ST.

BRITTO’S ACADEMY

LEGAL ETHICS OF

A INNO VISION BY

NAGADHEEPAN N. &
JOSHITHA K.A.
 ST.BRITTO’S ACADEMY

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT

LEGAL FRAMEWORKS GOVERNING

SPACE MINING

ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS OF
SPACE MINING

THE PROBLEM

THE SOLUTION : INTERNATIONAL

SPACE MINING AUTHORITY

PROPOSALS FOR
ETHICAL SPACE MINING

CASE STUDY AND

TECHNOLOGICAL ASPECTS

CONCLUSION

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ABSTRACT
Space mining, the extraction of minerals and other
valuable materials from asteroids and other celestial
bodies, represents the next frontier in resource
acquisition. This paper explores the legal and ethical
dimensions of space mining, addressing international
treaties, property rights, environmental concerns, and
socio-economic implications. It seeks to provide a
balanced discourse on how legal frameworks can evolve
to ensure ethical practices in space mining while
promoting sustainable development and equitable
resource distribution.

FIGURE 1.1 : Shows a AI image of space mining in future

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introduction
The advancement of space technology and the increasing interest
in space mining have brought about the possibility of extracting
valuable resources from asteroids, the Moon, and other celestial
bodies. These resources include rare metals such as platinum,
gold, and other elements critical to technology and industry. The
potential economic benefits of space mining are immense, but so
are the legal and ethical challenges it presents. This paper aims to
delve into the intricate legal frameworks and ethical
considerations associated with space mining, highlighting the need
for an evolved governance model that ensures fairness,
sustainability, and global cooperation.

Legal Frameworks Governing Space

Mining
2.1 International Treaties :

The primary legal framework governing

space activities is the Outer Space Treaty
(OST) of 1967. The OST, ratified by over
100 countries, including major space-
faring nations, establishes that outer
space, including the Moon and other
celestial bodies, is the province of all
humankind. It prohibits national
appropriation by any means, including
occupation or use, and mandates that
space exploration should be conducted FIGURE 2.1 :
Outer Space Treaty
for the benefit of all countries. in 1967

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The Moon Agreement of 1984, although less widely ratified, builds

on the principles of the OST, emphasizing the non-appropriation
principle and advocating for the establishment of an international
regime to govern the exploitation of lunar resources. Article 11 of
the Moon Agreement explicitly states that the Moon and its
resources are the common heritage of mankind, and the
exploitation of these resources should be regulated to prevent
unilateral and exploitative use. Now let us see about each of them
in detail.

Outer Space Treaty (1967):

International Space Law is headed by the Outer Space Treaty.

Contained in the outer space treaty law ratified by more than one
hundred countries including key space faring nations, it posits that
outer space, including celestial bodies such as the moon is for the
benefit and use of all mankind. Key principles of the OST include:
Non-appropriation: Thus, outer space cannot be occupied or
used by a single country or State through any method.
Peaceful purposes: No work is permitted in outer space unless
it is in the favour of all the countries and www.perrla.com only
the work done for the cause of peace is allowed.
International cooperation: It is required that the states in
question increase collaboration in the study and utilisation of
outer space for scientific purposes and exchange of
information.

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In the OST, the focus is made on the idea that outer space and
celestial bodies should be used for the common benefit of
mankind regardless of its level of economic or scientific growth,
which underlines the fact that space is shared by all.

Moon Agreement (1984):

The Moon Agreement has been less ratified than the OST, but it
expands upon the OST and focuses on the Moon and resources
thereon.

It asserts that:

THE MOON AND ITS RESOURCES ARE THE PROPERTY OF

PEOPLE OF THE ENTIRE WORLD AND BELONG TO
HUMANITY.

However, this must be done within the industries so as to control

exploitation of the lunar resources hence making the monopolise
contractual exploitative.

Specifically, Article 11 of the Moon Agreement states that the use

of lunar materials is to be carried out in accordance with an
international legal framework by using the resource that belongs
to everyone for everyone’s benefit. However, its ratification is not
very extensive (as only 18 countries are ratifying it) defeating its
purpose of acting as a governing framework.

