place it inside the frame below. (If not possible, just describe it.)
Guide questions:
1. How do you know that it is the oldest?
2. How old do you think it is?
3. Which of your answers in questions 1 and 2, refers

to relative dating? Absolute dating? Why?
of paper.
1. The main sources of the radioactive heat in the Earth’s mantle are the four long-lived
(large half- life) isotopes namely Thorium-232 (232Th), Potassium-40 (40K), Uranium-235
(235U) and _____.
A. Aluminum -26 (26Al) C. Lead -206 (206Pb
B. Iron-60 (60Fe) D. Uranium-238 (238U)
2. The Earth’s internal heat comes from different sources. Which one is considered the least
important reason for why the interior of earth is hot?
A. pressure B. primordial C. radioactive decay D. temperature
3. What material is used to form igneous rocks?

A. Magma B. Sand C. Gravel D. fossils
4. Marble, quartzite, greenstone, and anthracite are rocks that came from pre-
existing rocks. What do they have in common?
A. they are plutonic igneous rocks
B. they are non-foliated metamorphic rocks
C. they are volcanic igneous rocks
D. they are foliated metamorphic rocks
5. How could seafloor spreading theory explain the observation that thicker rocks are found
far from the mid ocean ridge?
A. Magma erupts far from the mid ocean ridge
B. Rocks thin out as they move towards the mid ocean ridge
C. Rocks far from the ridge are older; thus, accumulating more sediments.
D. Rocks far from the mid ocean ridge are different from those near the ridge
88
6. Which of the following statements describes plate tectonics theory?
A. The lithosphere is broken into plates floating above the ocean
B. The lithosphere is broken into plates that moves due to Earth’s rotation
C. The lithosphere is broken into plates moving slowly above the asthenosphere
D. The lithosphere is a single giant landmass called plate that moves due to the ocean
currents
7. Stratified rocks formed by process. Which of the following rock stratification processes is
CORRECT?
A. Compaction - Cementation - Deposition - Erosion - Weathering
B. Erosion - Deposition - Compaction - Cementation - Weathering
C. Weathering - Erosion - Deposition - Compaction & Cementation
D. Weathering - Deposition -Erosion - Compaction & Cementation
8. Why do stratified rocks formed by layers?

