Topic 4

Workplace Emotions,
Attitudes, and Stress
Special Semester 2023/2024

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7/29/2024

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 Learning Objectives

4.1 Explain how emotions influence

attitudes and behaviour
4.2 Discuss the dynamics of emotional
labour and the role of emotional
intelligence in the workplace
4.3 Summarise the consequences of job
dissatisfaction, as well as strategies to
increase organisational (affective)
commitment
4.4 Describe the stress experience and
review three major stressors and
ways to manage workplace stress

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4.1 Explain how emotions influence
attitudes and behaviour

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 Emotions Defined
• Emotions are physiological, behavioral, and
psychological episodes experienced toward an object,
person, or event that create a state of readiness.
• Emotions are directed toward someone or
something.
• For example, we experience joy, fear, anger, and
other emotional episodes toward tasks, customers,
or a software program we are using.
• Emotions are experiences. They represent changes
in our physiological state (e.g., blood pressure,
heart rate), psychological state (e.g., thought
process), and behavior (e.g., facial expression).

Emotions influence almost everything we do in the workplace.

Most OB theories still assume that a person’s thoughts and actions are
governed primarily or exclusively by logical thinking (called cognition) Yet
groundbreaking neuroscience discoveries have revealed that our perceptions,
attitudes, decisions, and behavior are influenced by emotions as well as
cognitions

In fact, emotions may have a greater influence because they often occur
before cognitive processes and, consequently, influence the latter.

Emotions are physiological, behavioral, and psychological episodes

experienced toward an object, person, or event that create a state of
readiness. Emotions are directed toward someone or something.

For example, we experience joy, fear, anger, and other emotional

episodes toward tasks, customers, or a software program we are using.
This differs from moods, which are not directed toward anything in
particular and tend to be longer-term emotional states

Emotions are experiences. They represent changes in our physiological state

(e.g., blood pressure, heart rate), psychological state (e.g., thought process),

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and behaviour (e.g., facial expression).

Video clip:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pvLeOEulq-c.
Points for discussion:
How did it make them feel? Discuss their emotions towards the child, his mother,
smoking, the people behind this commercial etc.

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 Types of Emotions - Circumplex model of
emotion by James Russell (1980)

One feature is that all emotions have an associated valence (called core
affect) signaling that the perceived object or event should be approached or
avoided.

In other words, all emotions evaluate environmental conditions as good or

bad, helpful or harmful, positive or negative, and so forth.

Negative emotions tend to generate stronger levels of activation than do

positive emotions.

Fear and anger, for instance, are more intense experiences than are joy and
delight, so they have a stronger effect on our actions. This valence asymmetry
likely occurs because negative emotions protect us from harm and are
therefore more critical for our survival.

The second feature of all emotions is their level of activation. By definition,

emotions put us in a state of readiness and, (as we discuss in the next
chapter), are the primary source of individual motivation.

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 Types of Emotions - Circumplex model of
emotion by James Russell (1980)

Emotions have two common features:

1. One feature is that all emotions have an associated valence (called
core affect) signaling that the perceived object or event should be
approached or avoided. In other words, all emotions evaluate
environmental conditions as good or bad, helpful or harmful, positive
or negative, and so forth. Negative emotions tend to generate
stronger levels of activation than do positive emotions. Fear and
anger, for instance, are more intense experiences than are joy and
delight, so they have a stronger effect on our actions. Negative
emotions protect us from harm and are therefore more critical for our
survival.

One feature is that all emotions have an associated valence (called core
affect) signaling that the perceived object or event should be approached or
avoided.

In other words, all emotions evaluate environmental conditions as good or

bad, helpful or harmful, positive or negative, and so forth.

Negative emotions tend to generate stronger levels of activation than do

positive emotions.

Fear and anger, for instance, are more intense experiences than are joy and
delight, so they have a stronger effect on our actions. This valence asymmetry
likely occurs because negative emotions protect us from harm and are
therefore more critical for our survival.

The second feature of all emotions is their level of activation. By definition,

emotions put us in a state of readiness and, (as we discuss in the next
chapter), are the primary source of individual motivation.

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 Types of Emotions - Circumplex model of
emotion by James Russell (1980)

2. The second feature of all emotions is their level of activation. By

definition, emotions put us in a state of readiness and are the primary
source of individual motivation. Some emotional experiences, such as
when we are suddenly surprised, are strong enough to consciously
motivate us to act without careful thought.