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2.2 National Legislation :

In contrast to the international treaties, some countries have

enacted national laws that grant private entities rights to own and
sell resources extracted from space. The United States, through
the 2015 U.S. Commercial Space Launch Competitiveness Act
(SPACE Act), allows American companies to claim ownership of
materials they extract from asteroids and other celestial bodies.
Luxembourg followed suit with its Space Resources Law in 2017,
providing a legal framework for space mining activities and
granting similar rights to Luxembourgish companies.

These national legislations challenge the traditional interpretation

of the OST and the Moon Agreement, creating a legal gray area.
They raise questions about the compatibility of national laws with
international treaties and the potential for conflicts over resource
claims in space.

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ethical considerations of space mining

Interaction with extraterrestrial bodies has numerous possibilities,
but it raises crucial moral questions which are to be solved in
order to avoid turning space resources into another form of world
discrimination and deepening the already existing problems of the
Earth. This discussion will explore three primary ethical
considerations: Some of the themes includes property rights
which include the concept of what is rightfully ours as the
mankind; the environment which is a theme that would further
discuss the need for conservation of earth as a shared resource
and socio-economic effects which is theoretical explanation of
how and why our actions affect the earth and those within it.

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Property Rights as well as Common Heritage:
The principle of the common heritage of mankind is one of the
foundational legal principles in the regulation of outer space and
implies that the resources of space should be used to everyone’s
benefit rather than for profit of the few. This principle is provided
in the Outer Space Treaty of 1967, and it is even reinforced in the
Moon Treaty of 1984. However, there is an addition of national
laws that provision property rights of space resources to private
actors which complicates this ethical structure.

Equitable Access and Benefit-Sharing:

The prevailing legal analyses and legislations today including the
ones of the United States and Luxembourg position the private
entities’ rights to mine the resources present in the asteroids and
other celestial bodies. This creates an issue of ethical nature on
the availability of space resources amongst the various parties.
However, if only a few rich countries and big firms can harness
these resources the end users will be the latter compounding on
current inequalities.

For this reason, there is a growing need to develop a framework

that will address how the bigger interests of the whole society
and global community are accorded while companies are also
able to reap from their investments. This could imply the creation
of international conventions whereby some percent of the
income earned from space mining would go towards enhancing
space capabilities in the less developed countries. The following
measures would assist in making sure that all humanity can
benefit from the resultant resources from space, In regard to
common heritage principles.

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Sustainable Practices:
Because space mining is a largely uncharted area, measures that
should be taken to guarantee compliant mining will have to be
established. This encompasses rules for practising conservation,
for example, avoiding the expansion of mining business and use
of tools that decrease the influence of mining on the
environment. Besides, there should be compliance measures that
organisations should adhere to in regard to the environment
which should have severe consequences if not followed.

Socio-Economic Impacts:
The exploitation of space resources may increase existing
inequalities with wealth, and technological means in the hands of
few nations and companies. As such, ethical space mining must
rise to the occasion and advocate for reforms aimed at giving
voices to the voiceless and increasing the stakeholders’ benefit
sharing ratio.

Addressing Inequalities:
Since space mining is bound to become an existing reality soon,
there is a strong likelihood that the developed nations and their
corporations will capture the opportunity and leave the
resource-deficit nations with little or nothing to capture. Ethical
consideration should incorporate measures for the promotion of
space capacities in the less-developed countries of the world.
This could be in the form of collaboration with foreign
companies, technology sharing or sponsorships of education
programs in order to create the human resource required in
space mining.

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Fair Distribution of Benefits:
For this reason, equitable allocation of the benefits arising from
space mining is vital in order to avoid the worsening of the
existing inequity in the sharing of space resources. Higher
policies regarding space mining should be created with one of the
aims being aimed at; equitable distribution of the expected
revenues across the participating countries. It could comprise
the creation of an international fund for investing some part of
mining revenues into development initiatives in the less-
developed countries.

International Collaboration:
The socio-economical effects of mining have to be countered
through international cooperation. The international cooperation
between countries, firms and research organisations will help to
establish a fair management system of space resources.
Superposition solves the ethical problems of space mining by
involving the participation of different stakeholders in the
decision making.