A. because erosion was maintained with a high temperature climate.
B. because the sediments were laid and formed in different times.
C. because the deposited sediments shifted to elevated places.
D. because the sediments change the direction of wind.
9. Which desirable features of a fossil would make it useful as an index (or guide) fossil in
determining the relative age of widely separated rock layers?
A. a long geological duration and a narrow geographic range.
B. a long geological duration and a wide geographic range.
C. a short geological duration and a wide geographic range.
D. a short geological duration and a narrow geographic range.
10. A Paleontologist found out that the amount of Carbon-14 left in an unknown fossil is ¾
of the original. How many years do you think the unknown fossil has been dead?
A. 2,685 years B. 5,370 years C. 10,740 years D. 16,110 years
89
90
What's More Lesson 5.3: What's More What's More
1. E 6. J
Lesson 2.2 Lesson 2.1
2. D 7. F
3. I 8. A 1. I 9. S 1. TRUE
4. C 9. G 2. M 10. M 2. ORE
5. H 10. B 3. TRUE
3. S 11. S
4. I 12. I 4. TRUE
What's More Lesson 5.1: 5. M 13. S 5. IGNEOUS
6. TRUE
(Answers vary) 6. S 14. M
7. SEDIMENTARY (ORE) DEPOSIT
7. I 15. S
8. TRUE
What's More Lesson 5.2: 8. M 9. NONMETALLIC
(Answers vary) 10. NONRENEWABLE
Module 5 Module 2
What's More
Lesson 4.1: Quarter 1 Quarter 1 Quarter 1
(Answers vary) What's What’s More What’s
What's More More
Lesson 1.2 More
Lesson 4.2: Lesson 1.1
1. H 6. B Lesson 1.3
Across: 1. Thinner
2. B 7. A 1. N 6. N
9. Table 3. Aquitard 4. Freshwater 2. Higher
3. A 8. G 2. N 7. M
6. Desalination 7. Glaciers 10. Groundwater 3. Ice
4. G 9. H 3. M 8. N
Down: 4. More
5. G 10. B 4. M 9. M
1. Artesian 5. Aquifer 5. less
5. N 10. N
8. Surface 9. Seawater
Module 4 Module 1
Quarter 2 Quarter 1
Quarter 2 Quarter I
What I What I
Assessment Assessment
Know Know
1. D 6. C 1. C 6. D
2. A 7. C 1. D 6. B 1. D 6. D
2. A 7. D 2. C 7. A 2. D 7. A
3. C 8. B
4. B 9. C 3. A 8. A 3. C 8. B 3. B 8. A
5. C 10. C 4. B 9. B 4. D 9. A 4. B 9. D
5. C 10.C 5. C 10.A
5. C 10. A
91
What's More
Lesson 8.2:
A. pressure
B. Increase of pressure means
increase the speed of the
molecules, thus increasing the
What's More temp.
C. 1.Still cooling from Earth’s What's More
Lesson 9:
formation Lesson 8.1:
1. C
2. Earth’s radioactive nuclear
2. A – increases 1. C 6. C
core
3. B – stress 2. M 7. M
D. vary answers
4. D – E. Uranium
3. C 8. M
metamorphism F. The radioactive core heats it. 4. M 9. C
5. C 5. M 10. C
Module 9 Module 8
What's More
Lesson 7:
(Answers vary)
Module 7
What's More Lesson 13:
1. Solid
2. Liquid What's More
3. Gaseous Lesson 3.1:
4. Non-hazardous (Answers vary)
5. Municipal
What's More
6. Industrial
Lesson 3.2:
7. Residential 1. Formation of Coal
8. Reactive (Reactivity) 1-3-2-4-5
9. Corrosive (Corrosivity) 2. Formation of Oil and
10. Ignitable (Ignitability) Natural Gas
[1,2,3], [5,6,7], [8,9,10] in any order 2-1-4-5-3
Module 6 Module 3
92
What's More
Lesson 14:
_B
_ widespread ,
geographically, abundant,
distinctive, and are limited to a
short span of time.
Module 14
What's More
Lesson 13:
What's More 1. 4 layers
2. A, possible answer-
Lesson 12.2:
because it is found in the
bottom part, or layer B
covers layer A
3. Folding
4. Layering
5. Deposition or laying down
of the sediments
Module 13
What's More
Lesson 12.1:
WHAT IS IT It is the formation of rocks
by layers. What's More What's More
How does it happen? The Lesson 11: Lesson 10:
answer involves the 4 processes of 1. Both 1. NEITHER
rock stratification. 2. Both 2. A
What does it form? Formation of 3. Both 3. B
new landforms 4. Both 4. BOTH
5. Both 5. B
Module 12 Module 11 Module 10
References
Alexgiovi. (n.d.). Open-pit. Retrieved from https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Open-
pit.jpg
Aline, D. (2007). Conchoidal fracture, illustrated by the broken surface on a piece of obsidian
(volcanic glass). Retrieved from
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Conchoidal.JPG
Andrews , F. (2005). Algal bloom in village river. Taken in a small village in mountains near
Chengdu, Sichuan, China. Retrieved from
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:River_algae_Sichuan.jpg