One feature is that all emotions have an associated valence (called core
affect) signaling that the perceived object or event should be approached or
avoided.

In other words, all emotions evaluate environmental conditions as good or

bad, helpful or harmful, positive or negative, and so forth.

Negative emotions tend to generate stronger levels of activation than do

positive emotions.

Fear and anger, for instance, are more intense experiences than are joy and
delight, so they have a stronger effect on our actions. This valence asymmetry
likely occurs because negative emotions protect us from harm and are
therefore more critical for our survival.

The second feature of all emotions is their level of activation. By definition,

emotions put us in a state of readiness and, (as we discuss in the next
chapter), are the primary source of individual motivation.

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Basics
emotions
• During the 1970s,
psychologist Paul
Eckman identified six
basic emotions that
he suggested were
universally
experienced in all
human cultures.
• The emotions he
identified were
happiness, sadness,
disgust, fear,
surprise, and anger.

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 To understand how emotions influence our thoughts and behavior in
the workplace, we first need to know about attitudes.

Attitudes represent the cluster of beliefs, assessed feelings, and

behavioral intentions toward a person, object, or event (called an
attitude object).

An attitude object is any object that a person develops a judgment or

Attitudes
feelings about. An attitude object may include people, places, food,
ideas, etc. Examples of an attitude object include China, pizza, gun
laws, the president of The United States, and methods to discipline a
child.
Attitudes are judgments, whereas emotions are experiences.

Another distinction is that we experience most emotions very briefly,

whereas our attitude toward someone or something is more stable
over time.

To understand how emotions influence our thoughts and behavior in the

workplace, we first need to know about attitudes.

Attitudes represent the cluster of beliefs, assessed feelings, and behavioral

intentions toward a person, object, or event (called an attitude object).

Attitudes are judgments, whereas emotions are experiences.

In other words, attitudes involve evaluations of an attitude object, whereas

emotions operate as events, usually without our awareness.

We experience most emotions very briefly, whereas our attitude toward

someone or something is more stable over time.

Until recently, experts believed that attitudes could be understood just by

the three cognitive components: beliefs, feelings, and behavioral intentions.
Now evidence suggests that a parallel emotional process is also at work

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Points for discussion:
If your boss called an urgent meeting with you in your office, how would you feel
about it?
It will depend on your beliefs (do you believe you may be dismissed?), feelings (do
you like this boss?) and behavioural intentions (of yourself and others) as well as on
your past experiences.

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 • Experts believed that attitudes could be
understood just by the three cognitive
components:
• Beliefs: these are your established
perceptions about the attitude object—
what you believe to be true.
• Feelings: represent positive or negative
evaluations of the attitude
object. E.g. some people think mergers are
Attitudes good; others think they are bad.
• Behavioural intentions: Behavioral
intentions represent your motivation to
engage in a particular behavior regarding
the attitude object. E.g. Upon hearing that
the company will merge with another
organization you might become motivated
to look for a job elsewhere or possibly to
complain to management about the
merger decision.

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 Attitudes: From Beliefs to Behaviour

To understand how emotions influence our thoughts and behavior in the

workplace, we first need to know about attitudes.

Attitudes represent the cluster of beliefs, assessed feelings, and behavioral

intentions toward a person, object, or event (called an attitude object).

Attitudes are judgments, whereas emotions are experiences.

In other words, attitudes involve evaluations of an attitude object, whereas

emotions operate as events, usually without our awareness.

We experience most emotions very briefly, whereas our attitude toward

someone or something is more stable over time.

Until recently, experts believed that attitudes could be understood just by

the three cognitive components: beliefs, feelings, and behavioral intentions.
Now evidence suggests that a parallel emotional process is also at work

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Points for discussion:
If your boss called an urgent meeting with you in your office, how would you feel
about it?
It will depend on your beliefs (do you believe you may be dismissed?), feelings (do
you like this boss?) and behavioural intentions (of yourself and others) as well as on
your past experiences.

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 4.2 Discuss the dynamics of
emotional labour and the role of
emotional intelligence in the
workplace

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 Managing Emotions at Work - Emotional
Labour Defined

• Emotional labor is the process of managing feelings and expressions

to fulfill the emotional requirements of a job.
• People are expected to manage their emotions in the workplace. They
must conceal their frustration when serving an irritating customer,
display compassion to an ill patient, and hide their boredom in a long
meeting with other executives. These are all forms of emotional labor.
• Emotional labour is higher when the job requires:
• Frequent and long duration display of emotions
• Displaying a variety of emotions
• Displaying more intense emotions

People are expected to manage their emotions in the workplace. They must
conceal their frustration when serving an irritating customer, display
compassion to an ill patient, and hide their boredom in a long meeting with
other executives. These are all forms of emotional labor

Emotional labor is the the effort, planning, and control needed to express
organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions.