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MAJOR PROBLEM: LEGAL AMBIGUITIES
AND CONFLICT OF INTERESTS

4.1 The Problem :

One of the most significant problems in the domain of space

mining is the legal ambiguity and potential conflict of interests
arising from disparate national legislations and international
treaties. The lack of a unified legal framework governing space
mining creates a scenario where private entities and nations
might exploit legal loopholes, leading to conflicts over resource
claims, environmental neglect, and inequitable distribution of
benefits.

The national laws, such as the U.S. SPACE Act and Luxembourg's
Space Resources Law, grant property rights to private entities,
potentially conflicting with the non-appropriation principle of the
OST and the Moon Agreement. This dichotomy fosters a
competitive rather than a cooperative approach to space mining,
undermining the ethical principle of space as a common heritage
of mankind.

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OPTIMAL SOLUTION: ESTABLISHMENT
OF AN INTERNATIONAL SPACE MINING
AUTHORITY
4.1 Literature Review :

Recent literature suggests the establishment of an International

Space Mining Authority (ISMA) as a viable solution to address the
legal ambiguities and ensure ethical governance of space mining.
Articles by Tronchetti (2019) and Pop (2020) advocate for a
centralized regulatory body that can harmonize national laws
with international treaties, oversee space mining operations, and
ensure compliance with ethical standards .

4.1.1 Proposed Structure and Function :

The ISMA would operate under the auspices of the United

Nations, similar to the International Seabed Authority (ISA)
established under the United Nations Convention on the Law of
the Sea (UNCLOS). The ISMA would have the following functions:

1. Licensing and Regulation : Issue licenses for space mining

operations, ensuring that activities comply with international
treaties and ethical guidelines.

2. Environmental Protection : Develop and enforce

environmental standards to minimize the impact of space mining
on celestial bodies and the space environment.

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. 3. Resource Management : Oversee the equitable distribution

of space resources, ensuring that benefits are shared
globally, particularly with developing nations.

4. Conflict Resolution : Mediate disputes between nations and

private entities over resource claims and operational
conflicts.

5. Research and Development : Promote research and

technological innovation in sustainable space mining
practices.

4.2 Benefits :

The International Space Mining Association (ISMA) can offer

several significant benefits, addressing various aspects of
space mining, including economic, legal, technological, and
scientific realms.

Economic Benefits :
1. Resource Availability: Space mining can provide access to
vast amounts of rare and precious metals, such as
platinum, gold, and rare earth elements, which are crucial
for advanced technologies.

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2.Economic Growth: Development of a space mining industry
could lead to new markets and job creation, stimulating
economic growth and technological advancement.

3. Reduced Terrestrial Mining Impact: By sourcing materials

from space, we can reduce the environmental and social
impact of terrestrial mining activities.

Legal and Regulatory Benefits :

1. International Collaboration: ISMA can foster international

cooperation, creating a standardized legal framework for
space mining activities, reducing conflicts, and ensuring
fair resource distribution.
2. Clear Regulations: Establishing clear guidelines and
regulations can help prevent legal disputes and provide a
stable environment for investment in space mining
ventures
.
Technological Benefits :

1. Innovation: The challenges of space mining drive

technological innovation in robotics, automation, AI, and
other fields, which can have broader applications beyond
space mining.
2. Infrastructure Development: Advancements in space
mining technologies can lead to the development of
essential space infrastructure, such as improved
spacecraft, habitats, and resource processing facilities.

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Scientific Benefits:

1. Enhanced Understanding: Space mining missions can

provide valuable scientific data about the composition
and history of asteroids, moons, and other celestial
bodies.
2. Planetary Science: The study of mined materials can offer
insights into the formation and evolution of our solar
system.

Environmental Benefits :

1. Reduced Earth Impact: Mining in space can lessen the

environmental degradation caused by terrestrial mining,
preserving Earth's ecosystems and biodiversity.
2. Sustainable Practices: Space mining has the potential to
develop sustainable extraction and processing techniques
that can be applied to terrestrial mining.

Social Benefits:

1. Educational Opportunities: The space mining industry can

inspire new educational programs and opportunities in
STEM fields, attracting the next generation of scientists,
engineers, and entrepreneurs.
2. Global Cooperation: ISMA can promote a spirit of global
cooperation and peaceful use of outer space, fostering
international goodwill and collaboration.