Augustyn, A., Bauer, P., Duignan, B., Eldridge, A., Gregersen, E., Luebering, J., &
McKenna, A. (2020, April 18). Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved June 25, 2020,
from https://www.britannica.com/science/hydrosphere
Avenston. (2019, February 14). Retrieved from Geothermal power plants: advantages and
disadvantages: https://avenston.com/en/articles/geothermal-pp-pros-cons/
Blanco, H., & Lal , R. (2008). Principles of Soil Conservation and Management. Springer
Science+Business Media.
Borrero, F., Hess, F., Hsu, C., Kunze, G., Leslie, S. A., Letro, S., . . . National Geographic.
(2008). Earth Science: Geology, the Environment, and the Universe. Ohio: The
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
California Department of Conservation. (n.d.). What is Mine Reclamation? Retrieved from
California Department of Conservation:
https://www.conservation.ca.gov/dmr/SMARA%20Mines/reclamation
California Energy Commission. (n.d.). Retrieved from Types of Geothermal Powerplants:
https://ww2.energy.ca.gov/almanac/renewables_data/geothermal/types.html
Canales, M., Chwastyk, M., & Conant, E. (2020). National Geographic. Retrieved June 12,
2020, from https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2018/03/one-strange-
rock-interactive-earth-solar-system-milky-way-galaxy/
Carlson, D. H., Plummer, C. C., & Hammersley, L. (2011). Physical geology: earth revealed
(9th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hil.
Chapter 3: Basic soil conservation practices. (n.d.). Retrieved from Humanity Development
Library 2.0: http://www.nzdl.org/gsdlmod?e=d-00000-00---off-0hdl--00-0----0-10-
0---0---0direct-10---4-------0-1l--11-en-50---20-about---00-0-1-00-0--4----0-0-11-
10-0utfZz-8-00&cl=CL1.16&d=HASH412cd503b5262205ac14c6.5&gt=1
CK-12. (n.d.). CK-12 Earth Science For High School. Retrieved from
https://www.ck12.org/book/ck-12-earth-science-for-high-school/
Daan. (2019, February 20). Why Ploughing Is Such A Bad Idea. Retrieved from Data Driven
Investor: https://medium.com/datadriveninvestor/why-ploughing-is-such-a-bad-
idea-62956c17967c
Department of Energy. (2019). 2019 POWER SITUATION. Retrieved from
https://www.doe.gov.ph/sites/default/files/pdf/electric_power/2019-power-
situation-report.pdf
Elliott, S. F. (n.d.). Rock Crusher Jaws. Retrieved from
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/%20File:%20Rock_crusher_jaws.jpg
Energy Storage Association. (n.d.). Retrieved from Pumped Hydropower:
https://energystorage.org/why-energy-storage/technologies/pumped-hydropower/
Evan-Amos. (2017). Retrieved from https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Choc-Chip-
Cookie.png
Frank, D., Galloway, J., & Assmus, K. (n.d.). The Life Cycle of a Mineral Deposit—A
Teacher’s Guide. Retrieved from https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/2005/17/gip-17.pdf
Global Climate Change Vital Signs of the Planet. (2020, June 18). Retrieved June 26, 2020,
from https://climate.nasa.gov/causes/
Great Lakes ELectronics Corporation. (n.d.). What is E-waste? Definition and Why It’s
Important. Retrieved from Great Lakes ELectronics Corporation:
https://www.ewaste1.com/what-is-e-waste/
Greater London Authority. (n.d.). Road Runoff Water. London. Retrieved from
https://www.london.gov.uk/sites/default/files/road_runoff_water_quality_study_ex
ec_summary_dec_19_0.pdf
93
Huda, T. (2017, August 17). 6 ways people waste water without realising it. Retrieved from
Dhaka Tribune: https://www.dhakatribune.com/magazine/weekend-
tribune/2017/08/17/6-ways-people-waste-water-without-
realising#:~:text=One%20of%20the%20most%20common,and%20one%20with%20s
oapy%20water.
(2001).Improved cowpea-sorghum strip cropping system. International Institute of Tropical
Agriculture. Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/iita-media-
library/5059537723
InterFocus. (2020, November 7). A Visual Guide to Science Safety Symbols in a Laboratory.
Retrieved from InterFocus: https://www.mynewlab.com/blog/a-visual-guide-to-
science-safety-symbols-in-a-laboratory/
Janothird~commonswiki. (n.d.). Gold panning at Bonanza Creek. Retrieved from