Emotional labor demands are higher in jobs requiring a variety of emotions

(e.g., anger as well as joy) and more intense emotions (e.g., showing delight
rather than smiling weakly), as well as in jobs where interaction with clients is
frequent and longer.

This work requirement is most common in service industries, where

employees have frequent face-to-face interaction with clients

Points for discussion:

Ask students about an experience of having to hide their ‘real’ emotions in the
workplace. What happened? How did that make them feel?

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 Emotional Intelligence (EI)
The University of South Florida (USF) College of Medicine discovered from surveys that its
graduates required emotional intelligence training to perform their jobs better.
Emotional intelligence includes a set of abilities that enable us to recognize and regulate
our own emotions as well as the emotions of other people.
This definition refers to the four main dimensions:
i. Awareness of our own emotions: This is the ability to perceive and understand the
meaning of our own emotions. People with higher emotional intelligence have better
awareness of their emotions and are better able to make sense of them.
ii. Management of our own emotions: Emotional intelligence includes the ability to manage
our own emotions, something that we all do to some extent. We keep disruptive impulses in
check. We try not to feel angry or frustrated when events go against us.
iii. Awareness of others’ emotions: This is the ability to perceive and understand the
emotions of other people. It relates to empathy—having an understanding of and sensitivity
to the feelings, thoughts, and situations of others.
iv. Management of others’ emotions: This dimension of EI refers to managing other people’s
emotions. It includes consoling people who feel sad, emotionally inspiring team members to
complete a class project on time, getting strangers to feel comfortable working with you.

Surveys identified that graduates required emotional intelligence training to

perform their jobs better.

Some top organizations are conducting “coaching and role modelling” for
this purpose in order to help their staffs to develop their ability to understand
and manage emotions, and hence to possess higher Emotional Intelligence
(EI).

Being emotionally intelligent, collaborative and ability to perform

interdisciplinary team practicing is a pre-requisite qualification to be accepted
to work in prestigious organization nowadays and many organizations have
embraced the idea that EI improves performance in many types of jobs.

Emotional intelligence includes a set of abilities that enable us to recognize

and regulate our own emotions as well as the emotions of other people. This
definition refers to the four main dimensions shown in diagram in the
following slide.

Video clip:
Daniel Goldman discusses EI at
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wJhfKYzKc0s.

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 Model of Emotional Intelligence
Highest Relationship
Managing other people’s emotions
management

Perceiving and understanding the

Social awareness
meaning of others’ emotions

Self-management Managing our own emotions

Perceiving and understanding the

Self-awareness
Lowest meaning of your own emotions

The four dimensions of emotional intelligence form a hierarchy.

Awareness of your own emotions is lowest because you need awareness to

engage in the higher levels of emotional intelligence. You can’t manage your
own emotions if you don’t know what they are (i.e., low self-awareness).

Managing other people’s emotions is the highest level of EI because this

ability requires awareness of your own and others’ emotions. To diffuse an
angry conflict between two employees, for example, you need to understand
the emotions they are experiencing and manage your emotions (and display
of emotions). To manage your own emotions, you also need to be aware of
your current emotion

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 Improving
Emotional
Intelligence

• EI now becomes a selection

criteria
• Can be learned, especially
through coaching
• EI increases with age and
maturity

A consensus is slowly emerging around the meaning of EI, and there is

considerable research suggesting that this concept does seem to predict
behavior and performance in social settings.

People with high EI are more effective team members, perform better in jobs
requiring emotional labor, make better decisions involving other people,
and maintain a more positive mindset for creative work.

EI is also associated with effective leadership because leaders engage in

emotional labor (e.g., showing patience to employees even when they might
feel frustrated) as well as regulating the emotions of others (e.g., helping staff
members feel optimism for the future even though they just lost an important
contract).

However, emotional intelligence does not improve some forms of

performance, such as tasks that require minimal social interaction.

Given the potential value of emotional intelligence, it’s not surprising that
some organizations try to measure this ability in job applicants

For instance, the United States Air Force (USAF) considers the emotional
intelligence of applicants into its elite pararescue jumper training program

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because high EI trainees are more than twice as likely to complete the program.