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Strategic Benefits :

1. Resource Independence: Accessing space resources can

reduce dependency on politically unstable regions for
critical materials, enhancing national security and
stability.
2. Long-Term Space Exploration: Space mining can support
long-term human presence and exploration of space by
providing necessary resources for life support, fuel, and
construction materials.

Industrial Benefits :

1. Industry Growth: Establishing a space mining industry can

lead to the growth of related sectors, such as space
transportation, construction, and resource processing.
2. New Business Models: The unique challenges of space
mining can give rise to innovative business models and
investment opportunities.

By addressing these benefits, the International Space Mining

Association can play a crucial role in guiding the responsible
and sustainable development of space mining, ensuring it
contributes positively to humanity's future.

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PROPOSALS FOR
Ethical Space Mining
International Waste Management and
Governance Biodiversity Conservation

Regulatory Global Space

Framework Resource Fund

Conflict Supporting Developing

Resolution Nations

Monitoring and International

Compliance Partnerships

Technological and Technical Assistance and

Environmental Standards Training

Eco-Friendly Funding for

Technologies Developments

Environmental Impact Collaborative Research

Assessments Projects

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PROPOSALS FOR ETHICAL SPACE
MINING
With space mining being more realistic now, it is also
important to note the moralities of the space exploitation
endeavour. It is for this reason that there is a clear need for a
legal framework that spells out how space mining is to be
done as well as the principles that are to be followed when
conducting the activity. This discussion aims at providing
several of the proposals that shape ethical space mining
among them being international governance, stringent
technological and environmental standards, benefit sharing
and space mining capacity, and international cooperation.

5.1 International Governance:

Therefore, an International Space Mining Authority (ISMA) is
suggested to form the basis of international governance for
space mining. The ISMA would fulfil the following important
roles in order to guarantee that space mining activities are
done in the right manner.

5.2 Regulatory Framework:

It would be the responsibility of the ISMA to give specific
guidelines regarding space mining operations to fill the legal
loopholes that are present in the exploitation of space
resources. With the creation of the ISMA, careless and
uncoordinated actions of countries and private entities would
be minimised .

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5.3 Conflict Resolution:
Indeed, competitiveness for space mining is also the
overlaying of claims to resources on space objects – giving it
another complexity. The ISMA would have formulations for
the facilitation of Pacifying Tools, mainly the conflict=solution
forum, which would act as a third-party negotiator in
international trade disputes between individual countries and
global corporations. This may entail negotiation and
conciliation features that address complaints pertaining to
mining privilege and property ownership, allowing every
functionary to state his or her complaints.

5.4 Monitoring and Compliance:

As the policing agent of the space mining activities, the ISMA
would be called upon to oversee the adherence to the laid
down Ethics. This may entail virtues such as annual evaluation
of mining activities, assessment of the negative effects on the
environment and punishment for non-adherence to standard
measures.

5.5 Technological and Environmental Standards:

That is why it is important to ensure the usage of strict
technological and environmental standards in space mining
missions to reduce the effects on the environment and
practise sustainable use of those resources. Below are some
of the components of these standards Although each of these
standards is a little bit different, there are some fundamental
components which are common to all of them.

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. 5.6 Eco-Friendly Technologies:

Thus, the ISMA should require the use of environmentally
sustainable technologies to reduce environmental consequences
of space mining. This also involves advancement of technology
that will not greatly affect planetary bodies/celestial objects as
well as technologies that will not result in increased creation of
space debris. For instance, the tactical technologies for ISRU can
substantially minimise the frequency of cases when mined
materials need to be shipped to Earth and back thereby cutting
down the overall global emissions of mining in space.

5.7 Environmental Impact Assessments:

Stringent EIAs should be conducted for all proposed space
mining activities before they are implemented. These
assessments would determine the likely impact that mining
would have on the celestial bodies and the space
environment within which the mining was going to be
conducted. These inevitable assessments should serve as a
basis for various decisions and at the same time reveal
possibilities to eliminate unfavourable effects.