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Gold_panning_at_Bonanza_Creek.JPG
Jones, B. (2006). Windbreak trees at Methwold Common. Geograph. Retrieved from
https://www.geograph.org.uk/photo/417646
Knight, J. (2002). Science of Everyday Things (Vol. 4). (N. Schlager, Ed.) MI: Gale.
Lee, K. (2018, April 23). What Are the Effects of Non-Biodegradable Waste? Retrieved from
Sciencing: https://sciencing.com/effects-nonbiodegradable-waste-8452084.html
Lichinga. (2016). My beautiful picture. Retrieved from
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Overgrazing-Rukwa.JPG
Lindsey, R. (2020, August 14). Climate Change: Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide. Retrieved from
NOAA Climate.gov: https://www.climate.gov/news-features/understanding-
climate/climate-change-atmospheric-carbon-dioxide
Lone Star College. (n.d.). About Hazardous and Non-Hazardous Waste. Retrieved from Lone
Star College: https://www.lonestar.edu/16715.htm
ManuRoquette. (2019). Retrieved from https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:PlacerEN-
01.png
Marbot. (2008). Retrieved from
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Slabs_of_granite_(Berlin_2008).jpg
Marshak, S., & Rauber, R. (2017). Earth science : the Earth, the atmosphere, and space (1st
ed.). New York: W.W. Norton & Company.
McConnell, D., Steer, D., Knight, C., Owens, K., & Park, L. (2008). The Good Earth:
Introduction to Earth Science. New York: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Millati, R., Cahyono, R., Ariyanto, T., Azzahrani, I., Putri, R., & Taherzadeh, M. J. (2019).
Agricultural, Industrial, Municipal, and Forest Waste: An Overview. Sustainable
Resource Recovery and Zero Waste Approaches, 1-22. doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-
64200-4.00001-3
Mock, J. (2020, January 12). Microplastics are Everywhere, But Their Health Effects on
Humans are Still Unclear. Retrieved from Discover Magazine :
https://www.discovermagazine.com/health/microplastics-are-everywhere-but-their-
health-effects-on-humans-are-still
NASA Science SOLAR SYSTEM EXPLORATION. (n.d.). Retrieved June 12, 2020, from
https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/overview/
NASA Science SOLAR SYSTEM EXPLORATION. (n.d.). Retrieved June 12, 2020, from
https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/solar-system/sun/in-depth/
Nasjonal Digital Laeringsarena. (n.d.). Marine plastics. Retrieved from Nasjonal Digital
Laeringsarena: https://ndla.no/nb/subjects/subject:d1fe9d0a-a54d-49db-a4c2-
fd5463a7c9e7/topic:1b1d4851-160a-482c-950f-7c9708b0a5b3/resource:f721bdda-
545f-48fa-adc9-290e05b571d4?filters=urn:filter:7ab1cc5c-4f79-4bb4-b1ab-
bef7c41aed66
National Geographic. (n.d.). Thirsty Food: Fueling Agriculture to Fuel Humans. Retrieved from
National Geographic:
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/freshwater/food/
Nienetwiler. (n.d.). Goldwaschrinne. Retrieved from
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Goldwaschrinne.jpg
Panchuk, K. (2015). Hematite streak plate. Retrieved from
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hematite_streak_plate.jpg
Peabody Energy, Inc. (2014). Coal Mine Land Reclamation. Peabody Energy, Inc.;. Retrieved
from https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Coal_Mine_Land_Reclamation.png
94
Pennsylvania Conservative Partnership. (n.d.). A conservation catalog: Practices for the
conservation pf Pennsylvania's natural resources. Pennsylvania, USA. Retrieved
from https://www.chesco.org/DocumentCenter/View/6536/A-Conservation-
Catalog?bidId=
Pepper, S. (2017, January 31). Riddles For Kids. Retrieved July 13, 2020, from
https://riddles-for-kids.org/salt-riddles/
pixy.org. (n.d.). SOIL LAYERS DIAGRAM WORKSHEET. Retrieved from
https://pixy.org/654947/
Pollution of Lakes and Streams. (n.d.). Retrieved from Water Encyclopedia:
http://www.waterencyclopedia.com/Oc-Po/Pollution-of-Lakes-and-Streams.html
Pollution of Streams by Garbage and Trash. (n.d.). Retrieved from Water Encyclopedia:
http://www.waterencyclopedia.com/Oc-Po/Pollution-of-Streams-by-Garbage-and-
Trash.html
Ritchie, H., & Roser, M. (2018, July). Water Use and Stress. Retrieved from Our World in