Several organizations have also introduced training programs to improve employees’

emotional intelligence. These programs usually teach participants about the concept,
test their EI when the program begins, and provide ongoing feedback about how well
they understand and manage others’ emotions.

Emotional intelligence also increases with age; it is part of the process called
maturity.

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4.3 Summarise the consequences of
job dissatisfaction, as well as
strategies to increase organisational
(affective) commitment

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 • Job satisfaction is a crucial aspect of
organizational behavior. It is an important
indicator of employee well-being and can have
significant implications for their performance,
productivity, and organizational outcomes.
• Job satisfaction refers to the degree of
pleasure or happiness that an individual feels
in their job. This can be influenced by a variety
of factors, such as the nature of the work itself,
Job Satisfaction the work environment, the company's culture,
and the employee's relationships with their co-
workers.
• Job satisfaction is best viewed as a collection
of attitudes about different aspects of the job
and work context. You might like your
coworkers but be less satisfied with your
workload, for instance.

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 Job
Satisfaction
• Global surveys, such as the one
shown in Exhibit 4.4, indicate
with some consistency that job
satisfaction tends to be highest
in India, the United States, and
some Nordic countries (such as
Norway and Denmark). The
lowest levels of overall job
satisfaction are usually recorded
in Hungary and several Asian
countries (e.g., Japan, Hong
Kong).

Probably the most studied attitude in organizational behavior is job

satisfaction, a person’s evaluation of his or her job and work context. It is an
appraisal of the perceived job characteristics, work environment, and
emotional experiences at work.

Job satisfaction is best viewed as a collection of attitudes about different

aspects of the job and work context.

Global surveys, such as the one shown on the slide, indicate that job
satisfaction tends to be highest in India, the United States, and some Nordic
countries (such as Norway and Denmark). The lowest levels of overall job
satisfaction are usually recorded in Hungary and several Asian countries (e.g.,
Japan, Hong Kong).

One problem is that surveys often use a single direct question, such as “How
satisfied are you with your job?” Many dissatisfied employees are reluctant
to reveal their feelings in a direct question because this is tantamount (equal
to) to admitting that they made a poor job choice and are not enjoying life.

A second problem is that cultural values make it difficult to compare job

satisfaction across countries. People in China and Japan tend to subdue their
emotions in public, and there is evidence that they also avoid extreme survey

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ratings such as “very satisfied.

A third problem is that job satisfaction changes with economic conditions.

Employees with the highest job satisfaction in current surveys tend to be in countries
where the economies are chugging along quite well.

Teaching note:
We may be satisfied with some facets of the job but not with others. Herzberg
explained which factors can lead to job satisfaction and which factors can lead to job
dissatisfaction. The most important factors in creating job satisfaction are not the pay
or the corner office, but the work itself (is it meaningful?) and the relationship with
peers.

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Job satisfation and work behaviour
• One of the most important organizational behavior questions is to what
degree job satisfaction influences behavior in the workplace.
• The general answer is that job satisfaction has a considerable effect on
employee behavior. However, a more precise answer is that the effect of job
satisfaction and dissatisfaction on individual behavior depends on the person
and the situation.
• A useful template for organizing and understanding the consequences of
job dissatisfaction is the exit–voice–loyalty–neglect (EVLN) model.

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 EVLN: Responses to Dissatisfaction

• Leaving the situation

Exit • Quitting, transferring

• Changing the situation

Voice • Problem solving, complaining

• Patiently waiting for the

Loyalty situation to improve

• Reducing work effort/quality

Neglect • Increasing absenteeism

One of the most important organizational behavior questions is to what

degree job satisfaction influences behavior in the workplace. The general
answer is that job satisfaction has a considerable effect on employee
behavior.

A useful template for organizing and understanding the consequences of job

dissatisfaction is the exit–voice–loyalty–neglect (EVLN) model. It identifies
four ways that employees respond to dissatisfaction.

Exit includes leaving the organization, transferring to another work unit, or

at least trying to get away from the dissatisfying situation. The traditional
theory is that job dissatisfaction builds over time and is eventually strong
enough to motivate employees to search for better work opportunities
elsewhere. This is likely true to some extent, but the most recent opinion is
that specific “shock events” quickly energize employees to think about and
engage in exit behavior.