5.8 Waste Management and Conservation of Biodiversity:

Some important measures including appropriate procedures
for the handling of waste and environmental control of the
habitats to be used in space mining should also be put in
place. The ISMA should come up with a right channel that
would deal with the disposal of wastes as a result of the
mining business and conduct proper procedures when
handling dangerous items.

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. 5.9 Global Space Resource Fund:

The concept described in the paper entailed the formation of
the global space resource fund which would receive a fraction
of the profit earned from space mining business so that the
money can be used to fund some global needs such as
poverty eradication, climate change needs and to also
advance the technological needs of less developed countries.
This fund would assist in equal sharing of the effects of space
mining since the wealth earned from space resources would
be distributed globally.

5.10 Supporting Developing Nations:

It could also be employed to finance space strengths in the
less developed countries such as funding research, education
and space infrastructure. such policies would assist in
equitable distribution of the outcomes of the newly forming
space economy whereby all countries have a valid stake
within prospecting of space minerals and ores.

5.11 International Partnerships:

Another way is to foster cooperation in space initiatives and
research(vec080) by engaging other nations in international
cooperation in space missions as well as a research venture. It
is recommended for the international society to let countries
and private parties cooperate and spread responsibility for
obtaining resources and resolving multifaceted matters of
concern so that the opportunities of asteroid mining can be
maximised.

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. 5.12 Technical Assistance and Training:

In other words, the ISMA should prepare technical support
and vocational training courses to support the building of
space capacities of the developing state. This could be in the
form of for example; Space mining technology
demonstrations, training sessions on space mining regulations
or environmental management as a demonstration of
declaring readiness to mine space or bear the consequences
of the same. Thus, arming nations with the required skill and
insight, the international society may work towards enhancing
the subject of space mining.

5.13 Funding for Development:

Besides technical support, funds should be provided for the
creation of space infrastructure in countries with a low level
of development. This could include spending on science and
technology offices and infrastructure, satellites and launch
vehicles for these countries to fully access the new space
economy.

5.14 Collaborative Research Projects:

Fostering international partnerships for collaborative
research projects can also enhance capacity building. By
bringing together scientists, engineers, and policymakers from
different countries, collaborative projects can facilitate
knowledge sharing and innovation in space mining
technologies. These partnerships can help to ensure that the
benefits of space mining are accessible to all nations,
regardless of their current technological capabilities.

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CASE STUDY AND TECHNOLOGICAL
ASPECTS :
6.1 Case Study: The OSIRIS-REx Mission :

NASA's OSIRIS-REx mission, which successfully collected

samples from the asteroid Bennu, provides valuable insights
into the technical and ethical challenges of space mining. The
mission's adherence to planetary protection protocols and its
efforts to engage with the international scientific community
exemplify the importance of responsible space exploration.
The data and samples obtained from Bennu will contribute to
our understanding of the origins of the solar system and the
potential for resource utilization in space.

The OSIRIS-REx mission and the concept of space mining are

closely connected in several ways, highlighting the practical
and scientific synergies between asteroid exploration and the
potential for resource extraction in space. Here are the key
connections:

6.1.2 Resource Identification :

1. Surface Composition Analysis:

OSIRIS-REx's detailed study of Bennu’s surface

composition provides valuable data on the types and
abundance of minerals and other materials present on
the asteroid.

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This information is crucial for evaluating the feasibility and
potential profitability of mining specific asteroids.

Organic Compounds:
The mission's analysis of organic compounds on Bennu
can help identify asteroids rich in carbonaceous materials,
which are of interest for both scientific research and
potential resource utilization.

FIGURE 6.1.2: Shows the steps of the NASA’s OSIRIS REx - Mission

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. 6.2 Technological Innovations :

Advancements in robotics, artificial intelligence, and

autonomous systems are key to the feasibility of space
mining. Innovations such as autonomous mining robots, in-
situ resource utilization (ISRU) technologies, and advanced
propulsion systems will enable efficient and sustainable
extraction of resources from celestial bodies.

6.2.1 Sampling and Collection Technology :

1. TAGSAM (Touch-and-Go Sample Acquisition Mechanism):

An innovative device designed to collect samples from
an asteroid’s surface. It uses a burst of nitrogen gas to
lift regolith into a collection chamber, demonstrating a
reliable method for gathering extraterrestrial materials

6.2.2 Navigation and Guidance Systems

1. Autonomous Navigation:
The mission employed autonomous navigation
techniques using the onboard cameras and algorithms
to navigate and maneuver around Bennu, allowing
precise operations in the challenging environment of a
small, low-gravity body.