Data: https://ourworldindata.org/water-use-stress
Safari , A., Kavian, A., & Parsakhoo, A. (2013). Assessment of effect of road or road
construction on soil physical and chemical. International journal of Advanced
Biological and Biomedical Research, 1(8), 844-845. Retrieved from
http://www.ijabbr.com/pdf_7818_07baa6b4595ac81204cec686a604624a.html
SaveOnEnergy. (n.d.). Retrieved from How Geothermal Energy Works:
https://www.saveonenergy.com/how-geothermal-energy-works/
Schiffman, R. (2017, May 3). Why It’s Time to Stop Punishing Our Soils with Fertilizers.
Retrieved from YaleEnvironment360: https://e360.yale.edu/features/why-its-time-
to-stop-punishing-our-soils-with-fertilizers-and-chemicals
Simms, A. (2012, March 1). Farming and energy: lessons from collapsed civilisations.
Retrieved from The Guardian:
https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2012/mar/01/lessons-history-
collapsed-civilisations
Smith, K. (n.d.). The Perils of Over-Fertilizing Plants and Trees. Retrieved from
http://mgeldorado.ucanr.edu/files/170168.pdf
SOIL CONSERVATION. (n.d.). Retrieved from Soil and Water Conservation, Johnston
County, North Carolina:
https://www.johnstonnc.com/swc/content.cfm?pageid=wisc
Spekking, R. (2009). Crocidolite (blue asbestos), variety of Riebeckite. Mineralogical Museum,
Bonn, Germany. Retrieved from
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Krokydolith_-
_Mineralogisches_Museum_Bonn_(7385).jpg
St. John, J. (2010). Gold nugget (Australia) 4. Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago,
Illinois, USA. Retrieved from
https://www.flickr.com/photos/47445767@N05/16848647509
St. John, J. (2011). Galena 4. Retrieved from
St. John, J. (2011). Muscovite mica 1. Retrieved from
St. John, J. (2012). Hematite-quartz meta-iron formation (Paleoproterozoic; Hayward West
Hilltop roadcut, southern side of Rt. 40, about 1.35 road miles WNW of the town of
Hayward, eastern Black Hills, western South Dakota, USA). Retrieved from
St. John, J. (2013). Bituminous coal (5.5 cm across). Retrieved from
St. John, J. (2013). Coquina (Anastasia Formation, Upper Pleistocene to lower Holocene;
Florida, USA). Retrieved from
St. John, J. (2013). Siltstone. Retrieved from
St. John, J. (2014). Hydrothermal quartz-gold vein (Mother Lode Gold Ore, California) 1.
Retrieved from
95
St. John, J. (2015). Black slate with original shale bedding. Retrieved from
St. John, J. (2015). Breccia. Retrieved from
St. John, J. (2015). Copper (Mesoproterozoic, 1.05-1.06 Ga; copper mine in the Upper
Peninsula of Michigan, USA) 3. Retrieved from
St. John, J. (2015). Graphite schist. Retrieved from
St. John, J. (2015). Gray Shale. Retrieved from
St. John, J. (2015). Jaspilite banded iron formation (Soudan Iron-Formation, Neoarchean,
~2.722 Ga; Stuntz Bay Road outcrop, Soudan Underground State Park, Soudan,
Minnesota, USA) 28. Retrieved from
St. John, J. (2015). Marble (Murphy Marble, Ordovician; quarry near Tate, Georgia, USA).
Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/jsjgeology/16268833583
St. John, J. (2015). Pisolitic bauxite 2. Retrieved from
St. John, J. (2015). Quartzite 4. Retrieved from
St. John, J. (2015). Rock gypsum (gyprock) 2. Retrieved from
St. John, J. (2015). Rock gypsum (gyprock) 2. Retrieved from
St. John, J. (2015). Sandstone. Retrieved from
St. John, J. (2016). Gneiss (Joshimath Formation, Proterozoic; outcrop at Joshimath,
Uttarakhand State, Indian Himalayas) 1. Retrieved from
St. John, J. (2017). Magnetite rock (Biwabik Iron-Formation, Paleoproterozoic, ~1.878 Ga;
Thunderbird Mine, Mesabi Iron Range, Minnesota, USA) 2. Retrieved from
St. John, J. (2017). Potassium feldspar. Retrieved from
St. John, J. (2017). Rock salt (halitite) (Billianwala Salt Member, Salt Range Formation,
Ediacaran to Lower Cambrian; Khewra Salt Mine, Salt Range, Pakistan) 11. Retrieved
from https://www.flickr.com/photos/jsjgeology/33275221442
St. John, J. (2018). Phyllite (French Slate, Paleoproterozoic; Snowy Range Road roadcut,
Medicine Bow Mountains, Wyoming, USA) 10. Retrieved from
96
For inquiries or feedback, please write or call:
Department of Education – Schools Division Office Navotas