Voice is any attempt to change, rather than escape from, the dissatisfying
situation. Voice can be a constructive response, such as recommending ways
for management to improve the situation, or it can be more confrontational,
such as filing formal grievances or forming a coalition to oppose a decision. In
the extreme, some employees might engage in counterproductive behaviors

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to get attention and force changes in the organization.

“Loyalists” are employees who respond to dissatisfaction by patiently waiting—

some say they “suffer in silence”—for the problem to work itself out or be resolved
by others

Neglect includes reducing work effort, paying less attention to quality, and
increasing absenteeism and lateness. It is generally considered a passive activity that
has negative consequences for the organization.

How employees respond to job dissatisfaction depends on the person and situation.
The individual’s personality, values, and self-concept are important factors.

For example, people with a high-conscientiousness personality are less likely

to engage in neglect and more likely to engage in voice. Past experience also
influences which EVLN action is applied. Employees who were unsuccessful
with voice in the past are more likely to engage in exit or neglect when
experiencing job dissatisfaction in the future. Another factor is loyalty, as it
was originally intended in the EVLN model. Specifically, employees are more
likely to quit when they have low loyalty to the company, and they are more
likely to engage in voice when they have high loyalty. Finally, the response to
dissatisfaction depends on the situation. Employees are less likely to use the
exit option when there are few alternative job prospects, for example.
Dissatisfied employees are more likely to use voice than the other options
when they are aware that other employees are dependent on them.

Teaching note:
Job satisfaction or lack of it can have a strong impact on the organisation and the
employees and result in these actions (exit, voice, loyalty, neglect).
Assuring the wellbeing of employees is the right thing to do and is also important for
the financial bottom line.

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 Job Satisfaction and Performance
• Is a happy worker a more productive worker? The “happy worker” hypothesis is
generally true, according to major reviews of the research on this subject.
• Why does job satisfaction affect employee performance only to some extent?
i. One reason is that general attitudes such as job satisfaction don’t predict
specific behaviors very well.
ii. Higher performers tend to have higher satisfaction because they receive more
rewards and recognition than do low-performing employees. The connection
between job satisfaction and performance isn’t stronger because many
organizations do not reward good performance very well.
iii. Some employees have little control over their performance because their work
effort is paced by work technology or interdependence with coworkers in the
production process. An assembly-line worker, for instance, installs a fixed number
of windshields each hour with about the same quality of installation whether he or
she has high or low job satisfaction.

Is a happy worker a more productive worker? Some have said that “happy
employees result in happier customers and higher sales”.

The “happy worker” hypothesis is generally true, according to major reviews

of the research on this subject. In other words, there is a moderately positive
relationship between job satisfaction and performance.

Workers tend to be more productive to some extent when they have more
positive attitudes toward their job and workplace.

Why does job satisfaction affect employee performance only to some extent?

• One reason is that general attitudes (such as job satisfaction) don’t predict
specific behaviors very well. As the EVLN model explained, reduced
performance (a form of neglect) is only one of four possible responses to
dissatisfaction.

• A second reason is that some employees have little control over their
performance because their work effort is paced by work technology or
interdependence with coworkers in the production process. An assembly-
line worker, for instance, installs a fixed number of windshields each hour
with about the same quality of installation whether he or she has high or

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 low job satisfaction.

• A third consideration is that job performance might cause job satisfaction, rather
than vice versa. Higher performers tend to have higher satisfaction because they
receive more rewards and recognition than do low-performing employees. The
connection between job satisfaction and performance isn’t stronger because
many organizations do not reward good performance very well.

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 Organisational Commitment
• Organizational commitment represents the
other half (with job satisfaction) of what some
experts call “overall job attitude.”
• Affective organizational commitment is the
employee’s emotional attachment to,
involvement in, and identification with an
organization. Affective commitment is a
psychological bond whereby one chooses to be
dedicated to and responsible for the
organization.
• Affective commitment differs from
continuance commitment, which is a
calculative attachment to the organization: e.g.
employee has no alternative employment
opportunities/leaving the company would be a
significant financial sacrifice

Affective organizational commitment is the employee’s emotional

attachment to, involvement in, and identification with an organization.
Affective commitment is a psychological bond whereby one chooses to be
dedicated to and responsible for the organization.

Affective commitment differs from continuance commitment, which is a

calculative attachment to the organization. This calculation takes two forms:

• One form occurs where an employee has no alternative

employment opportunities

• The other form of continuance commitment occurs where leaving

the company would be a significant financial sacrifice

Pre-lesson activity:
Exercise 4.4. University commitment scale: http://www.mcgraw-
hill.com.au/mcshane/selfassess.html.