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Lidar Technology (OSIRIS-REx Laser Altimeter - OLA):
The Lidar system provided detailed 3D mapping of
Bennu’s surface, essential for selecting a safe and
scientifically valuable sampling site. This technology is
crucial for future mining operations that require
accurate surface mapping.

6.2.3 Imaging and Spectroscopy :

1. OCAMS (OSIRIS-REx Camera Suite):

A suite of cameras (PolyCam, MapCam, and SamCam)
used for high-resolution imaging of Bennu. These
cameras helped in detailed mapping, identifying
sampling sites, and documenting the sample collection
process.

Ethical considerations must guide the development and

deployment of these technologies, ensuring that they are
used for the benefit of all humankind.

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CONCLUSION
The emergence of space mining represents a transformative
opportunity for humanity, providing access to vast resources
that could alleviate some of the pressing challenges faced on
Earth. However, this potential is accompanied by significant
legal and ethical challenges that must be addressed to ensure
that space mining is conducted responsibly and equitably.
The global community has a crucial role to play in developing
robust international legal frameworks and ethical guidelines
that govern these activities.

One of the foundational proposals for ethical space mining is

the establishment of an International Space Mining Authority
(ISMA). This body would serve as a regulatory framework to
oversee space mining operations, ensuring that they are
conducted in accordance with international law and ethical
standards. The ISMA would provide clear guidelines for
resource extraction, conflict resolution, and compliance
monitoring, thereby promoting transparency and
accountability in the industry. By creating a standardized set
of rules, the ISMA would help mitigate potential conflicts
between nations and private companies, fostering an
environment of cooperation rather than competition.

In addition to governance, the development of technological

and environmental standards is essential. Space mining
activities pose risks to both the celestial bodies being mined
and the broader space environment.

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To minimize ecological impacts, the ISMA should mandate the
use of eco-friendly technologies and require comprehensive
environmental impact assessments for all proposed mining
operations. Establishing protocols for waste management and
habitat preservation will further ensure that space mining is
conducted sustainably, protecting the integrity of these
pristine environments for future generations.

Another critical aspect of ethical space mining is the

implementation of benefit-sharing mechanisms. The profits
generated from space mining should not be concentrated in
the hands of a few nations or corporations; rather, they
should be used to address global challenges such as poverty,
climate change, and technological development in less-
developed nations. A global space resource fund, managed by
the ISMA, could facilitate this redistribution of wealth,
ensuring that the benefits of space mining are shared
equitably among all countries. This approach aligns with the
principle of the common heritage of mankind, emphasizing
that space resources should be utilized for the benefit of all
humanity.

Furthermore, promoting capacity building and international

cooperation is vital for ensuring that all nations can
participate in and benefit from space mining activities. This
includes providing technical assistance, training, and funding
to help developing countries build their space capabilities.

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By fostering international partnerships for collaborative
space missions and research projects, the global community
can work together to create a more inclusive approach to
space mining. Such cooperation will not only enhance the
capabilities of less-developed nations but also promote a
sense of shared responsibility for the sustainable use of space
resources.

In conclusion, the ethical challenges associated with space

mining are significant, but they are not insurmountable. By
establishing a robust international governance framework,
developing stringent technological and environmental
standards, implementing benefit-sharing mechanisms, and
promoting capacity building and international cooperation,
the global community can ensure that space mining
contributes to sustainable development and the welfare of all
humankind.

As we stand on the brink of this new frontier, it is imperative

that we engage in thoughtful discussions and collaborative
efforts to navigate the complexities of space mining, ensuring
that it is conducted in a manner that respects both our ethical
obligations and the shared interests of humanity. Through
these concerted efforts, we can harness the potential of
space resources while safeguarding the future of our planet
and the cosmos.

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https://www.cigionline.org/articles/as-space-exploration-
takes-off-governance-struggles-for-lift/

https://www.rand.org/pubs/commentary/2022/11/governance
-in-space-mining-the-moon-and-beyond.html

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