Learning Resource Management Section
Bagumbayan Elementary School Compound

M, Naval St., Sipac Almacen, Navotas City
Telefax: 02-8332-77-64
Email Address: [email protected]

SDO Navotas EarthSci SHS1st2ndSem - FV

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

SDO Navotas EarthSci SHS1st2ndSem - FV

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

SDO Navotas EarthSci SHS1st2ndSem - FV

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

DIVISION OF NAVOTAS CITY

Published by the Department of Education

Development Team of the Module

Inilimbag sa Pilipinas ng ________________________

Department of Education – Navotas City

What I Know ................................................................................56

Answer Key ..................................................................................90

2. Some methods of identifying minerals could be destructive to the mineral. Which of

3. What type of rock would be plausibly seen in a magmatic mineral deposit?

6. The type of water used and reused by geothermal powerplants is:

7. A powerplant that uses moving water to power a turbine is called:

Lesson The Characteristics of Earth

Characteristics that Make Earth Habitable

1. The Sun is an average sized star

Activity 1: What if?

Earth as a whole system

Activity 1: Label the Subsystem

1. Crystal Shape or Habit

Activity 1: Mineral or Not?

The Types of Rocks

Figure 2: Coarse grained clastic rocks

Figure 3: Sandstone Figure 4: Siltstone Figure 5: Shale

Figure 6: Rock Salt Figure 7: Rock Gypsum

Figure 8: Coquina: A variety of Limestone Figure 9: Bituminous Coal

As discussed above, rocks can change in form

Figure 14: Simplified and idealized rock cycle diagram

Activity 1: Guess the rock!

Minerals in Everyday Life

The concentration of a valuable metal in a rock determines the grade of an ore.

Minerals that were formed from cooled magma

Figure 7: Simplified diagram of a formation of

• Sedimentary ore deposits

b. Non-Metallic Mineral Resources

• Crushed Stone and Concrete

• Bricks, glass, and drywall

Activity 1: Modified TRUE or FALSE

Activity 6: Kitchen Rocks!

The Stages of Mining Mineral Resources

Figure 2: Simplified diagram of an open pit mine

Figure 3: Open pit mines

As the name suggests, strip mining is

Figure 4: Simplified diagram of a strip mine

Figure 5: Gold Panning

When a concentrated and abundant ore deposit is

3. Milling and Separation

Activity 1: Answer these questions of Mine

4. How is density as an intrinsic property of matter taken advantage in the separation

Figure 1: Coal, a sedimentary

b. Oil/Petroleum and Natural Gas

Table 1: Properties of Coal at Different Stages

Formation of Oil and Natural Gas Reserves

If these oil and gas

• Oil Shale and Shale Oil

Activity 1: Let’s go back in time!

2. Formation of Oil and Natural Gas

Making a concept map

Lesson Hydroelectric and Geothermal

Hydroelectric Power Generation

Figure 1: A simplified diagram of a hydroelectric powerplant