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 Consequences of Affective
and Continuance
Commitment

• Organisational (affective) commitment can

affect retention, motivation, organisational
citizenship and job performance as well as
customer satisfaction. However, can lead to
conformity and less creativity
• Continuance commitment can be
dysfunctional and lead to lower
performance and less organisational
citizenship behaviours.

Affective commitment can be a significant competitive advantage. Employees

with a strong psychological connection with the organization are less likely to
quit their jobs and be absent from work.

They also have higher work motivation and organizational citizenship, as

well as somewhat higher job performance. Organizational commitment also
improves customer satisfaction because long-tenure employees have better
knowledge of work practices and because clients like to do business with the
same employees.

One problem is that employees with very high affective commitment tend to
have high conformity, which results in lower creativity. Another problem is
that these employees are motivated to defend the organization, even if it
involves illegal activity. However, most companies suffer from too little rather
than too much affective commitment.

In contrast, employees with high levels of continuance commitment tend to

have lower performance and are less likely to engage in organizational
citizenship behaviors.

They are more likely to use formal grievances, whereas employees with high
affective commitment engage in more cooperative problem solving when

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employee–employer relations sour.

Employers still need to win employees’ hearts (affective commitment) beyond tying
them financially to the organization (continuance commitment)

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 Building (Affective) Commitment

• Apply humanitarian values

Justice/ support • Support employee wellbeing

• employees believe their values are

Shared
congruent with the organization’s dominant
values values.

• Employees trust org leaders

Trust
• Job security supports trust

how well employees understand the organization,

Organisational including its strategic direction, social dynamics, and
comprehension physical layout

Employee • Employees feel part of company

involvement • Involvement demonstrates trust

There are many ways to build and maintain affective commitment but the
most frequently mentioned strategies are the one shown on the slide:

Justice and support. Affective commitment is higher in organizations that

fulfill their obligations to employees and abide by humanitarian values such
as fairness, courtesy, forgiveness, and moral integrity. In other words,
organizations that support employee well-being tend to cultivate higher levels
of loyalty in return.

Shared values. The definition of affective commitment refers to a person’s

identification with the organization, and that identification is highest when
employees believe their values are congruent with the organization’s
dominant values. Employees also experience more positive emotions when
their personal values are aligned with corporate values and actions, which
increases their motivation to stay with the organization.

Trust. Trust refers to positive expectations one person has toward another
person in situations involving risk. Trust means putting faith in the other
person or group. It is also a reciprocal activity: To receive trust, you must
demonstrate trust. Employees identify with and feel obliged to work for an
organization only when they trust its leaders.

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Organizational comprehension. Organizational comprehension refers to how well
employees understand the organization, including its strategic direction, social
dynamics, and physical layout. This awareness is a necessary prerequisite to affective
commitment because it is difficult to identify with or feel loyal to something that you
don’t know very well. Furthermore, lack of information produces uncertainty, and the
resulting stress can distance employees from that source of uncertainty (i.e., the
organization).

Employee involvement. Employee involvement increases affective commitment by

strengthening the employee’s psychological ownership and social identity with the
organization. Employees feel part of the organization when they participate in
decisions that guide the organization’s future. Employee involvement also builds
loyalty because it demonstrates the company’s trust in its employees.

Organizational commitment and job satisfaction represent two of the most often
studied and discussed attitudes in the workplace.

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 4.4 Describe the stress experience and
review three major stressors and ways to
manage workplace stress

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 What is Stress?
• An adaptive response to a situation that is
perceived as challenging or threatening to the
person’s wellbeing.
• Stress is typically described as a negative
experience. This is known as distress—the
degree of physiological, psychological, and
behavioral deviation from healthy
functioning.
• However, some level and form of stress—
called eustress—is a necessary part of life
because it activates and motivates people to
achieve goals, change their environments, and
succeed in life’s challenges.

Stress is most often described as an adaptive response to a situation that is

perceived as challenging or threatening to the person’s well-being. It is a
physiological and psychological condition that prepares us to adapt to hostile
or noxious environmental conditions.

Stress is typically described as a negative experience. This is known as

distress—the degree of physiological, psychological, and behavioral deviation
from healthy functioning.

However, some level and form of stress—called eustress—is a necessary part

of life because it activates and motivates people to achieve goals, change their
environments, and succeed in life’s challenges.

Our focus in OB context is on the causes and management of distress,

because it has become a chronic problem in many societies

Exercise:
You can ask a student to solve a puzzle in under one minute, and keep
pressuring them to demonstrate performance under stress. Discuss with the
class the relation between stress and performance.

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 General Adaptation Syndrome Theory

The word stress was first used more than 500 years ago to describe the
human response to harsh environmental conditions. However, it wasn’t until
the 1930s that researcher Hans Selye (often described as the “father” of
stress research) first documented the stress experience, called the general
adaptation syndrome.

Selye determined that people have a fairly consistent and automatic

physiological response to stressful situations, which helps them cope with
environmental demands.

The general adaptation syndrome consists of the three stages.

The alarm reaction stage occurs when a threat or challenge activates
the physiological stress responses that were noted above. The
individual’s energy level and coping effectiveness decrease in response
to the initial shock.

The second stage, resistance, activates various biochemical,

psychological, and behavioral mechanisms that give the individual
more energy and engage coping mechanisms to overcome or remove
the source of stress. To focus energy on the source of the stress, the
body reduces resources to the immune system during this stage. This

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explains why people are more likely to catch a cold or some other illness
when they experience prolonged stress.

People have a limited resistance capacity, and if the source of stress persists,
the individual will eventually move into the third stage, exhaustion. Most of
us are able to remove the source of stress or remove ourselves from that
source before becoming too exhausted. However, people who frequently
reach exhaustion have increased risk of long-term physiological and
psychological damage.

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 General Adaptation Syndrome Theory
The general adaptation syndrome consists of the three stages.
The alarm reaction stage occurs when a threat or challenge activates the physiological stress
responses that were noted above. The individual’s energy level and coping effectiveness
decrease in response to the initial shock.

The second stage, resistance, activates various biochemical, psychological, and behavioral
mechanisms that give the individual more energy and engage coping mechanisms to
overcome or remove the source of stress. To focus energy on the source of the stress, the
body reduces resources to the immune system during this stage. This explains why people
are more likely to catch a cold or some other illness when they experience prolonged stress.

People have a limited resistance capacity, and if the source of stress persists, the individual
will eventually move into the third stage, exhaustion. Most of us are able to remove the
source of stress or remove ourselves from that source before becoming too exhausted.
However, people who frequently reach exhaustion have increased risk of long-term
physiological and psychological damage.

The word stress was first used more than 500 years ago to describe the
human response to harsh environmental conditions. However, it wasn’t until
the 1930s that researcher Hans Selye (often described as the “father” of
stress research) first documented the stress experience, called the general
adaptation syndrome.

Selye determined that people have a fairly consistent and automatic

physiological response to stressful situations, which helps them cope with
environmental demands.

The general adaptation syndrome consists of the three stages.

The alarm reaction stage occurs when a threat or challenge activates
the physiological stress responses that were noted above. The
individual’s energy level and coping effectiveness decrease in response
to the initial shock.

The second stage, resistance, activates various biochemical,

psychological, and behavioral mechanisms that give the individual
more energy and engage coping mechanisms to overcome or remove
the source of stress. To focus energy on the source of the stress, the
body reduces resources to the immune system during this stage. This

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explains why people are more likely to catch a cold or some other illness
when they experience prolonged stress.

People have a limited resistance capacity, and if the source of stress persists,
the individual will eventually move into the third stage, exhaustion. Most of
us are able to remove the source of stress or remove ourselves from that
source before becoming too exhausted. However, people who frequently
reach exhaustion have increased risk of long-term physiological and
psychological damage.

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 Consequences of Distress

Cardiovascular disease, hypertension,

Physiological headaches

Work performance, accidents, absenteeism,

Behavioural
aggression, poor decisions

Dissatisfaction, moodiness, depression,

Psychological
emotional fatigue, burnout

Many people experience tension headaches, muscle pain, and related

problems mainly due to muscle contractions from the stress response. High
stress levels also contribute to cardiovascular disease, including heart
attacks and strokes, and may be associated with some forms of cancer

Stress also produces various psychological consequences such as job

dissatisfaction, moodiness, depression, and lower organizational
commitment

Furthermore, various behavioral outcomes have been linked to high or

persistent stress, including lower job performance, poor decision making, and
increased workplace accidents and aggressive behavior.

Pre-lesson activity:
Exercise 4.7 Perceived stress scale.

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 Job Burnout Process
Interpersonal and
role-related stressors

Emotional
exhaustion

Physiological,
Cynicism psychological
(depersonalization) and behavioural
consequences
Reduced personal
accomplishment

A particular stress consequence, called job burnout, occurs when people

experience emotional exhaustion, cynicism and reduced feelings of personal
accomplishment.

Emotional exhaustion, the first stage, is characterized by a lack of energy,

tiredness, and a feeling that one’s emotional resources are depleted.

This is followed by cynicism (also called depersonalization), which is an

indifferent attitude toward work, emotional detachment from clients, a
cynical view of the organization, and a tendency to strictly follow rules and
regulations rather than adapt to the needs of others.

The final stage of burnout, called reduced personal accomplishment, entails

feelings of diminished confidence in one’s ability to perform the job well. In
such situations, employees develop a sense of learned helplessness as they
no longer believe that their efforts make a difference
 What are Stressors?
• Stressors are the causes of stress—any
environmental condition that places a
physical or emotional demand on the
person
• Some common workplace stressors
include:
• Organizational Constraint
• Interpersonal conflict
• Work overload
• Low task control

Before identifying ways to manage work-related stress, we must first

understand its causes, known as stressors. Stressors include any
environmental conditions that place a physical or emotional demand on a
person.

Four of the most common work-related stressors: organizational constraints,

interpersonal conflict, work overload, and low task control.

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 Managing Work-Related Stress

• Remove the stressor

• Minimise or remove stressors
• Withdraw from the stressor
• Vacation, rest breaks
• Change stress perceptions
• Positive self-concept, humour
• Control stress consequences
• Healthy lifestyle, fitness, wellness
• Receive social support

Many people deny the existence of their stress until it has more serious
outcomes. The avoidance may creates a vicious cycle because the failure to
cope with stress becomes another stressor on top of the one that created the
stress in the first place. The application of stress management strategies are
required.

Stress management strategies could be one or more from the followings:

removing the stressor, withdrawing from the stressor, changing stress
perceptions, controlling stress consequences and receiving social support

Remove the stressor

• There are many ways to remove the stressor, but some of the more
common actions involve assigning employees to jobs that match
their skills and preferences, reducing excessive workplace noise,
having a complaint system that takes corrective action against
harassment, and giving employees more control over the work
process.
• Another important way that companies can remove stressors is by
facilitating better work–life balance. Work–life balance initiatives
minimize conflict between the employee’s work and nonwork
demands. Five of the most common work– life balance initiatives
are flexible and limited work time, job sharing, telecommuting,

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 personal leave, and child care support. (page 142)

Withdraw from the stressor

• Removing the stressor may be the ideal solution, but it is often not feasible.
An alternative strategy is to permanently or temporarily remove employees
from the stressor.
• Permanent withdrawal occurs when employees are transferred to jobs that
are more compatible with their abilities and values.
• Temporarily withdrawing from stressors is the most frequent way that
employees manage stress. Vacations and holidays are important
opportunities for employees to recover from stress and re-energize for
future challenges.
• Many firms also provide innovative ways for employees to withdraw from
stressful work throughout the day such as game rooms, ice cream cart
breaks, nap rooms, and cafeterias that include live piano recitals.

Change stress perceptions

• The level of stress that people experience from a stressor depends on how
they perceive that stressor. There are many personal characteristics that
cause employees to perceive stressors differently. One important factor is
positive self-evaluation and optimism. Consequently, one way to manage
stress is to help employees improve their self-concept so job challenges are
not perceived as threatening.

Control stress consequences

• Regular exercise and maintaining a healthy lifestyle are effective stress
management strategies because they control stress consequences. Physical
exercise reduces the physiological consequences of stress by helping
employees moderate their breathing and heart rate, muscle tension, and
stomach acidity
• Research indicates that various forms of meditation reduce anxiety, reduce
blood pressure and muscle tension, and moderate breathing and heart
rate.
• Wellness programs can also assist in controlling the consequences of stress.
These programs inform employees about better nutrition and fitness,
regular sleep, and other good health habits

Receive social support

• Social support occurs when co-workers, supervisors, family members,
friends, and others provide emotional and/or informational support to

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 buffer an individual’s stress experience.
• Recent study found that employees whose managers are good at
empathizing experienced fewer stress symptoms than did employees
whose managers were less empathetic.
• Social support potentially (but not always) improves the person’s optimism
and self-confidence because support makes people feel valued and worthy.
Social support also provides information to help the person interpret,
comprehend, and possibly remove the stressor.

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 Thank you!

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